Baekje or
Paekche (18 BCE – 660 CE) was a kingdom located in southwest Korea. It was one of the
Three Kingdoms of KoreaThe Three Kingdoms of Korea refer to the ancient Korean kingdoms of Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla, which dominated the Korean peninsula and parts of Manchuria for much of the 1st millennium...
, together with
GoguryeoGoguryeo or Koguryŏ was an ancient Korean kingdom located in present day northern and central parts of the Korean Peninsula, southern Manchuria, and southern Russian Maritime province....
and
SillaSilla was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, and one of the longest sustained dynasties in...
.
Baekje was founded by
OnjoOnjo was the founding monarch of Baekje, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. According to the Samguk Sagi, he was the ancestor of all Baekje kings.- Background :...
, the third son of Goguryeo's founder Jumong and
So Seo-noSoseono was the wife of King Dongmyeong , and remembered as a key figure in the founding of both Goguryeo and Baekje...
, at
WiryeseongWiryeseong was the name of two early capitals of Baekje, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. Both are believed to have been in the modern-day Seoul area...
(present-day southern
SeoulSeoul , officially the Seoul Special City, is the capital and largest metropolis of South Korea. A megacity with a population of over 10 million, it is the largest city proper in the OECD developed world...
). Baekje, like Goguryeo, claimed to succeed
BuyeoBuyeo or Puyŏ , Fuyu in Chinese, was an ancient Korean kingdom located from today's Manchuria to northern North Korea, from around the 2nd century BC to 494. Its remnants were absorbed by the neighboring and brotherhood kingdom of Goguryeo in 494...
, a state established in present-day
ManchuriaManchuria is a historical name given to a large geographic region in northeast Asia. Depending on the definition of its extent, Manchuria usually falls entirely within the People's Republic of China, or is sometimes divided between China and Russia. The region is commonly referred to as Northeast...
around the time of
GojoseonGojoseon was an ancient Korean kingdom. Go , meaning "ancient," distinguishes it from the later Joseon Dynasty; Joseon, as it is called in contemporaneous writings, is also romanized as Chosŏn....
's fall.
Baekje alternately battled and allied with Goguryeo and Silla as the three kingdoms expanded control over the peninsula. At its peak in the 4th century, Baekje controlled most of the western Korean peninsula, as far north as
PyongyangPyongyang is the capital of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, commonly known as North Korea, and the largest city in the country. Pyongyang is located on the Taedong River and, according to preliminary results from the 2008 population census, has a population of 3,255,388. The city was...
, and may have even held territories in China, such as in Liaoxi, though this is controversial. It became a significant regional sea power, with political and trade relations with
ChinaChinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
and
JapanJapan is an island nation in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies to the east of the Sea of Japan, China, North Korea, South Korea and Russia, stretching from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea and Taiwan in the south...
.
In 660, it was defeated by an alliance of Silla and Chinese
Tang DynastyThe Tang Dynasty was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui Dynasty and followed by the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period. It was founded by the Li family, who seized power during the decline and collapse of the Sui Empire...
, submitting to
Unified SillaUnified Silla or Later Silla is the name often applied to the Korean kingdom of Silla, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, when it conquered Baekje in 660 and Goguryeo in 668, unifying the southern portion of the Korean peninsula...
.
Founding
According to the
Samguk SagiSamguk Sagi is a historical record of the Three Kingdoms of Korea: Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla. The Samguk Sagi is written in Classical Chinese and its compilation was ordered by Goryeo's King Injong Samguk Sagi (History of the Three Kingdoms) is a historical record of the Three Kingdoms of...
, Baekje was founded in 18 BCE by
King OnjoOnjo was the founding monarch of Baekje, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. According to the Samguk Sagi, he was the ancestor of all Baekje kings.- Background :...
, who led a group of people from
GoguryeoGoguryeo or Koguryŏ was an ancient Korean kingdom located in present day northern and central parts of the Korean Peninsula, southern Manchuria, and southern Russian Maritime province....
south to the
Han RiverThe Han River is a major river in South Korea and the fourth longest river on the Korean peninsula after the Amnok, Duman, and Nakdong rivers. It is formed by the confluence of the Namhan River , which originates in Mount Daedeok, and the Bukhan River , which originates on the slopes of Mount...
basin. According to the Chinese record
San Guo Zhi, during the
SamhanThe Samhan period of Korean history comprises confederacies of Mahan, Jinhan, and Byeonhan in central and southern Korean peninsula, during the final century BCE and the early centuries CE....
period, one of the chiefdoms of the
Mahan confederacyMahan was a loose confederacy of statelets that existed from around the 1st century BCE to 3rd century CE in the southern Korean peninsula in the Chungcheong and Jeolla provinces. Arising out of the confluence of Gojoseon migration and the Jin state federation, Mahan was one of the Samhan , along...
was called Baekje.
The
Samguk SagiSamguk Sagi is a historical record of the Three Kingdoms of Korea: Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla. The Samguk Sagi is written in Classical Chinese and its compilation was ordered by Goryeo's King Injong Samguk Sagi (History of the Three Kingdoms) is a historical record of the Three Kingdoms of...
provides a detailed account of Baekje's founding. Jumong had left his son
YuriKing Yuri was the second ruler of Goguryeo, the northernmost of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. He was the eldest son of the kingdom's founder King Dongmyeongseong. As with many other early Korean rulers, the events of his life are known largely from the Samguk Sagi.- Background :Yuri was the son...
in Buyeo when he left that kingdom to establish the new kingdom of Goguryeo. Jumong became
King DongmyeongseongKing Dongmyeong of Goguryeo or Dongmyeongseongwang , which literally means "Holy King of the East". also known by his birth name Jumong, was the founding monarch of Goguryeo, the northernmost of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. In the Gwanggaeto Stele, he is called Chumo-wang ...
, and had two more sons with
So Seo-noSoseono was the wife of King Dongmyeong , and remembered as a key figure in the founding of both Goguryeo and Baekje...
, Onjo and
BiryuBiryu was the second son of Jumong and So Seo-no, and older brother of Onjo, the traditionally recognized founder of Baekje , which was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea...
. When Yuri later arrived in Goguryeo, Jumong promptly made him the crown prince. Realizing Yuri would become the next king,
So Seo-noSoseono was the wife of King Dongmyeong , and remembered as a key figure in the founding of both Goguryeo and Baekje...
left Goguryeo, taking her two sons Biryu and Onjo south to found their own kingdoms with their people, along with ten vassals. She is remembered as a key figure in the founding of both
GoguryeoGoguryeo or Koguryŏ was an ancient Korean kingdom located in present day northern and central parts of the Korean Peninsula, southern Manchuria, and southern Russian Maritime province....
and Baekje.
Onjo settled in
WiryeseongWiryeseong was the name of two early capitals of Baekje, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. Both are believed to have been in the modern-day Seoul area...
(present-day
HanamHanam is a city in Gyeonggi Province, South Korea. Formerly a part of Gwangju County, it was designated a city in 1989. The ancient Baekje capital of Hanam Wiryeseong may have been located there....
), and called his country
Sipje (십제, 十濟, meaning "Ten Vassals"), while Biryu settled in Michuhol (present-day
IncheonThe Incheon Metropolitan City is located in northwestern South Korea. The city was home to just 4,700 people when Jemulpo port was built in 1883. Today 2.76 million people live in the city, making it Korea’s third most populous city after Seoul and Busan Metropolitan City...
