Authenticité (Zaire)
Encyclopedia
Authenticité was an official state ideology of the Mobutu regime that originated in the late 1960s and early 1970s in what was first the Democratic Republic of the Congo
, later renamed Zaire
. The authenticity campaign was an effort to rid the country of the lingering vestiges of colonialism
and the continuing influence of Western culture and to create a more centralized and singular national identity. The policy, as implemented, included numerous changes to the state and to private life, including the renaming of the Congo and its cities, as well as an eventual mandate that Zairians were to abandon their Christian names for more ‘authentic’ ones. In addition, Western style attire was banned and replaced with the Mao-style tunic labeled the ‘abacost
’ and its female equivalent. The policy began to wane in the late 1970s and had mostly been abandoned by 1990.
’s declaration of the beginning of the Second Republic following his successful coup on the failing democratic government of President Joseph Kasa-Vubu
, he declared his new nationalistic ideology in the Manifesto of N’Sele of May 1967. Over the next several years, Mobutu gradually instated the various policy measures that would come to define the campaign. More than anything, the retour à l’authenticité was an effort on behalf of the self-declared “father of the nation” to create a national identity that could take precedent over regionalism
and tribalism
while reconciling those claims with the exigencies of modernization
. He described the ideology as follows:
Though continually glorified by Mobutu and his statesmen, the authenticity campaign was the means through which the dictator intended to vindicate his own brand of leadership. He himself, in an effort to link his ideology and his political dominance, stated just before proclaiming authenticité that, “in our African tradition there are never two chiefs….That is why we Congolese, in the desire to conform to the traditions of our continent, have resolved to group all the energies of the citizens of our country under the banner of a single national party,” despite the necessity of a lessening of tribal identity in order to promote national unity.
’, a word derived from the French a bas le costume, or "down with the suit." A female equivalent of the national attire was also created.
(formerly Leopoldville) and Kisangani
(formerly Stanleyville). Streets, bridges, and other geographic features, as well as the armed forces received name changes.
As part of his re-organization of Zairean life, Mobutu banned all Christian religious groups, requiring those who would function in Zaire to become part of one of 4 recognized umbrella groups. The four were: the Kimbanguist Church (a syncretic church of Zairian origin), the Catholic Church, the Orthodox Churches, and Les Eglises du Christ au Zaire (ECZ, now Church of Christ in Congo), which covered most of the Protestant confessions. All others were illegal. The various Protestant churches had to affiliate with the last of these as Communities within the ECZ in Zaire. At the time there were numerous local sects and church groups which had sprung up, and it is believed Mobutu wanted to control these, as well as the churches in general. (Source: Personal experience working in one of the Communities within the ECZ, 1983–84).
regime. Along with Mobutu’s announcement of the transition to the Third Republic in 1990, which included most notably a three party system, came the freedom to return to more universal forms of address and to wear a suit and tie. Also, by the 1990s many Zairians had resumed use of their given names. After Mobutu was forced to flee the country amidst the First Congo War
in 1997, President Laurent Kabila returned the country’s name to the Democratic Republic of the Congo
.
Congo Crisis
The Congo Crisis was a period of turmoil in the First Republic of the Congo that began with national independence from Belgium and ended with the seizing of power by Joseph Mobutu...
, later renamed Zaire
Zaire
The Republic of Zaire was the name of the present Democratic Republic of the Congo between 27 October 1971 and 17 May 1997. The name of Zaire derives from the , itself an adaptation of the Kongo word nzere or nzadi, or "the river that swallows all rivers".-Self-proclaimed Father of the Nation:In...
