Procrastination is the deferment of actions or tasks to a later time.
PsychologistA psychologist is someone who studies the human mind and behavior. Research psychologists study human perception, cognition, attention, emotion, motivation, personality, behavior and interpersonal relationships...
s often cite this
human behaviorHuman behavior is the collection of behaviors exhibited by human beings and influenced by culture, attitudes, emotions, values, ethics, authority, rapport, hypnosis, persuasion, coercion and/or genetics....
as a mechanism for coping with the
anxietyAnxiety is a psychological and physiological state characterized by cognitive, somatic, emotional, and behavioral components. These components combine to create an unpleasant feeling that is typically associated with uneasiness, fear, or worry....
associated with starting or completing any task or decision.
Psychology researchers use three criteria to categorize procrastination: for a behavior to be classified as procrastination, it must be counterproductive, needless, and delaying.
For an individual, procrastination may result in
stressStress is a biological term for the consequences of the failure of a human or animal to respond appropriately to emotional or physical threats to the organism, whether actual or imagined....
, a sense of
guiltGuilt is a cognitive or an emotional experience that occurs when a person realizes or believes - whether justified or not - that he or she has violated a moral standard, and is responsible for that violation...
, the loss of personal
productivityProductivity is a measure of output from a production process, per unit of input. For example, labor productivity is typically measured as a ratio of output per labor-hour, an input. Productivity may be conceived of as a metric of the technical or engineering efficiency of production. As such, the...
, the creation of
crisisA crisis may occur on a personal or societal level. It may be an unstable and dangerous social situation, in political, social, economic, military affairs, or a large-scale environmental event, especially one involving an impending abrupt change...
and disapproval from others for not fulfilling one's responsibilities or commitments.
Procrastination is the deferment of actions or tasks to a later time.
PsychologistA psychologist is someone who studies the human mind and behavior. Research psychologists study human perception, cognition, attention, emotion, motivation, personality, behavior and interpersonal relationships...
s often cite this
human behaviorHuman behavior is the collection of behaviors exhibited by human beings and influenced by culture, attitudes, emotions, values, ethics, authority, rapport, hypnosis, persuasion, coercion and/or genetics....
as a mechanism for coping with the
anxietyAnxiety is a psychological and physiological state characterized by cognitive, somatic, emotional, and behavioral components. These components combine to create an unpleasant feeling that is typically associated with uneasiness, fear, or worry....
associated with starting or completing any task or decision.
Psychology researchers use three criteria to categorize procrastination: for a behavior to be classified as procrastination, it must be counterproductive, needless, and delaying.
For an individual, procrastination may result in
stressStress is a biological term for the consequences of the failure of a human or animal to respond appropriately to emotional or physical threats to the organism, whether actual or imagined....
, a sense of
guiltGuilt is a cognitive or an emotional experience that occurs when a person realizes or believes - whether justified or not - that he or she has violated a moral standard, and is responsible for that violation...
, the loss of personal
productivityProductivity is a measure of output from a production process, per unit of input. For example, labor productivity is typically measured as a ratio of output per labor-hour, an input. Productivity may be conceived of as a metric of the technical or engineering efficiency of production. As such, the...
, the creation of
crisisA crisis may occur on a personal or societal level. It may be an unstable and dangerous social situation, in political, social, economic, military affairs, or a large-scale environmental event, especially one involving an impending abrupt change...
and disapproval from others for not fulfilling one's responsibilities or commitments. These combined feelings can promote further procrastination. While it is normal for people to procrastinate to some degree, it becomes a problem when it impedes normal functioning. Chronic procrastination may be a sign of an underlying
psychologicalA mental disorder or mental illness is a psychological or behavioral pattern that occurs in an individual and is thought to cause distress or disability that is not expected as part of normal development or culture. The recognition and understanding of mental disorders has changed over time and...
disorder.
Etymology
The word itself comes from the
LatinLatin is an Italic language originally spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Through the Roman conquest, Latin spread throughout the Mediterranean and a large part of Europe...
word
procrastinatus:
pro- (forward) and
crastinus (of tomorrow). The term's first known appearance was in
Edward HallEdward Hall , English chronicler and lawyer, was born about the end of the 15th century, being a son of John Hall of Northall, Shropshire....