), against the vassals' advice. The salty water and marshes in Michuhol made settlement difficult, while the people of Wiryeseong lived prosperously.
Biryu then went to his brother Onjo, asking for the throne of Sipje. When Onjo refused, Biryu declared war, but lost. In shame, Biryu committed suicide, and his people moved to Wiryeseong, where King Onjo welcomed them and renamed his country
Baekje ("Hundred Vassals").
King Onjo moved the capital from the south to the north of the Han river, and then south again, probably all within present Seoul, under pressure from other Mahan states.
King GaeruGaeru of Baekje was the fourth king of Baekje, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. According to the history compilation Samguk Sagi, he was the son of the previous king Giru.-Reign:...
is believed to have moved the capital north of the river to the Bukhan Mountain Fortress in 132, probably in present-day
GoyangGoyang is a city in Gyeonggi Province, South Korea. Goyang includes the new city of Ilsan, which is connected to Seoul via Seoul Subway Line 3. Goyang is bordered by Seoul to the south; walls of the Bukhan Mountain Fortress lie along a small portion of this border.Several institutions of higher...
, to the northwest of Seoul.
Through the early centuries of the
Common EraCommon Era ,abbreviated as CE, is an alternative designation for the calendar era originally introduced by Dionysius Exiguus in the 6th century, traditionally identified with Anno Domini .Dates before the year 1 CE are indicated by the usage of BCE, short for Before the Common Era Common Era...
, sometimes called the Proto–Three Kingdoms Period, Baekje gradually gained control over the other Mahan tribes.
Expansion
During the reign of
King GoiGoi of Baekje was the 8th king of Baekje, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. He was the second son of the 4th king Gaeru and younger brother of the 5th king Chogo.-Background:...
(234–286), Baekje became a full-fledged kingdom, as it continued consolidating the Mahan confederacy. In 249, according to the ancient Japanese text
Nihonshoki, Baekje's expansion reached the
Gaya confederacyGaya was a confederacy of territorial polities in the Nakdong River basin of southern Korea, growing out of the Byeonhan confederacy of the Samhan period.The traditional period used by historians for Gaya chronology is 42–532 CE...
to its east, around the
Nakdong RiverThe Nakdong River is the longest river in South Korea, and passes through major cities such as Daegu and Busan.-Geography:...
valley. Baekje is first described in Chinese records as a kingdom in 345. The first diplomatic missions from Baekje reached Japan around 367 (According to the
Nihon Shoki : 247).
King GeunchogoGeunchogo of Baekje was the 13th king of Baekje, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. He reigned over the apex of Baekje's powers.-Background:...
(346–375) expanded Baekje's territory to the north through war against
GoguryeoGoguryeo or Koguryŏ was an ancient Korean kingdom located in present day northern and central parts of the Korean Peninsula, southern Manchuria, and southern Russian Maritime province....
, while annexing the remaining Mahan societies in the south. During Geunchogo's reign, the territories of Baekje included most of the western
Korean PeninsulaThe Korean Peninsula is a peninsula in East Asia. It extends southwards for about 684 miles from continental Asia into the Pacific Ocean and is surrounded by the Sea of Japan to the south, and the Yellow Sea to the west, the Korea Strait connecting the first two bodies of water.Until the end of...
(except the two Pyeongan provinces), and in 371, Baekje defeated Goguryeo at
PyongyangPyongyang is the capital of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, commonly known as North Korea, and the largest city in the country. Pyongyang is located on the Taedong River and, according to preliminary results from the 2008 population census, has a population of 3,255,388. The city was...
. Baekje continued substantial trade with Goguryeo, and actively adopted
ChineseChinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
culture and technology.
BuddhismBuddhism is a religion and philosophy encompassing a variety of traditions, beliefs and practices, largely based on teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, commonly known as the Buddha . The Buddha lived and taught in the northeastern Indian subcontinent some time between the 6th and 4th...
became the official state religion in 384.
Baekje also became a sea power and continued mutual goodwill relationships with the
JapanJapan is an island nation in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies to the east of the Sea of Japan, China, North Korea, South Korea and Russia, stretching from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea and Taiwan in the south...
ese rulers of the
Kofun periodThe is an era in the history of Japan from around 250 to 538. It follows the Yayoi period. The word kofun is Japanese for the type of burial mounds dating from this era. The Kofun and the subsequent Asuka periods are sometimes referred to collectively as the Yamato period...
, transmitting continental cultural influences to Japan.
Chinese writing systemWritten Chinese comprises Chinese characters used to represent the Chinese language, and the rules about how they are arranged and punctuated. Chinese characters do not constitute an alphabet or a compact syllabary...
,
BuddhismBuddhism is a religion and philosophy encompassing a variety of traditions, beliefs and practices, largely based on teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, commonly known as the Buddha . The Buddha lived and taught in the northeastern Indian subcontinent some time between the 6th and 4th...
, advanced
potteryPottery is the material from which the potteryware is made, of which major types include earthenware, stoneware and porcelain. The place where such wares are made is also called a pottery . Pottery also refers to the art or craft of the potter or the manufacture of pottery...
, ceremonial burial, and other aspects of culture were introduced by aristocrats, artisans, scholars, and monks throughout their relationship.
During this period, the
Han RiverThe Han River is a major river in South Korea and the fourth longest river on the Korean peninsula after the Amnok, Duman, and Nakdong rivers. It is formed by the confluence of the Namhan River , which originates in Mount Daedeok, and the Bukhan River , which originates on the slopes of Mount...
basin remained the heartland of the country.
Ungjin period
In the 5th century, Baekje retreated under the southward military threat of Goguryeo, and in 475, the Seoul region fell to Goguryeo. Baekje's capital was located at
UngjinUngjin, also known as Gomnaru is a former city on the Korean Peninsula. It was located in modern-day Gongju, South Chungcheong province, South Korea. It was the capital of Baekje from AD 475 to 538, during a period when Baekje was under threat from Goguryeo, the previous capital of Wiryeseong ...
(present-day
GongjuGongju , also spelt Kongju, is a city in South Chungcheong province, South Korea. It is located at .- History :Gongju was formerly named Ungjin and was the capital of Baekje from AD 475 to 538. In this period, Baekje was under threat from Goguryeo...
) from 475 to 538.
Isolated in mountainous terrain, the new capital was secure against the north but also disconnected from the outside world. It was closer to
SillaSilla was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, and one of the longest sustained dynasties in...
than Wiryeseong had been, however, and a military alliance was forged between Silla and Baekje against Goguryeo.
Most maps of the Three Kingdoms period show Baekje occupying the
ChungcheongChungcheong was one of the eight provinces of Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. Chungcheong was located in the southwest of Korea...
and
JeollaJeolla was a province in southwestern Korea, one of the historical Eight Provinces of Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. It consisted of the modern South Korean provinces of North Jeolla, South Jeolla and the Special City of Gwangju as well as Jeju Island...
provinces, the core of the country in the Ungjin and Sabi periods, although at some points in time, Baekje controlled territory in China that ringed the
Bohai SeaBohai Sea , also known as Bohai Gulf, Bohai, or Bo Hai, is the innermost gulf of the Yellow Sea on the coast of Northeastern and North China. It is approximately 78,000 km2 Bohai Sea , also known as Bohai Gulf, Bohai, or Bo Hai, is the innermost gulf of the Yellow Sea on the coast of...
