Lycaenidae
Encyclopedia
The Lycaenidae are the second-largest family
of butterflies
, with about 6000 species worldwide, whose members are also called gossamer-winged butterflies. They constitute about 40% of the known butterfly species.
The family is traditionally divided into the subfamilies of the blues (Polyommatinae
), the coppers (Lycaeninae
), the hairstreaks (Theclinae
) and the harvesters (Miletinae
); others include the Lipteninae
, Liphyrinae
, Curetinae and Poritiinae
. A few authorities still include the family Riodinidae
within the Lycaenidae. The monotypic
former subfamily Styginae represented by Styx infernalis from the Peruvian Andes has been placed within the subfamily Euselasiinae of the family Riodinidae.
Adults are small, under 5 cm usually, and brightly coloured, sometimes with a metallic gloss. The male's forelegs are reduced in size and lack claws.
Larvae are often flattened rather than cylindrical, with glands that may produce secretions that attract and subdue ants. Their cuticles tend to be thickened. Some larva are capable of producing vibrations and low sounds that are transmitted through the substrates they inhabit. They use these sounds to communicate with ants.
Adult individuals often have hairy antenna-like tails complete with black and white annulated appearance. Many species also have a spot at the base of the tail and some turn around upon landing to confuse potential predators from recognizing the true head orientation. This causes predators to approach from the true head end resulting in early visual detection.
Lycaenids are diverse in their food habits and apart from phytophagy, some of them are entomophagous feeding on aphids, scale insects and ant larvae. Some Lycaenids even exploit their association with ants by inducing ants to feed them by regurgitation, a process called trophallaxis
. Not all Lycaenid butterflies need ants, but about 75% of species associate with ants. The term used to describe such ant association is myrmecophily
. These associations can be mutualistic, parasitic or predatory, depending on the species.
In some species, larvae are attended and protected by ants while feeding on the host plant, and the ants receive sugar-rich honeydew
from them, throughout the larval life. In other species, only the first few instars are spent on the plant, and the remainder of the larval lifespan is spent as a predator within the ant nest. It becomes a parasite, feeding on ant regurgitations, or a predator on the ant larvae. The caterpillars pupate inside the ant's nest and the ants continue to look after the pupa. Just before the adult emerges the wings of the butterfly inside the pupal case detach from it, and the pupa becomes silvery. The adult butterfly emerges from the pupa after 3–4 weeks, still inside the ant nest. The butterfly must crawl out of the ant nest before it can expand its wings.
Several evolutionary adaptations enable these associations and they include small glands on the skin of the caterpillars called pore cupola organs. Caterpillars of many species except those of the Riodininae
have a gland on the 7th abdominal segment that produces honey dew and is called the dorsal nectary gland (also called Newcomer's gland). An eversible organ called the tentacular organ is present on the 8th abdominal segment (third segment of thorax in the Riodininae) and this is cylindrical and topped with a ring of spikes and emits chemical signals which are believed to help in communicating with ants.
As many as 30% of world's threatened butterflies are lycaenid.
Many taxonomists include only the Lycaeninae, Poritiinae, Miletinae and Curetinae under the Lycaenidae.
The genus Chrysoritis
is included with Lycaenidae but has not been assigned to a subfamily.
Other classifications notably include the Riodininae
(e.g., Abisara echerius
).
Phylogeny of the family.
Family (biology)
In biological classification, family is* a taxonomic rank. Other well-known ranks are life, domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, genus, and species, with family fitting between order and genus. As for the other well-known ranks, there is the option of an immediately lower rank, indicated by the...
of butterflies
Butterfly
A butterfly is a mainly day-flying insect of the order Lepidoptera, which includes the butterflies and moths. Like other holometabolous insects, the butterfly's life cycle consists of four parts: egg, larva, pupa and adult. Most species are diurnal. Butterflies have large, often brightly coloured...
, with about 6000 species worldwide, whose members are also called gossamer-winged butterflies. They constitute about 40% of the known butterfly species.
The family is traditionally divided into the subfamilies of the blues (Polyommatinae
Polyommatinae
Polyommatinae, the blues, are a subfamily of gossamer-winged butterflies . It was long used to assign taxa of unclear relationships, and its contents are in need of revision...
), the coppers (Lycaeninae
Lycaeninae
Lycaeninae, the coppers, are a subfamily of the gossamer-winged butterflies .The relationships of the Lycaenidae are not fully resolved. Sometimes the Polyommatinae and Theclinae are included in the Lycaeninae; in particular the Theclinae tribe Eumaeini contains many similar taxa...
), the hairstreaks (Theclinae
Theclinae
Subfamily Theclinae is a group of butterflies, including the hairstreaks, elfins and allies, in the family Lycaenidae. There are many tropical species as well as a number found in the Americas. Tropical hairstreaks often have iridescent blue coloration above, caused by reflected light from the...
) and the harvesters (Miletinae
Miletinae
Miletinae is a subfamily of the Lycaenidae family of butterflies, commonly called Harvesters, and virtually unique among butterflies in having predatory larvae....