's
The Union of the Noble and Illustre Famelies of Lancastre and York, first published sometime before 1548. The
sermonA sermon is an oration by a prophet or member of the clergy. Sermons address a Biblical, theological, religious, or moral topic, usually expounding on a type of belief, law or behavior within both past and present contexts...
reflected procrastination's connection at the time to
task avoidanceTime management refers to a range of skills, tools, and techniques used to manage time when accomplishing specific tasks, projects and goals...
or delay, volition or will, and
sinSin is a term used mainly in a religious context to describe an act that violates a moral rule, or the state of having committed such a violation. Commonly, the moral code of conduct is decreed by a divine entity, i.e...
.
Psychological
The psychological causes of procrastination vary greatly, but generally surround issues of anxiety, low sense of self-worth, and a
self-defeating mentalitySelf-defeating personality disorder is a personality disorder that was never formally admitted into the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders . It was discussed in an appendix of the manual's revised third edition...
.
Procrastinators are also thought to have a lower-than-normal level of
conscientiousnessConscientiousness is the trait of being painstaking and careful, or the quality of acting according to the dictates of one's conscience. It includes such elements as self-discipline, carefulness, thoroughness, organization, deliberation , and need for achievement. It is an aspect of what has...
, more based on the "dreams and wishes" of perfection or achievement in contrast to a realistic appreciation of their obligations and potential.
Author
David AllenDavid Allen is a productivity consultant who is best known as the creator of the Getting Things Done time management method....
brings up two major psychological causes of procrastination at work and in life which are related to anxiety, not laziness. The first category comprises things too small to worry about, tasks that are an annoying interruption in the flow of things, and for which there are low-impact workarounds; an example might be organizing a messy room. The second category comprises things too big to control, tasks that a person might fear, or for which the implications might have a great impact on a person's life; an example might be the adult children of a deteriorating elderly parent deciding what living arrangement would be best or a student facing an important exam for their education.
A person might unconsciously overestimate or underestimate the scale of a task if procrastination has become a
habitHabits are routines of behavior that are repeated regularly, tend to occur subconsciously, without directly thinking consciously about them. Habitual behavior sometimes goes unnoticed in persons exhibiting them, because it is often unnecessary to engage in self-analysis when undertaking in routine...
.
From the behavioral psychology point of view, James Mazur has said that procrastination is a particular case of "impulsiveness" as opposed to self control. Mazur states that procrastination occurs because of a
temporal discountingTemporal discounting refers to the tendency of people to discount rewards as they approach a temporal horizon in the future or the past . To put it another way, it is a tendency to give greater value to rewards as they move away from their temporal horizons and towards the "now"...
of a
punisherIn operant conditioning, punishment is any change in a human or animal's surroundings that occurs after a given behavior or response which reduces the likelihood of that behavior occurring again in the future. As with reinforcement, it is the behavior, not the animal, that is punished...
, as it happens with the temporal discount for a
reinforcerIn operant conditioning, reinforcement occurs when an event following a response causes an increase in the probability of that response occurring in the future...
. Procrastination, then, as Mazur says, happens when a choice has to be made between a later larger task and a sooner small task; as the absolute value of the task gets discounted by the time, a subject tends to choose the later large task.
John Perry states that procrastination is "a way of not doing something more important," a detail which can be utilized by doing other difficult, timely and important tasks, something he was doing in writing this entry (and which, humorously, he cites his granddaughter as doing at the end, designing his website "while avoiding the weightier assignment of her literature test."
Physiological
Research on the physiological roots of procrastination mostly surrounds the role of the
prefrontal cortexThe prefrontal cortex is the anterior part of the frontal lobes of the brain, lying in front of the motor and premotor areas.This brain region has been implicated in planning complex cognitive behaviors, personality expression, decision making and moderating correct social behavior...
. This area of the brain is responsible for executive brain functions such as planning, impulse control, attention, and acts as a filter by decreasing distracting stimuli from other brain regions. Damage or low activation in this area can reduce an individual's ability to filter out distracting stimuli, ultimately resulting in poorer organization, a loss of attention and increased procrastination. This is similar to the prefrontal lobe's role in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), where underactivation is common.