.
Sabi period
In 538,
King SeongSeong of Baekje was the 26th king of Baekje, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. He was a son of Muryeong of Baekje. He made Buddhism the state religion, moved the national capital, and succeeded in reclaiming the center of the Korean Peninsula, only to be betrayed by an ally.-Foreign relations...
moved the capital to Sabi (present-day
Buyeo CountyBuyeo County is a county in South Chungcheong Province, South Korea. Buyeo-eup, the county's capital, was the site of the capital of the Baekje kingdom from AD 538 to 660, when it was called Sabi....
), and rebuilt his kingdom into a strong state. From this time, the official name of the country was
Nambuyeo ("Southern Buyeo"), a reference to
BuyeoBuyeo or Puyŏ , Fuyu in Chinese, was an ancient Korean kingdom located from today's Manchuria to northern North Korea, from around the 2nd century BC to 494. Its remnants were absorbed by the neighboring and brotherhood kingdom of Goguryeo in 494...
to which Baekje traced its origins. The Sabi Period witnessed the flowering of Baekje culture, alongside the growth of
BuddhismBuddhism is a religion and philosophy encompassing a variety of traditions, beliefs and practices, largely based on teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, commonly known as the Buddha . The Buddha lived and taught in the northeastern Indian subcontinent some time between the 6th and 4th...
.
Under pressure from
GoguryeoGoguryeo or Koguryŏ was an ancient Korean kingdom located in present day northern and central parts of the Korean Peninsula, southern Manchuria, and southern Russian Maritime province....
to the north and
SillaSilla was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, and one of the longest sustained dynasties in...
to the east, Seong sought to strengthen Baekje's relationship with China. The location of Sabi, on the navigable
Geum RiverThe Geum-gang River is located in South Korea. It is a major river that originates in Jangsu-eub, North Jeolla Province. It flows northward through North Jeolla and North Chungcheong Provinces and then changes direction in the vicinity of Greater Daejeon and flows southwest through South...
, made contact with China much easier, and both trade and diplomacy flourished during the 6th and 7th centuries.
In the 7th century, with the growing influence of Silla in the southern and central Korean peninsula, Baekje began its decline.
Fall and restoration movement
In 660, the coalition troops of Silla and
TangThe Tang Dynasty was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui Dynasty and followed by the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period. It was founded by the Li family, who seized power during the decline and collapse of the Sui Empire...
of
ChinaChinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
attacked Baekje, which was then allied with Goguryeo. A heavily outmanned army led by General
GyebaekGyebaek was a general in the ancient Korean kingdom of Baekje during the early to mid 7th century. Little else is known of his personal life—including the year and location of his birth. The Taekwondo pattern Gyebaek is named after him....
was defeated in the Battle of Hwangsanbeol near Nonsan. The capital Sabi fell almost immediately thereafter, resulting in the annexation of Baekje by
SillaSilla was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, and one of the longest sustained dynasties in...
.
King UijaUija of Baekje was the 31st and final ruler of Baekje, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. His reign ended when Baekje was conquered by the alliance of the rival Korean kingdom Silla and China's Tang Dynasty.- Background :...
and his son
Buyeo YungBuyeo Yung was one of the sons of King Uija, the last king of Baekje. He was appointed as heir to the throne in 644, and would have been the kingdom's 32nd ruler....
were sent into exile in China while at least some of the ruling class fled to
JapanJapan is an island nation in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies to the east of the Sea of Japan, China, North Korea, South Korea and Russia, stretching from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea and Taiwan in the south...
.
Baekje forces attempted a brief restoration movement but faced Silla-Tang joint forces. A Buddhist monk Dochim (도침, 道琛) and the former Baekje general Buyeo Boksin rose to try to revive Baekje. They welcomed the Baekje prince
Buyeo PungBuyeo Pung, known as in Japan, was one of the sons of King Uija of Baekje. When Baekje, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, fell to the alliance of Silla and Tang Dynasty in 660, he was in the Wa state of Japan to ensure the alliance between Japan and Baekje. However, there is much dispute about...
back from Japan to serve as king, with Juryu (주류, 周留, in modern
Seocheon CountySeocheon County is a county in Chungcheongnam-do, South Korea. It is famous for its seafood and location near the mouth of the Geum River.-Administrative divisions:...
, South Chungcheong) as their headquarters. They put the Tang general Liu Renyuan (劉仁願) under siege in Sabi.
Emperor GaozongEmperor Gaozong of Tang , personal name Li Zhi , was the third emperor of the Tang Dynasty in China, ruling from 649 to 683...
sent the general
Liu RenguiLiu Rengui , courtesy name Zhengze , formally Duke Wenxian of Lecheng , was a general and official of the Chinese dynasty Tang Dynasty, serving as chancellor during the reign of Emperor Gaozong and the subsequent regency of his wife Wu Zetian over his sons Emperor Zhongzong and Emperor Ruizong...
, who had previously been demoted to commoner rank for offending Li Yifu, with a relief force, and Liu Rengui and Liu Renyuan were able to fight off the Baekje resistance forces' attacks, but were themselves not strong enough to quell the rebellion, and so for some time the armies were in stalemate.
Baekje requested Japanese aid, and King Pung returned to Baekje with a contingent of 5,000 soldiers. Before the ships from Japan arrived, his forces battled a contingent of Tang forces in Ungjin County.
In 663, Baekje revival forces and a Japanese naval fleet convened in southern Baekje to confront the Silla forces in the
Battle of BaekgangThe Battle of Baekgang, also known as Battle of Baekgang-gu or by the Japanese name Battle of Hakusukinoe , was a battle between Baekje restoration forces and their ally, Yamato Japan, against the allied forces of Silla and the Tang Dynasty of ancient China...
. The Tang dynasty also sent 7,000 soldiers and 170 ships. After five naval confrontations that took place in August 663 at Baekgang, considered the lower reaches of
Geum RiverThe Geum-gang River is located in South Korea. It is a major river that originates in Jangsu-eub, North Jeolla Province. It flows northward through North Jeolla and North Chungcheong Provinces and then changes direction in the vicinity of Greater Daejeon and flows southwest through South...
or Dongjin river, the Silla-Tang forces emerged victorious, and Buyeo Pung escaped to Goguryeo.
Social and political structure
The establishment of a centralized state in Baekje is usually traced to the reign of
King GoiGoi of Baekje was the 8th king of Baekje, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. He was the second son of the 4th king Gaeru and younger brother of the 5th king Chogo.-Background:...
, who may have first established patrilineal succession. Like most
monarchiesA monarchy is a form of government in which the office of head of state is usually held until death or abdication and is often hereditary and includes a royal house. In some cases, the monarch is elected...
, a great deal of power was held by the
aristocracyAristocracy , is a form of government in which a few elite citizens rule. The term derives from the Greek aristokratia, meaning "rule of the best". In origin in Ancient Greece, it was conceived of as rule by the best qualified citizens, and contrasted with monarchy...
.