. The authenticity campaign was an effort to rid the country of the lingering vestiges of colonialism
Colonialism
Colonialism is the establishment, maintenance, acquisition and expansion of colonies in one territory by people from another territory. It is a process whereby the metropole claims sovereignty over the colony and the social structure, government, and economics of the colony are changed by...
and the continuing influence of Western culture and to create a more centralized and singular national identity. The policy, as implemented, included numerous changes to the state and to private life, including the renaming of the Congo and its cities, as well as an eventual mandate that Zairians were to abandon their Christian names for more ‘authentic’ ones. In addition, Western style attire was banned and replaced with the Mao-style tunic labeled the ‘abacost
Abacost
The abacost, abbreviation for the French "à bas le costume" , was the distinctive wear for men that was promoted by Mobutu Sese Seko as part of his Zairianisation programme in the Democratic Republic of Congo, between 1972 and 1990. Zairians were banned from wearing suits with shirt and tie to...
’ and its female equivalent. The policy began to wane in the late 1970s and had mostly been abandoned by 1990.
Origin and General Ideology
Not long after Mobutu Sese SekoMobutu Sese Seko
Mobutu Sese Seko Nkuku Ngbendu wa Za Banga , commonly known as Mobutu or Mobutu Sese Seko , born Joseph-Désiré Mobutu, was the President of the Democratic Republic of the Congo from 1965 to 1997...
’s declaration of the beginning of the Second Republic following his successful coup on the failing democratic government of President Joseph Kasa-Vubu
Joseph Kasa-Vubu
Joseph Kasa-Vubu was the first President of the Republic of the Congo, today called Democratic Republic of the Congo....
, he declared his new nationalistic ideology in the Manifesto of N’Sele of May 1967. Over the next several years, Mobutu gradually instated the various policy measures that would come to define the campaign. More than anything, the retour à l’authenticité was an effort on behalf of the self-declared “father of the nation” to create a national identity that could take precedent over regionalism
Regionalism (politics)
Regionalism is a term used in international relations. Regionalism also constitutes one of the three constituents of the international commercial system...
and tribalism
Tribalism
The social structure of a tribe can vary greatly from case to case, but, due to the small size of tribes, it is always a relatively simple role structure, with few significant social distinctions between individuals....
while reconciling those claims with the exigencies of modernization
Modernization
In the social sciences, modernization or modernisation refers to a model of an evolutionary transition from a 'pre-modern' or 'traditional' to a 'modern' society. The teleology of modernization is described in social evolutionism theories, existing as a template that has been generally followed by...
. He described the ideology as follows:
Authenticité has made us discover our personality by reaching into the depths of our past for the rich cultural heritage left to us by our ancestors. We have no intention of blindly returning to all ancestral customs; rather. We would like to choose those that adapt themselves well to modern life, those that encourage progress, and those that create a way of life and thought that are essentially ours.
Though continually glorified by Mobutu and his statesmen, the authenticity campaign was the means through which the dictator intended to vindicate his own brand of leadership. He himself, in an effort to link his ideology and his political dominance, stated just before proclaiming authenticité that, “in our African tradition there are never two chiefs….That is why we Congolese, in the desire to conform to the traditions of our continent, have resolved to group all the energies of the citizens of our country under the banner of a single national party,” despite the necessity of a lessening of tribal identity in order to promote national unity.
Dress
Greatly a result of Mobutu’s 1973 visit to Beijing, Zairian males were strongly urged, and then required, to abandon Western suits and ties for the Mao-style tunic that he named the ‘abacostAbacost
The abacost, abbreviation for the French "à bas le costume" , was the distinctive wear for men that was promoted by Mobutu Sese Seko as part of his Zairianisation programme in the Democratic Republic of Congo, between 1972 and 1990. Zairians were banned from wearing suits with shirt and tie to...
’, a word derived from the French a bas le costume, or "down with the suit." A female equivalent of the national attire was also created.
Geographic Names
The most widely recognized result of authenticité was no doubt the renaming of the nation from the Democratic Republic of the Congo to Zaire, a Portuguese mispronunciation of the Kikongo word nzere or nzadi, which translates to: "the river that swallows all rivers." It is generally unknown why the head of state chose a Portuguese colonial name instead of an authentic Congolese name. Mobutu also renamed the Congo river and the national currency ‘Zaire’, and referred to them as Les Trois Z—Notre Pays, Notre Fleuve, Notre Monnaie (The Three Zs—Our Country, Our River, Our Money). In addition, cities were given more ‘African’ names such as KinshasaKinshasa
Kinshasa is the capital and largest city of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The city is located on the Congo River....