Procrastination and mental health
Procrastination can be a persistent and debilitating disorder in some people, causing significant psychological disability and dysfunction. These individuals may actually be suffering from an underlying mental health problem such as
depressionMajor depressive disorder is a mental disorder characterized by an all-encompassing low mood accompanied by low self-esteem, and loss of interest or pleasure in normally enjoyable activities...
or ADHD.
While procrastination is a behavioral condition, these underlying mental health disorders can be treated with medication and/or therapy. Therapy can be a useful tool in helping an individual learn new behaviors, overcome fears and anxieties, and achieve an improved quality of life. Thus it is important for people who chronically struggle with debilitating procrastination to see a trained
therapistPsychotherapy or personal counseling with a psychotherapist, is an intentional interpersonal relationship used by trained psychotherapists to aid a client or patient in problems of living.It aims to increase the individual's sense of their own well-being...
or
psychiatristPsychiatry is a medical specialty officially devoted to the treatment and study of mental disorders. The term was first coined by the German physician Johann Christian Reil in 1808....
to see if an underlying mental health issue may be present.
People who exhibit procrastination and decreased impulse control appear to be prone to internet addiction.
Perfectionism
Traditionally, procrastination has been associated with
perfectionismPerfectionism, in psychology, is a belief that perfection can and should be attained. In its pathological form, perfectionism is a belief that work or output that is anything less than perfect is unacceptable...
, a tendency to negatively evaluate outcomes and one's own performance, intense fear and avoidance of evaluation of one's abilities by others, heightened social self-consciousness and anxiety, recurrent low mood, and
workaholismColloquially, a workaholic, is a person who is addicted to work .The phrase does not always imply that the person actually enjoys their work, but rather simply feels compelled to do it...
. Slaney (1996) found that adaptive perfectionists (when perfectionism is
egosyntonicEgosyntonic is a medical term referring to behaviors, values,feelings, which are in harmony with or acceptable to the needs andgoals of the ego, or consistent with one's ideal self-image. It is studied in detail in abnormal psychology. Many personality disorders are considered egosyntonic and are...
) were
less likely to procrastinate than non-perfectionists, while maladaptive perfectionists (people who saw their perfectionism as a problem; i.e., when perfectionism is
egodystonicEgodystonic is a psychological term referring to thoughts and behaviors that are in conflict, or dissonant, with the needs and goals of the ego, or further, in conflict with a person's ideal self-image....
) had high levels of procrastination (and also of anxiety).
Academic procrastination
While academic procrastination is not a special type of procrastination, procrastination is thought to be particularly prevalent in the academic setting, where students are required to meet deadlines for assignments and tests in an environment full of events and activities which compete for the students' time and attention. More specifically, a 1992 study showed that "52% of surveyed students indicated having a moderate to high need for help concerning procrastination". It is estimated that 80%-95% of college students engage in procrastination, approximately 75% consider themselves procrastinators.
One source of procrastination is underestimating the time required to analyse research. Many students devote weeks to gathering research for a term paper, but are unable to finish writing it because they have to review many contradictory opinions before they can offer their own perspective on the subject. Despite knowing how to consult resources, they struggle to perform their own analysis.
Student syndromeStudent syndrome refers to the phenomenon that many people will start to fully apply themselves to a task just at the last possible moment before a deadline. This leads to wasting any buffers built into individual task duration estimates....
refers to the phenomenon that many students will begin to fully apply themselves to a task only just before a deadline. This leads to wasting any buffers built into individual
taskIn common language, a task is part of a set of actions which accomplish a job, problem or assignment. Task is a synonym for activity although the latter carries a connotation of being possibly longer duration.-Tasks:...
durationDuration of a project's terminal element is the number of calendar periods it takes from the time the execution of element starts to the moment it is completed.Do not confuse duration with work. E.g...
estimates.
Students have also difficulties to self-impose deadlines
The principle is also addressed in
Agile Software DevelopmentAgile software development refers to a group of software development methodologies based on iterative development, where requirements and solutions evolve through collaboration between self-organizing cross-functional teams...
.
The relaxed type
The relaxed type of procrastinators view their responsibilities negatively and avoid them by directing energy into other tasks. It is common, for example, for relaxed type procrastinating children to abandon schoolwork but not their social lives. Students often see projects as a whole rather than breaking them into smaller parts. This type of procrastination is a form of denial or cover-up; therefore, typically no help is being sought. Furthermore, they are also unable to defer
gratificationGratification is the positive emotional reactionof happiness in response to a fulfillment of a desire. Maturity is often defined as the ability of deferred gratification , and progress as the real or imagined perception of movement towards gratification...