King SeongSeong of Baekje was the 26th king of Baekje, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. He was a son of Muryeong of Baekje. He made Buddhism the state religion, moved the national capital, and succeeded in reclaiming the center of the Korean Peninsula, only to be betrayed by an ally.-Foreign relations...
, for example, strengthened royal power, but after he was slain in a disastrous campaign against Silla, the nobles took much of that power away from his son.
The Hae clan and the Jin clan were the representative royal houses who had considerable power from the early period of Baekje, and they produced many queens over several generations. The Hae clan was probably the royal house before the Buyeo clan replaced them, and both clans appear descended from the lineage of
BuyeoBuyeo or Puyŏ , Fuyu in Chinese, was an ancient Korean kingdom located from today's Manchuria to northern North Korea, from around the 2nd century BC to 494. Its remnants were absorbed by the neighboring and brotherhood kingdom of Goguryeo in 494...
and
GoguryeoGoguryeo or Koguryŏ was an ancient Korean kingdom located in present day northern and central parts of the Korean Peninsula, southern Manchuria, and southern Russian Maritime province....
. Eight clans (Sa, Yeon, Hyeop, Hae, Jin, Guk, Mok, and Baek) were powerful nobles in the
SabiSabi was the capital of the Korean kingdom of Baekje from 538 until Baekje's fall to Silla in 660. The site of Sabi is located in modern-day Buyeo County, South Chungcheong Province, in South Korea....
era, recorded in Chinese records such as
TongdianThe Tongdian is a Chinese institutional history and encyclopedia text. It covers a panoply of topics from high antiquity through the year 756, whereas a quarter of the book focuses on the Tang Dynasty. The book was written by Du You from 766 to 801...
.
Central government officials were divided into sixteen ranks, the six members of the top rank forming a type of cabinet, with the top official being elected every three years. In the
Sol rank, the first (
Jwapyeong) through the sixth (
Naesol) officials were political, administrative, and military commanders. In the
Deok rank, the seventh (
Jangdeok) through the eleventh (
Daedeok) officials may have headed each field.
Mundok,
Mudok,
Jwagun,
Jinmu and
Geuku from the twelfth to the sixteenth, may have been military administrators.
According to the
Samguk YusaSamguk Yusa, or Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms, is a collection of legends, folktales, and historical accounts relating to the Three Kingdoms of Korea , as well as to other periods and states before, during, and after the Three Kingdoms period.The text was written in Classical Chinese, which was...
, during the Sabi period, the chief minister (
Jaesang) of Baekje was chosen by a unique system. The names of several candidates were placed under a rock (Cheonjeongdae) near Hoamsa temple. After a few days, the rock was moved and the candidate whose name had a certain mark was chosen as the new chief minister. Whether this was a form of selection-by-lot or a covert selection by the elite is not clear.
Language and culture
Baekje was established by immigrants from Goguryeo who spoke what could be a
Buyeo languageThe language of the Buyeo kingdom is very sparsely attested; however, according to Chinese sources it was mutually intelligible with the Goguryeo language to its south. The few words which are known bear this out....
, a hypothetical group linking the languages of
GojoseonGojoseon was an ancient Korean kingdom. Go , meaning "ancient," distinguishes it from the later Joseon Dynasty; Joseon, as it is called in contemporaneous writings, is also romanized as Chosŏn....
,
BuyeoBuyeo or Puyŏ , Fuyu in Chinese, was an ancient Korean kingdom located from today's Manchuria to northern North Korea, from around the 2nd century BC to 494. Its remnants were absorbed by the neighboring and brotherhood kingdom of Goguryeo in 494...
,
GoguryeoGoguryeo or Koguryŏ was an ancient Korean kingdom located in present day northern and central parts of the Korean Peninsula, southern Manchuria, and southern Russian Maritime province....
, and Baekje. In a case of
diglossiaIn linguistics, diglossia refers to a situation in which two dialects or languages are used by a single language community. In addition to the community's everyday or vernacular language variety , a second, highly codified variety is used in certain situations such as literature, formal...
, the indigenous
SamhanThe Samhan period of Korean history comprises confederacies of Mahan, Jinhan, and Byeonhan in central and southern Korean peninsula, during the final century BCE and the early centuries CE....
people, having migrated in an earlier wave from the same region, probably spoke a variation or dialect of the same language. (See
Baekje languageThe language of the ancient kingdom of Baekje , one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, is sparsely attested; indeed, it is not clear that what material exists is from the same language...
.)
Baekje artists adopted many Chinese influences and synthesized them into a unique artistic tradition. Buddhist themes are extremely strong in Baekje artwork. The beatific
Baekje smileThe Baekje smile is a term art historians use to refer to the common smile motif found in Baekje sculpture and bas-relief. Baekje figures express a unique smile that has been described as both enigmatic and subtle...
found on many Buddhist sculptures expresses the warmth typical of Baekje art. Taoist influences are also widespread. Chinese artisans were sent to the kingdom by the
Liang DynastyThe Liang Dynasty , also known as the Southern Liang Dynasty , was the third of the Southern dynasties in China and was followed by the Chen Dynasty...
in 541, and this may have given rise to an increased Chinese influence in the Sabi period.
The
tomb of King MuryeongThe Tomb of King Muryeong, also known as Songsan-ri Tomb No. 7, is the ancient tumulus of King Muryeong, who ruled the Baekje Kingdom from 501 to 523, and his queen...
(501–523), although modeled on Chinese brick tombs and yielding some imported Chinese objects, also contained many funerary objects of the Baekje tradition, such as the
gold crown ornamentsThe Crown of Baekje refers to several artifacts excavated that are believed to be the royal headgear of the kings, queens, and nobility of the Baekje Kingdom. Some of the crowns follow the same tradition as Silla crowns in that they share the tree-motif and the hints of shamanistic traditions...
, gold belts, and gold earrings. Mortuary practices also followed the unique tradition of Baekje. This tomb is seen as a representative tomb of the
UngjinUngjin, also known as Gomnaru is a former city on the Korean Peninsula. It was located in modern-day Gongju, South Chungcheong province, South Korea. It was the capital of Baekje from AD 475 to 538, during a period when Baekje was under threat from Goguryeo, the previous capital of Wiryeseong ...
period.
Delicate lotus designs of the roof-tiles, intricate brick patterns, curves of the pottery style, and flowing and elegant epitaph writing characterize Baekje culture. The Buddhist sculptures and refined
pagodaA pagoda is the general term in the English language for a tiered tower with multiple eaves common in Nepal, India, China, Japan, Korea, Vietnam and other parts of Asia. Some pagodas are used as Taoist houses of worship. Most pagodas were built to have a religious function, most commonly Buddhist,...
s reflect religion-inspired creativity. A splendid
gilt-bronze incense burnerThe Gilt-bronze Incense Burner of Baekje is the 287th National Treasure of Korea and was designated on May 30, 1996. It is currently housed at the Buyeo National Museum...
(
Baekjegeumdongdaehyeongno) excavated from an ancient Buddhist temple site at Neungsan-ri,
Buyeo CountyBuyeo County is a county in South Chungcheong Province, South Korea. Buyeo-eup, the county's capital, was the site of the capital of the Baekje kingdom from AD 538 to 660, when it was called Sabi....
, exemplifies Baekje art.
Little is known of Baekje music, but local musicians were sent with tribute missions to China in the 7th century, indicating that a distinctive musical tradition had developed by that time.
