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Barley
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Barley is an annual cereal grain derived from the grass Hordeum vulgare. It serves as a major animal feed crop, with smaller amounts used for malting and in health food, as well as the making of alcoholic beverages beer and whisky. In 2005, barley ranked fourth in quantity produced and in area of cultivation of cereal crops in the world (560,000 km²).
It is a member of the grass family. The domesticated form (H.
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Encyclopedia
Barley is an annual cereal grain derived from the grass Hordeum vulgare. It serves as a major animal feed crop, with smaller amounts used for malting and in health food, as well as the making of alcoholic beverages beer and whisky. In 2005, barley ranked fourth in quantity produced and in area of cultivation of cereal crops in the world (560,000 km²).
It is a member of the grass family. The domesticated form (H. vulgare) is descended from wild barley (H. spontaneum) and they are inter-fertile. The two forms are therefore often treated as one species, Hordeum vulgare, divided into subspecies spontaneum (wild) and subspecies vulgare (domesticated). The main difference between the two forms is the brittle spike on the seeds of the former, which assists dispersal.
Etymology
The Oxford English Dictionary records the derivation from the Old English bærlic "barley", although suggests the -lic ending may mean it meant it was an adjective pertaining to the crop or plant, rather than a noun. It was first recorded around 966 CE in the compound word bærlic-croft.
Biology
Barley is a self-pollinating, diploid species with 14 chromosomes. Wild barley, Hordeum vulgare subsp. spontaneum, is abundant in grasslands and woodlands throughout the Fertile Crescentand is abundant in disturbed habitats, roadsides and orchards. Outside of this region the wild barley is less common and is usually found in disturbed habitats.
Wild barley has a brittle spike; upon maturity, the spikelets separate, facilitating seed dispersal. Cultivated varieties of barley have non-shattering spikes, making it much easier to harvest the mature ears.
History
Wild barley (H. vulgare ssp. vulgare) ranges from North Africa and Crete in the west, to Tibet in the east. The earliest archaeological evidence of wild barley from from the epipaleolithic at Ohalo II, which lies at the southern end of the Sea of Galilee. The remains were dated to about 17000 BCE. The earliest domesticated barley occurs at Aceramic Neolithic sites, in the Near East such as the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B layers of Tell Abu Hureyra, in Syria. Barley was one of the first crops domesticated in the Near East, at the same time as einkorn and emmer wheat.
Barley in Egyptian hieroglyphs| jt barley determinative/ideogram | M34 | | jt (common) spelling | i-t-U9:M33 | | šma determinative/ideogram | U9 |
Barley beer was probably the first drink developed by Neolithic humans. Barley later on was used as currency.
Alongside emmer wheat, Barley was a staple cereal of ancient Egypt, where it was used to make bread and beer. The general name for barley is jt (hypothetically pronounced "eat"); šma (hypothetically pronounced "SHE-ma") refers to Upper Egyptian barley and is a symbol of Upper Egypt. The Sumerian term is akiti.
According to Deuteronomy 8:8, barley is one of the "Seven Species" of crops that characterize the fertility of the Promised Land of Canaan, and barley has a prominent role in the Israelite sacrifices described in the Pentateuch (see e.g. Numbers 5:15). A religious importance extended into the Middle Ages in Europe, and saw barley's use in justice, via alphitomancy and the corsned.
In ancient Greece, the ritual significance of barley possibly dates back to the earliest stages of the Eleusinian Mysteries. The preparatory kykeon or mixed drink of the initiates, prepared from barley and herbs, was referred to in the Homeric hymn to Demeter, who was also called "Barley-mother".
The practice was to dry the barley groats and roast them before preparing the porridge, according to Pliny the Elder's Natural History (xviii.72). This produces malt that soon ferments and becomes slightly alcoholic.
Tibetan barley has been a staple food in Tibet since the fifth century A.D. It along with a cool climate that permitted storage, produced a civilization that was able to raise great armies. It is made into a flour product called tsampa that is still a staple in Tibet, and into hand-rolled balls.
Palaeoethnobotanists have found that barley has been grown in the Korean Peninsula since the Early Mumun Pottery Period (c. 1500–850 BCE) along with other crops such as millet, wheat, and legumes.
In the Pulitzer Prize-winning book Guns, Germs, and Steel, Jared Diamond argues that the availability of barley, along with other domesticable crops and animals, in southwestern Eurasia significantly contributed to the broad historical patterns that human history has followed over approximately the last 13,000 years; i.e. why Eurasian civilizations, as a whole, have survived and conquered others, while attempting to refute the belief that Eurasian hegemony is due to any form of Eurasian intellectual, moral, or inherent genetic superiority.
Production
Top Ten Barley Producers — 2005
(million metric tonne) |
|---|
| | 16.7 | | | 12.1 | | | 11.7 | | | 10.4 | | | 9.3 | | | 9.0 | | | 6.6 | | | 5.5 | | | 4.6 | | | 4.4 | | World Total | 138 | Source:
UN Food & Agriculture Organization (FAO) |
Barley was grown in about 100 countries worldwide in 2005. The world production in 1974 was 148,818,870 tonnes, showing little change in the amount of barley produced worldwide.
Cultivars
Barley can be classified according to the number of kernel rows in the head. Two forms have been cultivated; two-row barley (formerly known as Hordeum distichum but now also classed as Hordeum vulgare), and six-row barley (Hordeum vulgare). In two-row barley only one spikelet at each node is fertile; in the four-row and six-row forms, all three are fertile. A four-row type (formerly classed as (Hordeum tetrastichum) is actually a six-row type with very lax structure.