. The procrastinator avoids situations that would cause displeasure, indulging instead in more enjoyable activities. In
FreudianSigmund Freud , Sigismund Schlomo Freud , was an Austrian neurologist who founded the psychoanalytic school of psychology...
terms, such procrastinators refuse to renounce the
pleasure principleThe pleasure principle is a psychoanalytic concept, originated by Sigmund Freud. The pleasure principle states that people seek pleasure and avoid pain, i.e., people seek to satisfy biological and psychological needs...
, instead sacrificing the
reality principleThe reality principle is a psychoanalytic concept originated by Sigmund Freud that compels one to defer instant gratification when necessary because of the obstacles of reality...
. They may not appear to be worried about work and deadlines, but this is simply an evasion of the work that needs to be completed.
The tense-afraid type
The tense-afraid type of procrastinators usually feel overwhelmed with pressure, unrealistic about time, uncertain about goals, and many other negative feelings. They may feel a sense of malaise. Feeling that they lack the ability or focus to successfully complete their work, they tell themselves that they need to unwind and relax, that it's better to take it easy for the afternoon, for example, and start afresh in the morning. They usually have grandiose plans that aren't realistic. Their 'relaxing' is often temporary and ineffective, and leads to even more stress as time runs out, deadlines approach and the person feels increasingly guilty and apprehensive. This behavior becomes a cycle of failure and delay, as plans and goals are put off, penciled into the following day or week in the diary again and again. It can also have a debilitating effect on their personal lives and relationships. Since they are uncertain about their goals, they often feel awkward with people who appear confident and goal-oriented, which can lead to
depressionIn psychology and psychiatry, depression is a state of low mood and aversion to activity. While most often described as a disease or dysfunction, there are also strong arguments for seeing depression as an adaptive defense mechanism....
. Tense-afraid procrastinators often withdraw from social life, avoiding contact even with close friends.
The Six Styles
According to
It's About Time by Dr. Linda Sapadin there are six types of procrastination that a person can be solely or a combination of. The styles are The Perfectionist, The Crisis-Maker, The Dreamer, The Defier, The Worrier and The Overdoer. Each title is self explanatory though each has a unique way of overcoming each type.
Stigma and misunderstanding
Procrastinators often have great difficulty in seeking help, or finding an understanding source of support, due to the stigma and profound misunderstanding surrounding extreme forms of procrastination. One of the symptoms, known to psychologists as task-aversiveness, is often mischaracterised simply as laziness, a lack of willpower or loss of ambition.
See also
- African time
"Africa time" or African time is a colloquial term used to describe a perceived cultural tendency, in some parts of Africa, toward a more relaxed attitude to time. This is sometimes used in a negative sense, about tardiness in appointments, meetings and events...
- Analysis paralysis
Analysis paralysis is a phrase that describes a situation where the opportunity cost of decision analysis exceeds the benefits that could be gained by enacting some decision, or an informal or non-deterministic situation where the sheer quantity of analysis overwhelms the decision making process...
- Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder
Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder is a neurobehavioral developmental disorder. ADHD is primarily characterized by "the co-existence of attentional problems and hyperactivity, with each behavior occurring infrequently alone." While symptoms may appear to be innocent and merely annoying...
- Deferred gratification
Deferred gratification or delayed gratification is the ability to wait in order to obtain something that one wants. This skill goes by many names including impulse control, will power, and self control. In the formal terms of accounting an individual should calculate net present value of future...
- Getting Things Done
Getting Things Done is a method created by David Allen, and described in a book of the same name. Both "Getting Things Done" and "GTD" are registered trademarks of the David Allen Company....
- Parkinson's Law
Parkinson's Law is the adage first articulated by Cyril Northcote Parkinson as the first sentence of a humorous essay published in The Economist in 1955:...
- Temporal discounting
Temporal discounting refers to the tendency of people to discount rewards as they approach a temporal horizon in the future or the past . To put it another way, it is a tendency to give greater value to rewards as they move away from their temporal horizons and towards the "now"...
- Time management
Time management refers to a range of skills, tools, and techniques used to manage time when accomplishing specific tasks, projects and goals...
External links