Relations with China
In 372,
King GeunchogoGeunchogo of Baekje was the 13th king of Baekje, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. He reigned over the apex of Baekje's powers.-Background:...
paid
tributeA tribute is wealth, often in kind, that one party gives to another as a sign of respect or, as was often the case in historical contexts, of submission or allegiance. Various ancient states, which could be called suzerains, exacted tribute from areas they had conquered or threatened to conquer...
to the
Jin DynastyThe Jìn Dynasty , was a dynasty in Chinese history, lasting between the years 265 and 420 AD. There are two main divisions in the history of the Dynasty, the first being Western Jin and the second Eastern Jin...
of
ChinaChinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
, located in the basin of the
Yangtze RiverThe Yangtze, Yangzi or Cháng Jiāng is the longest river in Asia, and the third-longest in the world. It flows for from the glaciers on the Tibetan Plateau in Qinghai eastward across southwest, central and eastern China before emptying into the East China Sea at Shanghai. It is also one of the...
. After the fall of Jin and the establishment of
Song DynastyThe Liu Song Dynasty , also known as Song Dynasty , Former Song , or Southern Song , was first of the four Southern Dynasties in China, succeeding the Eastern Jin Dynasty and followed by the Southern Qi Dynasty....
in 420, Baekje sent envoys seeking cultural goods and technologies.
Baekje sent an envoy to
Northern WeiThe Northern Wei Dynasty , also known as the Tuoba Wei , Later Wei , or Yuan Wei , was a dynasty which ruled northern China from 386 to 534 . It has been described as "part of an era of political turbulence and intense social and cultural change"...
of Northern Dynasties for the first time in 472, and
King GaeroGaero of Baekje was the 21st king of Baekje, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. He was the eldest son of the 20th king Biyu...
asked for military aid to attack
GoguryeoGoguryeo or Koguryŏ was an ancient Korean kingdom located in present day northern and central parts of the Korean Peninsula, southern Manchuria, and southern Russian Maritime province....
. Kings
MuryeongMuryeong of Baekje was the 25th king of Baekje, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. During his reign, Baekje remained allied with Silla against Goguryeo, and expanded its relationships with China and Japan.-Background:...
and
SeongSeong of Baekje was the 26th king of Baekje, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. He was a son of Muryeong of Baekje. He made Buddhism the state religion, moved the national capital, and succeeded in reclaiming the center of the Korean Peninsula, only to be betrayed by an ally.-Foreign relations...
sent envoys to
LiangThe Liang Dynasty , also known as the Southern Liang Dynasty , was the third of the Southern dynasties in China and was followed by the Chen Dynasty...
several times and received titles of nobility.
Tomb of King Muryeong is built with bricks according with Liang's tomb style.
Baekje's presence on the continent
According to the
Book of SongThe Book of Song , also called "The History of the Song," is a historical text of the Liu Song Dynasty of the Southern Dynasties of China. It covers history from 420 to 479, and is one of the Twenty-Four Histories, a traditional collection of historical records. It was authored by Shen Yue from...
, “Goguryeo came to conquer and occupy Liaodong (遼東), and Baekje came to occupy Liaoxi (遼西) (in modern
Tangshan"唐山"redirects here. For an alternative name of China, see Names of China#TangTangshan is a largely industrial prefecture-level city in Hebei province, People's Republic of China. It has become known for the 1976 Tangshan earthquake which measured 7.8 on the Richter scale and killed at least...
,
Hebei' is a province of the People's Republic of China in the North China region. Its one-character abbreviation is "" , named after Ji Province, a Han Dynasty province that included what is now southern Hebei...
); the place that came to be governed by Baekje was called the Jinpyeong (Jinping) District, Jinpyeong (Jinping) County.” The records of
Book of JinThe Book of Jin is one of the official Chinese historical works. It covers the history of Jin Dynasty from 265 to 420, which written by a number of officials commissioned by the court of Tang Dynasty, with the lead editor being the Prime Minister Fang Xuanling, drawing mostly from the official...
on
Murong HuangMurong Huang , courtesy name Yuanzhen , formally Prince Wenming of Yan was a ruler of the Chinese/Xianbei state Former Yan and the commonly recognized founder of the state...
states that the alliance of
GoguryeoGoguryeo or Koguryŏ was an ancient Korean kingdom located in present day northern and central parts of the Korean Peninsula, southern Manchuria, and southern Russian Maritime province....
, Baekje, and a
XianbeiThe Xianbei were a significant Mongolic nomadic people residing in Manchuria, Inner Mongolia and eastern Mongolia. The title “Khan” was first used among the Xianbei.-Origins:...
tribe took military action. The
Samguk SagiSamguk Sagi is a historical record of the Three Kingdoms of Korea: Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla. The Samguk Sagi is written in Classical Chinese and its compilation was ordered by Goryeo's King Injong Samguk Sagi (History of the Three Kingdoms) is a historical record of the Three Kingdoms of...
records that these battles occurred during the reign of King
Micheon of GoguryeoKing Micheon of Goguryeo was the 15th ruler of Goguryeo, the northernmost of the Three Kingdoms of Korea.- Background and Rise to the throne :...
(309-331).
According to the
Book of LiangThe Book of Liang , was compiled under Yao Silian, completed in 635. The book heavily relied on his father, Yao Ca's original manuscript, as his comments were quoted in several chapters....
, “during the time of
Jin Dynasty (265-420)The Jìn Dynasty , was a dynasty in Chinese history, lasting between the years 265 and 420 AD. There are two main divisions in the history of the Dynasty, the first being Western Jin and the second Eastern Jin...
, Goguryeo conquered Liaodong, and Baekje also occupied Liaoxi and Jinping, and established the Baekje provinces.”
The
Zizhi TongjianThe Zizhi Tongjian was a pioneering reference work in Chinese historiography, published in 1084, under the form of a chronicles. In 1065 CE, Emperor Yingzong of Song ordered the great historian Sima Guang to lead with other scholars such as his chief assistants Liu Shu, Liu Ban and Fan Zuyu, the...
, compiled by
Sima GuangSīmǎ Guāng was a Chinese historian, scholar, and high chancellor of the Song Dynasty, jinshi 1038.-Life, profession, and works:...
(1019–1086) of the
Song DynastyThe Song Dynasty was a ruling dynasty in China between 960 and 1279; it succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period, and was followed by the Yuan Dynasty. It was the first government in world history to issue banknotes or paper money, and the first Chinese government to establish a...
(960-1279), states that in 346, Baekje invaded
BuyeoBuyeo or Puyŏ , Fuyu in Chinese, was an ancient Korean kingdom located from today's Manchuria to northern North Korea, from around the 2nd century BC to 494. Its remnants were absorbed by the neighboring and brotherhood kingdom of Goguryeo in 494...
, located at Lushan, and as a result the people of the country were scattered westward toward
YanThe Former Yan was a state of Xianbei ethnicity during the era of Sixteen Kingdoms in China.Initially, Murong Huang and his son Murong Jun claimed the Jin Dynasty -created title "Prince of Yan," but subsequently, in 352, after seizing most of the former Later Zhao territory, Murong Juan would...
. That year was the first year of the King
GeunchogoGeunchogo of Baekje was the 13th king of Baekje, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. He reigned over the apex of Baekje's powers.-Background:...