Two-row barley is the oldest form, wild barley having two rows as well. Two-row barley has a lower protein content than six-row barley and thus more fermentable sugar content. High protein barley is best suited for animal feed. Malting barley is usually lower protein ('low grain nitrogen', usually produced without a late fertilizer application) which shows more uniform germination, needs shorter steeping, and has less protein in the extract that can make beer cloudy. Two-row barley is traditionally used in English ale style beers. Six-row barley is common in some US lager style beers, especially when adjuncts such as corn and rice are used, whereas two-row malted summer barley is preferred for traditional German beers. Four-row is unsuitable for brewing. Recent genetic studies have revealed a mutation in one gene, vrs1 is responsible for the transition from two-row to six-row barley
Hulless or naked barley (Hordeum vulgare L. var. nudum Hook. f.) is a genetically improved variety that allows easier removal of the hull. A fairly new industry has developed around uses of selected hulless barley in order to increase the digestible energy of the grain, especially for swine and poultry. Hulless barley has been investigated for several potential new applications as whole grain, and for its value-added products. These include bran and flour for multiple food applications.
Barley is widely adaptable and is currently a major crop of the temperate areas where it is grown as a summer crop and tropical areas where it is sown as a winter crop. Its germination time is anywhere from 1 to 3 days. Barley likes to grow under cool conditions but is not particularly winter hardy.
Uses
Algicide
Barley straw, in England, is placed in mesh bags and floated in fish ponds or water gardens to help reduce algal growth without harming pond plants and animals. Barley straw has not been approved by the EPA for use as a pesticide and its effectiveness as an algaecide in ponds has produced mixed results during university testing in the US and England.
Animal feed
Half of the United States' barley production is used as an animal feed.
Brewing
A large part of the remainder is used for malting and is a key ingredient in beer and whisky production. Two-row barley is traditionally used in German and English beers. Six-row barley was traditionally used in US beers, but both varieties are in common usage now. Non-alcoholic drinks such as barley water and barley tea (called mugicha in Japan), have been made by boiling barley in water. Barley wine was an alcoholic drink made in the 1700's, prepared from recipes of ancient Greek origin. It was prepared by boiling barley in water, the water from the barley was then mixed with white wine, and other ingredients like borage, lemones and sugar were added.
Food
Barley is also used in soups and stews, particularly in Eastern Europe. A small amount is used in health foods and coffee substitutes.
A traditional food plant in Africa, this grain has potential to improve nutrition, boost food security, foster rural development and support sustainable landcare.
According to a recent study, eating whole grain barley can regulate blood sugar for up to 10 hours after consumption compared to white or even whole-grain wheat, which has a similar glycemic index.
Hulled barley must have its fibrous outer hull removed before it can be eaten. Barley grains with their hulls still on are sometimes called covered barley. Once the grain has had the inedible hull removed, it is called pot barley or dehulled barley. At this stage, the grain still has its bran and germ, which are nutritious. Dehulled barley is considered a whole grain, and is a popular health food. Pearl barley or pearled barley is hulled barley which has been processed further to remove the bran. It may be polished, a process known as "pearling". Dehulled or pearl barley may be processed into a variety of barley products, including flour, flakes similar to oatmeal, and grits.
Barley contains all eight essential amino acids.
Measurement
Barley grains were used for measurement in England, there being 3 or 4 barleycorns to the inch and 4 or 5 poppy seeds to the barleycorn. The statute definition of an inch was 3 barleycorns, although by the 19th century this had been superceded by standard inch measures. This unit still persists in the shoe sizes which are used in Britain and the USA.
Medicine
Barley is used as a medicine for many different diseases.
In the religion of Islam, the Prophet Muhammad prescribed it for seven diseases.
Hadith
Volume 7, Book 71, Number 593: (Narrated 'Ursa)
Aisha used to recommend At-Talbina for the sick and for such a person as grieved over a dead person. She used to say, "I heard Allah's Apostle saying, 'At-Talbina gives rest to the heart of the patient and makes it active and relieves some of his sorrow and grief.' "
Known in Arabic as At-Talbina, it was narrated in Islam that it helped people who lose others to death and controls grief. Illnesses include high cholesterol levels, heart disease, treatment of cancer and slowing of age, treatment for diabetes and hypertension, as well as soothing and calming effects for the bowel.
Cultivation
Barley is more tolerant of soil salinity than wheat, which might explain the increase of barley cultivation on Mesopotamia from the 2nd millennium BC onwards. Barley is not as cold tolerant as the winter wheats (Triticum aestivum), fall rye (Secale cereale) or winter Triticale (× Triticosecale Wittm. ex A. Camus.), but may be sown as a winter crop in warmer areas of the world such as Australia.
Plant diseases
This plant is known or likely to be susceptible to barley mild mosaic bymovirus as well as bacterial blight. Barley can be susceptible to many diseases but plant breeders have been working hard to incorporate resistance. The devastation caused by any one disease will depend upon the susceptibility of the variety being grown and the environmental conditions during disease development.
Composition
The Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition (1910–1911) cites the following composition of
barley meal according to Ernst von Bibra, omitting the salts:
See also
External links
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- Aim: Resistant barley with improved malting and fodder qualities
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