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Puranas
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The Puranas (Sanskrit: , "of ancient times") are a group of important Hindu (or Jain and Buddhist) religious texts, notably consisting of narratives of the history of the Universe from creation to destruction, genealogies of the kings, heroes, sages, and demigods, and descriptions of Hindu cosmology, philosophy, and geography. Puranas usually give prominence to a particular deity and most use an abundance of religious and philosophical concepts.
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The Puranas (Sanskrit: , "of ancient times") are a group of important Hindu (or Jain and Buddhist) religious texts, notably consisting of narratives of the history of the Universe from creation to destruction, genealogies of the kings, heroes, sages, and demigods, and descriptions of Hindu cosmology, philosophy, and geography. Puranas usually give prominence to a particular deity and most use an abundance of religious and philosophical concepts. They are usually written in the form of stories related by one person to another.
Vyasa, the narrator of the Mahabharata, is traditionally considered the compiler of the Puranas. However, the earliest written versions date from the time of the Gupta Empire (third-fifth century CE) and much material may be dated, through historical references and other means, to this period and the succeeding centuries. The texts were probably written all over India. Common ideas are found throughout the corpus but it is not possible to trace the lines of influence of one Purana upon another so the corpus is best viewed as a synchronous whole.
The date of the production of the written texts does not define the date of origin of the Puranas, for on one hand they unquestionably existed, in some oral form, a millennium before while on the other hand they have been incrementally modified well into medieval times and perhaps down to the present day.
Origins
An early reference is found in the Chandogya Upanishad (7.1.2). (circa 500BCE.) The Brhadaranyaka Upanishad refers to purana as the "fifth Veda", , reflecting the early religious importance of these myths, presumably then in purely oral form. The term also appears in the Atharvaveda 11.7.24 .
According to Matysa Purana, they are said to narrate five subjects, called Pancha Lakshana ("five distinguishing marks"):
#Sarga; The creation of the universe.
- Pratisarga; Secondary creations, mostly recreations after dissolution.
- Vamsa; Genealogy of gods and sages.
- Manvañtara; The creation of the human race and the first human beings. The epoch of the Manus' rule, 71 celestial Yugas or 308,448,000 years.
- Vamsanucaritam: Dynastic histories.
Some scholars have suggested that these 'distinguishing marks' are shared by other traditional religious scriptures.
The Puranas also lay emphasis on keeping a record of genealogies. The Vayu Purana says: "in ancient times the suta's duty was to preserve the genealogies of gods, rsis and glorious kings and the traditions of great men." The Puranic genealogies indicate that Manu Vaivasvata lived 95 generations before the Bharata War.
According to Pargiter 1922), the "original Purana" may date to the time of the final redaction of the Vedas. and Pargiter (1979)
Pargiter has argued that the Puranic Krta Yuga—in the Vayu Purana the four Yugas are divided into 4800, 3600, 2400, and 1200 years—"ended with the destruction of the Haihayas [by Rama Jamadagnya]; the Treta began approximately with Sagara and ended with Rama Dasarathi's destruction of the Raksasas; and the Dvapara began with his reinstatement at Ayodhya and ended with the Bharata battle".
In Arrian's Indica, Megasthenes is quoted as stating that the Indians counted from Shiva (Dionysos) to Chandragupta Maurya (Sandracottus) "a hundred and fifty-three kings over six thousand and forty-three years." The Brhadaranyaka Upanishad (4.6.), ca. 8th century BCE, mentions 57 links in the Guru-Parampara ("succession of teachers"). This would mean that this Guru-Parampara would go back about 1400 years, although the accuracy of this list is disputed. The list of kings in Kalhana's Rajatarangini goes back to the 19th century BCE.
Nevertheless Gavin Flood connects the rise of the written Purana historically with the rise of devotional cults centring upon a particular deity in the Gupta era: the Puranic corpus is a complex body of materials that advance the views of various competing cults;
Although these texts are related to each other, and material in one is found in another, they nevertheless each present a view of ordering of the world from a particular perspective. They must not be seen as random collections of old tales, but as highly selective and crafted expositions and presentations of worldviews and soteriologies, compiled by particular groups of Brahmins to propagate a particular vision, whether it be focused on , , or , or, indeed, any number of deities.
The Puranas are available in vernacular translations and are disseminated by Brahmin scholars, who read from them and tell their stories, usually in Katha sessions (in which a travelling brahmin settles for a few weeks in a temple and narrates parts of a Purana, usually with a Bhakti perspective).
Texts
The Mahapuranas
Of the many texts designated 'Puranas' the most important are the s. These are always said to be eighteen in number, divided into three groups of six, though in fact they are not always counted in the same way. Combining the various lists Dimmitt and van Buitenen have collated twenty names:
- Agni (15,400 verses)
- Bhagavata (18,000 verses). The most celebrated and popular of the Puranas, telling of Vishnu's ten Avatars. Its tenth and longest canto narrates the deeds of Krishna, introducing his childhood exploits, a theme later elaborated by many Bhakti movements.
- Bhavishya (14,500 verses)
- Brahma (24,000 verses)
- Brahmanda (12,000 verses; includes Lalita Sahasranamam, a text some Hindus recite as prayer)
- Brahmavaivarta (18,000 verses)
- Garuda (19,000 verses)
- Harivamsa (16,000 verses; more often considered itihasa)
- Kurma (17,000 verses)
- Linga (11,000 verses)
- Markandeya (9,000 verses; includes Devi Mahatmyam, an important text for Shaktas)
- Matsya (14,000 verses)
- Narada (25,000 verses)
- Padma (55,000 verses)
- Shiva (24,000 verses)
- Skanda (81,100 verses), the longest Purana, containing parables, legends, and stories, with multiple versions and recensions. Many untraced quotes are attributed to this text.