’s reign (346-375) in Baekje.
The nearly contemporary record of the
Book of QiThe Book of Qi or Book of Southern Qi is a history of the Chinese dynasty Southern Qi covering the period from 479 to 502, and is one of the Twenty-Four Histories of Chinese history...
, as well as the later Zizhi Tongjian, state that a
Northern WeiThe Northern Wei Dynasty , also known as the Tuoba Wei , Later Wei , or Yuan Wei , was a dynasty which ruled northern China from 386 to 534 . It has been described as "part of an era of political turbulence and intense social and cultural change"...
(386-534) army, composed of 100,000 cavalry, attacked Baekje but were defeated in 488. This account is confirmed by the Samguk-sagi records on the tenth year of King
DongseongDongseong of Baekje was the 24th king of Baekje, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea.-Background:He was the son of Gonji, the younger brother of the 22nd king Munju who returned to Baekje from Yamato Japan in 477 after hearing of the fall of the Baekje capital. Gonji died in that year, and like...
’s reign (488). Since such an army could not have travelled from northern China to the southwestern corner of the Korean peninsula without passing through the hostile and powerful Goguryeo (in the reign of King
Jangsu of GoguryeoEmperor Jangsu of Goguryeo was the 20th monarch of Goguryeo, the northernmost of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. He was born in 394, the eldest son of King Gwanggaeto the Great...
(413-491)), without being recorded in contemporary chronicles, the “Baekje” in those records must refer to Baekje presence on the other side of Goguryeo, in Liaoxi.
The Book of Qi also records that in 495 Baekje's King Dongseong requested honorary titles for the generals who repulsed the Wei attack. The titles given by the
Southern QiThe Southern Qi Dynasty was the second of the Southern dynasties in China, followed by the Liang Dynasty. During its 23-year history, the dynasty was largely filled with instability, as after the death of the capable Emperor Gao and Emperor Wu, Emperor Wu's grandson Xiao Zhaoye was assassinated...
court carried the names of their domains that sounded like some Liaoxi areas, such as Guangling, Qinghe, Chengyang, etc.
The Territory Section of Mǎnzhōu Yuánliú Kǎo (满洲源流考, "Considerations on the Origin of
ManchuThe Manchu people or Man are an ethnic minority of China who originated in Manchuria . During their rise in the 17th century, with the help of the Ming dynasty rebels , they came to power in China and founded the Qing Dynasty, which ruled China until the Xinhai Revolution of 1911, which...
") also summarizes Baekje's territories, obviously including a portion of Liaoxi:
- The boundary of Baekje begins from the present-day Guangning and Jinyi provinces in the northwest and then crosses the sea in an easterly direction to arrive at the Joseon
Joseon , was a Korean state founded by Taejo Yi Seong-gye that lasted for approximately five centuries. It was founded in the aftermath of the overthrow of the Goryeo at what is today the city of Kaesong. Early on, Korea was retitled and the capital was relocated to modern-day Seoul...
’s HwanghaeHwanghae was one of the Eight Provinces of Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. Hwanghae was located in the northwest of Korea. The provincial capital was Haeju.The regional name for the province was Haesŏ .-History:...
, ChungcheongChungcheong was one of the eight provinces of Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. Chungcheong was located in the southwest of Korea...
, JeollaJeolla was a province in southwestern Korea, one of the historical Eight Provinces of Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. It consisted of the modern South Korean provinces of North Jeolla, South Jeolla and the Special City of Gwangju as well as Jeju Island...
, etc. provinces. Running east to west, Baekje’s territory is narrow; running north to south, it is long. Thus it occurs that if one looks at Baekje’s territory from the Liucheng and Beiping area, Silla is located in the southeast of Baekje, but if one looks from the GyeongsangGyeongsang was one of the eight provinces of Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. Gyeongsang was located in the southeast of Korea....
and UngjinUngjin, also known as Gomnaru is a former city on the Korean Peninsula. It was located in modern-day Gongju, South Chungcheong province, South Korea. It was the capital of Baekje from AD 475 to 538, during a period when Baekje was under threat from Goguryeo, the previous capital of Wiryeseong ...
area of Baekje, Silla is located in the northeast. Baekje also borders Mohe in the north. Its royal capital has two castles at two different places in the east and west. Both castles are called “Goma.” The Book of Song says that the place governed by Baekje was called the Jinping district of the Jinping province. Tong-gao says that the Jinping province was located between Liucheng and Beiping of the Tang period.
Hence one of Baekje’s capitals was located in “Liaoxi,” and the other inside the "Joseon" provinces. It was during the reign of
Emperor Wu of LiangEmperor Wu of Liang , personal name Xiao Yan , courtesy name Shuda , nickname Lian'er , was the founding emperor of the Chinese Liang Dynasty...
that Baekje relocated its capital to southern Korea.
Both the Old and the New History of Tang say that the old Baekje territories were divided up and taken by
SillaSilla was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, and one of the longest sustained dynasties in...
and
BalhaeBalhae was a Manchurian kingdom established after the fall of Goguryeo. After Goguryeo's capital and southern territories fell to Unified Silla, Dae Jo-yeong, a Mohe general, whose father was Dae Jung-sang, established Jin , later called Balhae.Balhae occupied southern parts of Manchuria and...
. If Baekje was limited to the southwestern corner of the Korean peninsula, then it would have been impossible for the Balhae to occupy any of the old Baekje territories.
The Silla scholar and alleged Sinocentrist Choi Chi-won (857-?) wrote that “Goguryeo and Baekje at the height of their strength maintained strong armies numbering one million persons, and invaded Wu and Yue in the south and You, Yan, Qi, and Lu in the north of the mainland China, making grave nuisances to the Middle Kingdom”.
According to these records, Baekje must have held the Liao-xi province for more than a hundred years.
Familial ties and Military assistance
To confront the military pressure of
GoguryeoGoguryeo or Koguryŏ was an ancient Korean kingdom located in present day northern and central parts of the Korean Peninsula, southern Manchuria, and southern Russian Maritime province....
to its north and
SillaSilla was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, and one of the longest sustained dynasties in...
to its east, Baekje (
Kudara in Japanese) established close relations with Japan. According to the Korean chronicle
Samguk SagiSamguk Sagi is a historical record of the Three Kingdoms of Korea: Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla. The Samguk Sagi is written in Classical Chinese and its compilation was ordered by Goryeo's King Injong Samguk Sagi (History of the Three Kingdoms) is a historical record of the Three Kingdoms of...
, Baekje and Silla sent some princes to the Japanese court as hostages. Whether the princes sent to Japan should be interpreted as diplomats as part of an embassy or literal hostages is debated. Due to the confusion on the exact nature of this relationship (the question of whether the Baekje Koreans were family or at least close to the Japanese Imperial line or whether they were hostages) and the fact that the Nihon Shoki, a primary source of material for this relationship, is a compilation of myth, makes it difficult to evaluate. The Samguk Sagi, which also documents this, can also be interpreted in various ways and at any rate it was rewritten in the 13th century, easily seven or eight centuries after these particular events took place. Adding to the confusion is the discovery (in Japan) that the "
Inariyama sword, as well as some other swords discovered in Japan, utilized the Korean 'Idu' system of writing." The swords "
originated in Paekche and that the kings named in their inscriptions represent Paekche kings rather than Japanese kings." The techniques for making these swords were the apparently similar to styles from Korea, specifically from Baekje. In Japan, the hostage interpretation is dominant.