); others include the Lipteninae
Lipteninae
Lipteninae is a butterfly subfamily within the family Lycaenidae, whose members are also known as gossamer-winged butterflies....
, Liphyrinae
Liphyrinae
Liphyrinae is a butterfly subfamily within the family Lycaenidae, whose members are also known as gossamer-winged butterflies....
, Curetinae and Poritiinae
Poritiinae
Poritiinae is a subfamily of butterflies.- Systematics :* Tribe Poritiini** Cyaniriodes de Nicéville, 1890 ** Poriskina Druce, 1895** Poritia Moore, 1886** Simiskina Distant, 1886...
. A few authorities still include the family Riodinidae
Riodinidae
The Riodinidae are a family of butterflies. The common name "metalmarks" refers to the small metallic-looking spots commonly found on their wings. There are approximately 1,000 species of metalmark butterflies in the world...
within the Lycaenidae. The monotypic
Monotypic
In biology, a monotypic taxon is a taxonomic group with only one biological type. The term's usage differs slightly between botany and zoology. The term monotypic has a separate use in conservation biology, monotypic habitat, regarding species habitat conversion eliminating biodiversity and...
former subfamily Styginae represented by Styx infernalis from the Peruvian Andes has been placed within the subfamily Euselasiinae of the family Riodinidae.
Adults are small, under 5 cm usually, and brightly coloured, sometimes with a metallic gloss. The male's forelegs are reduced in size and lack claws.
Larvae are often flattened rather than cylindrical, with glands that may produce secretions that attract and subdue ants. Their cuticles tend to be thickened. Some larva are capable of producing vibrations and low sounds that are transmitted through the substrates they inhabit. They use these sounds to communicate with ants.
Adult individuals often have hairy antenna-like tails complete with black and white annulated appearance. Many species also have a spot at the base of the tail and some turn around upon landing to confuse potential predators from recognizing the true head orientation. This causes predators to approach from the true head end resulting in early visual detection.
Ecology
Trophallaxis
Trophallaxis is the transfer of food or other fluids among members of a community through mouth-to-mouth or anus-to-mouth feeding. It is most highly developed in social insects such as ants, termites, wasps and bees. The word was introduced by the entomologist William Morton Wheeler in 1918...
. Not all Lycaenid butterflies need ants, but about 75% of species associate with ants. The term used to describe such ant association is myrmecophily
Myrmecophily
Myrmecophily is the term applied to positive interspecies associations between ants and a variety of other organisms such as plants, arthropods, and fungi...
. These associations can be mutualistic, parasitic or predatory, depending on the species.
In some species, larvae are attended and protected by ants while feeding on the host plant, and the ants receive sugar-rich honeydew
Honeydew (secretion)
Honeydew is a sugar-rich sticky liquid, secreted by aphids and some scale insects as they feed on plant sap. When their mouthpart penetrates the phloem, the sugary, high-pressure liquid is forced out of the gut's terminal opening. Honeydew is particularly common as a secretion in the Hemipteran...
from them, throughout the larval life. In other species, only the first few instars are spent on the plant, and the remainder of the larval lifespan is spent as a predator within the ant nest. It becomes a parasite, feeding on ant regurgitations, or a predator on the ant larvae. The caterpillars pupate inside the ant's nest and the ants continue to look after the pupa. Just before the adult emerges the wings of the butterfly inside the pupal case detach from it, and the pupa becomes silvery. The adult butterfly emerges from the pupa after 3–4 weeks, still inside the ant nest. The butterfly must crawl out of the ant nest before it can expand its wings.
Several evolutionary adaptations enable these associations and they include small glands on the skin of the caterpillars called pore cupola organs. Caterpillars of many species except those of the Riodininae
Riodininae
The Riodininae are the larger by far of the subfamilies of the metalmark butterfly family, Riodinidae. The latter was long united with the Lycaenidae....
have a gland on the 7th abdominal segment that produces honey dew and is called the dorsal nectary gland (also called Newcomer's gland). An eversible organ called the tentacular organ is present on the 8th abdominal segment (third segment of thorax in the Riodininae) and this is cylindrical and topped with a ring of spikes and emits chemical signals which are believed to help in communicating with ants.
As many as 30% of world's threatened butterflies are lycaenid.
Subfamilies
The genus Chrysoritis
Chrysoritis
Chrysoritis, commonly called Opals or Coppers, is a genus of butterflies in the Lycaenidae family found mainly in southern Africa and particularly South Africa.-Species include:The chrysaor species-group:...
is included with Lycaenidae but has not been assigned to a subfamily.
Other classifications notably include the Riodininae
Riodininae
The Riodininae are the larger by far of the subfamilies of the metalmark butterfly family, Riodinidae. The latter was long united with the Lycaenidae....
(e.g., Abisara echerius
Abisara echerius
The Plum Judy is a small but striking butterfly found in Asia belonging to the Punches and Judies family. This active butterfly is usually seen at the tops of trees and amidst foliage....