- Vamana (10,000 verses)
- Varaha (10,000 verses)
- Vayu (24,000 verses)
- Vishnu (23,000 verses)
The Mahapuranas are frequently classified according the three aspects of the divine Trimurti,
- Brahma Puranas: Brahma Purana, Brahmanda Purana, Brahma Vaivarta Purana, Markandeya Purana, Bhavishya Purana,
- Vishnu Puranas: Vishnu Purana, Bhagavata Purana, Naradeya Purana, Garuda Purana, Padma Purana, Varaha Purana,Vamana Purana,Kurma Purana, Matsya Purana, Kalki Purana
- Shiva Puranas: Shiva Purana, Linga Purana, Skanda Purana, Agni Purana, Vayu Purana
According to the Padma Purana, the texts may be classified in accordance with the three gunas or qualities; truth, passion, and ignorance:
- Sattva ("truth; purity"): Vishnu Purana, Bhagavata Purana, Naradeya Purana, Garuda Purana, Padma Purana, Varaha Purana
- Rajas ("dimness; passion"): Brahmanda Purana, Brahma Vaivarta Purana, Markandeya Purana, Bhavishya Purana, Vamana Purana, Brahma Purana
- Tamas ("darkness; ignorance"): Matsya Purana, Kurma purana, Linga Purana, Shiva Purana, Skanda Purana, Agni Purana
The Upapuranas
The are lesser or ancillary texts: these are sometimes also said to be eighteen in number, with still less agreement as to the canonical titles. Few have been critically edited. They include: Sanat-kumara, Narasimha, Brihan-naradiya, Siva-rahasya, Durvasa, Kapila, Vamana, Bhargava, Varuna, Kalika, Samba, Nandi, Surya, Parasara, Vasishtha, Devi-Bhagavata,
Ganesha, Mudgala, and Hamsa.
The Ganesha and Mudgala Puranas are devoted to Ganesha. The Devi-Bhagavata Purana, which extols the goddess Durga, has become (along with the Devi Mahatmya of the Markandeya Purana) a basic text for Devi worshipers.
There are many others all over the Indian subcontinent: most (such as the Padma Purana of Bengal and Assam, narrating the story of the goddess Manasa), written in vernacular languages rather than Sanskrit.
Sthala Puranas
This corpus of texts tells of the origins and traditions of particular temples or shrines—the word sthala means "spot" in Sanskrit. There are numerous Sthala Puranas, most written in vernaculars, some with Sanskrit versions as well. Some appear in Sanskrit versions in the Mahapuranas or Upapuranas. Some Tamil Sthala Puranas have been researched by David Dean Shulman.
Kula Puranas
These Puranas deal with a caste's origin myth, stories, and legends (the word kula means "family" or "tribe" in Sanskrit). They are important sources for caste identity though usually contested by rival castes. This subgenre is usually in the vernacular and may at times remain oral. These have been little researched, though they are documented in the caste section of the British Census of India Report and the various Gazetteers.
Jain and Buddhist Puranas
Jain Puranas deal with Jain myths, history and legends and form a major part of early Kannada literature.
The best known is the Mahapurana of Acharya Jinasena. Studies and English translations of this particular genre are meagre.
Swayambhu Purana, a Buddhist Purana, is major source of the history of the Kathmandu valley.
Further reading
- Bhargava, P.L. 1971. India in the Vedic Age. Lucknow: Upper India Publishing.
- Dimmitt, Cornelia, and J.A.B. van Buitenen. Classical Hindu Mythology: A Reader in the Sanskrit Puranas. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1978. Pages 4 to 5.
- Handoo, Jawaharlal (editor). Folklore in Modern India. ISBN 81-7342-055-6
- Hardy, Friedhelm. Viraha-Bhakti - The Early History of Krsna Devotion in South India. ISBN 0-19-564916-8
- Kaushal, Molly (editor). Chanted Narratives - The Katha Vachana Tradition. ISBN 81-246-0182-8
- Mackenzie, Brwon. The Triumph of the Goddess - The Canonical Models and Theological Visions of the DevI-BhAgavata PuraNa. ISBN 0-7914-0363-7 .Sri Satguru Publications.Delhi.India
- Majumdar, R. C. and Pusalker, A. D. (editors): The history and culture of the Indian people. Volume I, The Vedic age. Bombay : Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan 1951 (esp. ch. XIV - XV by A. D. Pusalker)
- Moghe, S. G. (editor). Professor Kane's contribution to Dharmasastra literature. 1997, New Delhi: D.K. Printworld (P) Ltd. ISBN 81-246-0075-9
- .Sri Satguru Publications.Delhi
- Pargiter, F.E. 1922. Ancient Indian Historical Tradition. London. Oxford University Press.
- Shulman, David Dean. Tamil Temple Myths - Sacrifice and Divine Marriage in the South Indian Saiva Tradition. ISBN 0-691-06415-6
- Thurston Edgar. Castes and Tribes of Southern India (Vols I-V). Cosmo Publication, Delhi.
External links
Texts
Translations
- Full text of the , with the original Sanskrit, word-for-word meanings, translation, and commentary.
- Full text of the H.H. Wilson translation at sacred-texts.com
Synopses
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