Other historians, such as those who collaborated on 'Paekche of Korea and the Origin of Yamato Japan' and Jonathan W. Best, who helped translate what was left of the Baekje annals, have noted that these princes set up schools in Yamato Japan and took control of the Japanese naval forces during the war with Goguryeo, taking this as evidence of them being more along the lines of diplomats with some kind of familial tie to the Japanese imperial family and as evidence against any hostage status. In addition, the translation of the old documents is difficult because in the past, the term "Wa" was derogatory, meaning "midget" or "dwarf," which was a reference to the perceived smaller stature of the average Japanese in ancient times. As a result, it is difficult to assess what is truly being stated, particularly in records made in Korea after the fall of Baekje, as the reference to Yamato Wa (Japan) could have been a derogatory statement by a rival nation (specifically
SillaSilla was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, and one of the longest sustained dynasties in...
).
As is with many long-past histories and competing records, very little can be definitively concluded. Further research has been difficult, in part due to the 1976 restriction on the study of royal tombs in Japan (to include tombs such as the Gosashi tomb, which is allegedly the resting place of Empress Jingu). Prior to 1976, foreign researchers did have access, and some found Korean artifacts in Japanese dig sites. Recently in 2008, Japan has allowed controlled limited access to foreign archaeologists, but the international community still has many unanswered questions. National Geographic has written that Japan "
has kept access to the tombs restricted, prompting rumors that officials fear excavation would reveal bloodline links between the "pure" imperial family and Korea"
In any case, these Koreans, diplomats and royal relatives or not, brought to Japan knowledge of the Chinese writing system, Buddhism, iron processing for weapons, and various other technologies. In exchange, Japan provided military support.
The
History of the Three KingdomsSamguk Sagi is a historical record of the Three Kingdoms of Korea: Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla. The Samguk Sagi is written in Classical Chinese and its compilation was ordered by Goryeo's King Injong Samguk Sagi (History of the Three Kingdoms) is a historical record of the Three Kingdoms of...
and
Memorabilia of the Three KingdomsSamguk Yusa, or Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms, is a collection of legends, folktales, and historical accounts relating to the Three Kingdoms of Korea , as well as to other periods and states before, during, and after the Three Kingdoms period.The text was written in Classical Chinese, which was...
cite some of the Baekje royal family's descendants and some nobles as dignitaries in the Japanese court, maintaining Korean influence and ensuring the continuation of the Yamato alliance, as in the time of
Emperor Yomeiwas the 31st emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.Yōmei's reign spanned the years from 585 until his death in 587.-Traditional narrative:...
, when the Buddhist temple of Horyuji was constructed. It is also known that
Muryeong of BaekjeMuryeong of Baekje was the 25th king of Baekje, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. During his reign, Baekje remained allied with Silla against Goguryeo, and expanded its relationships with China and Japan.-Background:...
, the twenty-fifth king of Baekje, was born in Japan.
According to mythical accounts in the controversial
Nihon ShokiThe , sometimes translated as The Chronicles of Japan, is the second oldest book of classical Japanese history. It is more elaborate and detailed than the Kojiki, the oldest, and has proven to be an important tool for historians and archaeologists as it includes the most complete extant historical...
, Empress Jingū extracted tribute and pledges of allegiance from the kings of Baekje,
SillaSilla was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, and one of the longest sustained dynasties in...
, and
GoguryeoGoguryeo or Koguryŏ was an ancient Korean kingdom located in present day northern and central parts of the Korean Peninsula, southern Manchuria, and southern Russian Maritime province....
. At the height of
Japanese nationalismencompasses a broad range of ideas and sentiments harbored by the Japanese people over the last two centuries regarding their native country, its cultural nature, political form and historical destiny...
in the early 20th century, Japanese historians used these mythical accounts along with a passage in the
Gwanggaeto SteleThe stele of King Gwanggaeto of Goguryeo was erected in 414 by King Jangsu as a memorial to his deceased father. It is one of the major primary sources extant for the history of Goguryeo, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, and supplies invaluable historical detail on his reign as well as insights...
to establish ideological rationale to the imperialist outcry for invasion of Korea. Other historians have pointed out that there is no evidence of this Japanese account in any part of Korea, in addition to not being in any viable text in China or Korea. Regarding the Gwanggaeto Stele, because the lack of syntax and punctuation the text can be interpreted 4 different ways, one which states that Korea crossed the water and subjugated Yamato. Due to this problem in interpretation, nothing can be concluded. Also complicating the matter is that in the Nihongi a Korean named
Amenohibokowas a legendary prince of Silla who settled in Japan during the era of Emperor Suinin, around the 3rd or 4th century and he lived in Tajima Province. And his descendant is Tajima Clan...
is supposed to be the maternal predecessor of Empress Jingū. This is highly inconsistent and difficult to interpret correctly.
Scholars believe that the
Nihon Shoki gives the invasion date of Silla and Baekje as the late 4th century. However, by this time, Japan was a confederation of local tribes without sophisticated iron weapons, while the Three Kingdoms of Korea were fully developed centralized powers with modern iron weapons and were already utilizing horses for warfare. It is very unlikely that a developing state such as Yamato had the capacity to cross the sea and engage in battles with Baekje and Silla. The
Nihon Shoki is widely regarded to be a unreliable and biased source of information on early relations with Korea, as it mixes heavy amounts of supposition and legend with facts.
Some Japanese scholars interpret the
Gwanggaeto SteleThe stele of King Gwanggaeto of Goguryeo was erected in 414 by King Jangsu as a memorial to his deceased father. It is one of the major primary sources extant for the history of Goguryeo, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, and supplies invaluable historical detail on his reign as well as insights...
, erected in 414 by King Jangsu of
GoguryeoGoguryeo or Koguryŏ was an ancient Korean kingdom located in present day northern and central parts of the Korean Peninsula, southern Manchuria, and southern Russian Maritime province....
, as describing a Japanese invasion in the southern portion of the Korean peninsula. However, Mohan claims that Goguryeo fabricated the Japanese invasion in order to justify its conquest of Baekje. If this stele was a dedication to a Korean king, it can be argued that it would logically highlight Korea's conquests and not dedicate it to a strange incident regarding Japan. In any case, because of these various possible interpretations, the circumstances surrounding the stele are still highly debated and inconclusive.
Chinese scholars participated in the study of the Stele during the 1980s. Wang Jianqun interviewed local farmers and decided that no intentional fabrication occurred, adding that the lime on the Stele was pasted by local copy-making workers to enhance readability. Xu Jianxin of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences discovered the earliest rubbed copy which was made before 1881. He also concluded that there was no evidence the Japanese had intentionally damaged any of the characters on the Stele.
Today, most Chinese and Japanese scholars contradict the conspiracy theories, based on the study of the Stele itself and advocate Japanese intervention in the era, although its size and effect are disputed.
In the project of writing a common history textbook, Kim Tae-sik of Hongik University (Korea) denied Japan's theory. But,
Kōsaku Hamada, also known as Seiryō Hamada, was a Japanese academic, archaeologist, author and President of Kyoto University.-Early life:Hamada was born in Osaka...
of Kyushu University (Japan) reported their interpretations of the Gwanggaeto Stele text, neither of them adopting the intentionally damaged stele theory in their interpretations.