(formerly Leopoldville) and Kisangani
Kisangani
Kisangani is the capital of Orientale Province in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It is the 3rd largest urbanized city in the country and the largest of the cities that lie in the tropical woodlands of the Congo....
(formerly Stanleyville). Streets, bridges, and other geographic features, as well as the armed forces received name changes.
Personal Names
Zairians were also first urged, then required to drop their Western, Christian names in favor of more authentic ones that referred to their ancestors. Also possibly a result of Mao Zedong’s influence on Mobutu, first names became surnames. For example, the dictator changed his own name from Joseph-Désiré Mobutu to Mobutu Sese Seko Kuku Ngbendu Wa Za Banga (more commonly Mobutu Sese Seko).Address
Under the state and party ideology of authenticity, all citizens were equal and the appropriate term of address among all Zairians became citoyen, or citizen. The term was mandated for public use in order to do away with the perceived hierarchical distinctions of monsieur and madame.Visiting Heads of State
Visiting heads of state were greeted with African drumming and singing as opposed to the conventional 21-gun salute that was seen as ‘colonial’.Art
The state urged that all traditional works of art be returned to the country so as to inspire Zairian artists and ensure the incorporation of traditional styles into contemporary artwork.The Church
The Catholic hierarchy quickly came to view the retour à l’authenticité as a threat to Chrisitanity in Zaire (in the early 1990s almost half of the population was Catholic). The regime’s stress on “mental decolonization” and “cultural disalienation” could be interpreted as an attack on Christianity as a product of Western influence, as could the emphasis on African culture as an alternative to widespread continuing Westernization. Also, the banning of Christian names was a measure that particularly offended the church.As part of his re-organization of Zairean life, Mobutu banned all Christian religious groups, requiring those who would function in Zaire to become part of one of 4 recognized umbrella groups. The four were: the Kimbanguist Church (a syncretic church of Zairian origin), the Catholic Church, the Orthodox Churches, and Les Eglises du Christ au Zaire (ECZ, now Church of Christ in Congo), which covered most of the Protestant confessions. All others were illegal. The various Protestant churches had to affiliate with the last of these as Communities within the ECZ in Zaire. At the time there were numerous local sects and church groups which had sprung up, and it is believed Mobutu wanted to control these, as well as the churches in general. (Source: Personal experience working in one of the Communities within the ECZ, 1983–84).
Decline
Although many of the changes instated as part of authenticité lasted nearly to the end of the Mobutu regime or beyond it, the ideology had begun to wane by the late 1970s as it could do little more to benefit Mobutu’s kleptocraticKleptocracy
Kleptocracy, alternatively cleptocracy or kleptarchy, is a form of political and government corruption where the government exists to increase the personal wealth and political power of its officials and the ruling class at the expense of the wider population, often without pretense of honest...
regime. Along with Mobutu’s announcement of the transition to the Third Republic in 1990, which included most notably a three party system, came the freedom to return to more universal forms of address and to wear a suit and tie. Also, by the 1990s many Zairians had resumed use of their given names. After Mobutu was forced to flee the country amidst the First Congo War
First Congo War
The First Congo War was a revolution in Zaire that replaced President Mobutu Sésé Seko, a decades-long dictator, with rebel leader Laurent-Désiré Kabila. Destabilization in eastern Zaire that resulted from the Rwandan genocide was the final factor that caused numerous internal and external actors...
in 1997, President Laurent Kabila returned the country’s name to the Democratic Republic of the Congo
Democratic Republic of the Congo
The Democratic Republic of the Congo is a state located in Central Africa. It is the second largest country in Africa by area and the eleventh largest in the world...
.