The fall of Baekje and the retreat to Japan
Some members of the Baekje nobility and royalty emigrated to Japan even before the kingdom was overthrown. In response to Baekje's request, Japan in 663 sent the general
Abe no Hirafuwas a governor of Koshi Province. He fought against the aboriginal inhabitants of Japan . This was in 658...
with 20,000 troops and 1,000 ships to revive Baekje with
Buyeo PungBuyeo Pung, known as in Japan, was one of the sons of King Uija of Baekje. When Baekje, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, fell to the alliance of Silla and Tang Dynasty in 660, he was in the Wa state of Japan to ensure the alliance between Japan and Baekje. However, there is much dispute about...
(known in Japanese as Hōshō), a son of
Uija of BaekjeUija of Baekje was the 31st and final ruler of Baekje, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. His reign ended when Baekje was conquered by the alliance of the rival Korean kingdom Silla and China's Tang Dynasty.- Background :...
who had been an
emissaryEmissary may refer to:* Ambassador* Apostle* Diplomat* The Subspace Emissary, the single-player Adventure Mode in the video game Super Smash Bros...
to Japan. Around August of 661, 10,000 soldiers and 170 ships, led by Abe no Hirafu, arrived. Additional Japanese reinforcement, including 27,000 soldiers led by Kamitsukeno no Kimi Wakako and 10,000 soldiers led by Iohara no Kimi also arrived at Baekje in 662.
This attempt, however, failed at the
battle of BaekgangThe Battle of Baekgang, also known as Battle of Baekgang-gu or by the Japanese name Battle of Hakusukinoe , was a battle between Baekje restoration forces and their ally, Yamato Japan, against the allied forces of Silla and the Tang Dynasty of ancient China...
, and the prince escaped to Goguryeo. According to the
Nihon Shoki, 400 Japanese ships were lost in the battles. Only half of the troops were able to return to Japan.
The Japanese army retreated to Japan with many Baekje refugees. The former royal family members were initially treated as "foreign guests" (蕃客) and were not incorporated into the political system of Japan for some time. Buyeo Pung's younger brother Sun-gwang (Zenkō in Japanese) ( or ) used the family name
Kudara no KonikishiThe Kudara no Konikishi was a Japanese clan whose founder Zenkō was a son of the last king of Baekje, King Uija.Kudara was an uji or clan name that represented their country of origin...
("King of Baekje") (they are also called the Kudara clan, as Baekje was called Kudara in Japanese). The mother of
Emperor Kammuwas the 50th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. Kammu reigned from 781 to 806.-Traditional narrative:Kammu's personal name was . He was the eldest son of Prince Shirakabe , and was born prior to Shirakabe's ascension to the throne...
(737-806) was
Takano no NiigasaTakano no Niigasa was a concubine of Emperor Kōnin and the mother of Emperor Kammu. Her full name was Takano no Asomi Niigasa.-Life:...
, a descendant of King Muryeong of Baekje.
Emperor Kammuwas the 50th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. Kammu reigned from 781 to 806.-Traditional narrative:Kammu's personal name was . He was the eldest son of Prince Shirakabe , and was born prior to Shirakabe's ascension to the throne...
treated the Kudara no Konikishi clan as his "relatives by marriage". Baekje royalty are also the ancestors of the Ouchi clan, the Sue clan,
Soga clanThe was one of the most powerful clans in Yamato Japan and played a major role in the spread of Buddhism. For many generations, in the 5th and 7th centuries, the Soga monopolized the position of Great Royal Chieftain and was the first of many families to dominate the Imperial House of Japan by...
and others.
Legacy
Baekje was briefly revived in the Later Three Kingdoms of Korea period, as
Unified SillaUnified Silla or Later Silla is the name often applied to the Korean kingdom of Silla, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, when it conquered Baekje in 660 and Goguryeo in 668, unifying the southern portion of the Korean peninsula...
collapsed. In 892, General
Gyeon HwonGyeon Hwon was the king and founder of Hubaekje, one of the Later Three Kingdoms of Korea. Some records render his name as "Jin Hwon" . He was also the progenitor of the Hwanggan Gyeon clan...
established
HubaekjeHubaekje, or Later Baekje, was one of the Later Three Kingdoms of Korea, along with Hugoguryeo and Silla. It was officially founded by the disaffected Silla general Gyeon Hwon in 900, and fell to Wanggeon's Goryeo army in 936. Its capital was at Jeonju, in present-day North Jeolla province...
(“Later Baekje”), based in Wansan (present-day
JeonjuJeonju is a city in South Korea, and the capital of Jeollabuk-do, or North Jeolla Province. It is an important tourist center famous for Korean food, historic buildings, sports activities and innovative festivals.- History :...
). Hubaekje was overthrown in 936 by King
Taejo of GoryeoTaejo of Goryeo was the founder of the Goryeo Dynasty, which ruled Korea from the 10th to the 14th century. Taejo ruled from 918 to 943.-Background:...
.
In contemporary South Korea, Baekje relics are often symbolic of the local cultures of the southwest, especially in Chungnam and
JeollaJeolla was a province in southwestern Korea, one of the historical Eight Provinces of Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. It consisted of the modern South Korean provinces of North Jeolla, South Jeolla and the Special City of Gwangju as well as Jeju Island...
. The
gilt-bronze incense burnerThe Gilt-bronze Incense Burner of Baekje is the 287th National Treasure of Korea and was designated on May 30, 1996. It is currently housed at the Buyeo National Museum...
, for example, is a key symbol of
Buyeo CountyBuyeo County is a county in South Chungcheong Province, South Korea. Buyeo-eup, the county's capital, was the site of the capital of the Baekje kingdom from AD 538 to 660, when it was called Sabi....
, and the Baekje-era Buddhist rock sculpture of Seosan Maaesamjonbulsang is an important symbol of
Seosan CitySeosan is a city in South Chungcheong Province, South Korea. Located at , it has a population of 163,055 according to the 2010 census.-Climate:...
.
On 17 April 2009, Ōuchi Kimio (大內公夫) of
Ōuchi clanThe ' was one of the most powerful and important families in Japan during the reign of the Ashikaga shogunate in the 12th to 14th centuries descended from the Korean Baekje Dynasty's Royal family...
visited
IksanIksan is a city and major railway junction in North Jeolla Province, South Korea.The city center and railway junction was formerly called "Iri" , but merged with Iksan County in 1995....
, Korea to pay tribute to his Baekje ancestors.
See also
- List of Baekje monarchs
- List of Korea-related topics
- History of Korea
The Korean Peninsula was inhabited from the Lower Paleolithic about 400,000-500,000 years ago. Archeological evidence indicates that the presence of modern humans in northeast Asia dates to 39,000 years ago. The earliest known Korean pottery dates to around 8000 BC, and the Neolithic period began...
- List of Baekje researchers
- Crown of Baekje
The Crown of Baekje refers to several artifacts excavated that are believed to be the royal headgear of the kings, queens, and nobility of the Baekje Kingdom. Some of the crowns follow the same tradition as Silla crowns in that they share the tree-motif and the hints of shamanistic traditions...
- List of monarchies
External links