).
Phylogeny of the family.
- LipteninaeLipteninaeLipteninae is a butterfly subfamily within the family Lycaenidae, whose members are also known as gossamer-winged butterflies....
(Afrotropical) - PoritiinaePoritiinaePoritiinae is a subfamily of butterflies.- Systematics :* Tribe Poritiini** Cyaniriodes de Nicéville, 1890 ** Poriskina Druce, 1895** Poritia Moore, 1886** Simiskina Distant, 1886...
(Oriental) - LiphyrinaeLiphyrinaeLiphyrinae is a butterfly subfamily within the family Lycaenidae, whose members are also known as gossamer-winged butterflies....
(mostly African, some Asian)- Liphyra brassolisLiphyra brassolisThe Moth Butterfly is a butterfly found in Asia and Australia that belongs to the lycaenid family. The larvae are predatory and feed on ant larvae. This is one of the largest species of Lycaenid butterfly. Several disjunct populations across its wide distribution range are considered as sub-species...
– Moth Butterfly (largest lycaenid)
- Liphyra brassolis
- MiletinaeMiletinaeMiletinae is a subfamily of the Lycaenidae family of butterflies, commonly called Harvesters, and virtually unique among butterflies in having predatory larvae....
– Harvesters (mostly African, or Oriental, some Holarctic). Probably all feed on aphids or their secretions. - Curetinae – Sunbeams (Oriental or Palaearctic)
- Curetis thetisCuretis thetisThe Indian Sunbeam, Curetis thetis is a species of lycaenid or blue butterfly found in Asia.-Distribution:The butterfly occurs in Peninsular India, south of the Himalayas, but not in the desert tracts or in areas with a scanty rainfall; parts of Assam; Saurashtra; Bengal, Sylhet onto Myanmar...
– Indian Sunbeam
- Curetis thetis
- TheclinaeTheclinaeSubfamily Theclinae is a group of butterflies, including the hairstreaks, elfins and allies, in the family Lycaenidae. There are many tropical species as well as a number found in the Americas. Tropical hairstreaks often have iridescent blue coloration above, caused by reflected light from the...
– Hairstreaks (usually tailed) and Elfins (not tailed) (global)- Satyrium pruni – Black Hairstreak
- Atlides halesus – Great Purple Hairstreak
- Eumaeus atalaEumaeus atalaThe Atala, Eumaeus atala, is a small colorful butterfly in the family Lycaenidae. It is found in southeastern Florida, the Bahamas, and Cuba. Its coloration and habits are unique among butterflies within its range....
– Atala
- LycaeninaeLycaeninaeLycaeninae, the coppers, are a subfamily of the gossamer-winged butterflies .The relationships of the Lycaenidae are not fully resolved. Sometimes the Polyommatinae and Theclinae are included in the Lycaeninae; in particular the Theclinae tribe Eumaeini contains many similar taxa...
– Coppers (Holarctic)- Lycaena boldenarum – Boulder Copper
- Lycaena feredayiLycaena feredayiThe Glade Copper is a butterfly of the Lycaenidae family. It is found in New Zealand.The wingspan is 25–32 mm. Adults are on wing from November to December and from February to the beginning of April....
– Glade Copper - Lycaena rauparaha – Rauparaha’s Copper
- Lycaena salustiusLycaena salustiusThe Common Copper is a butterfly of the Lycaenidae family. It is found in New Zealand.The wingspan is 24–35 mm. Adults are on wing from October to April.The larvae feed on Muehlenbeckia species.-External links:*...
– Common Copper - Lycaena dispar – Large Copper
- Lycaena phlaeas – Small Copper
- Talicada nyseusTalicada nyseusThe Red Pierrot is a small but striking butterfly found in South Asia and South-East Asia belonging to the Lycaenids or Blues family...
– Red Pierrot
- PolyommatinaePolyommatinaePolyommatinae, the blues, are a subfamily of gossamer-winged butterflies . It was long used to assign taxa of unclear relationships, and its contents are in need of revision...
– Blues (global)- Celastrina neglectaCelastrina neglectaThe Summer Azure is a butterfly of the Lycaenidae family. It is found in North America. Layberry, Hall and Lafontaine, in The Butterflies of Canada, describe the species:...
– Summer Azure - Celastrina ladonCelastrina ladonThe Spring Azure is a butterfly of the Lycaenidae family. It is found in North America from Alaska and Canada south of the tundra through most of the United States except the Texas coast, southern plain and peninsular Florida; south in the mountains to Colombia.Since the publication of a monograph...
– Spring Azure - Cupido comyntas – Eastern Tailed-blue
- Cupido minimus – Small Blue
- Euphilotes battoides allyni – El Segundo Blue
- Euphilotes pallescens arenamontana – Sand Mountain Blue
- Jameela palmyra
- Jameela albiplaga
- Polyommatus icarus – Common Blue
- Polyommatus semiargus – Mazarine Blue
- Glaucopsyche lygdamusGlaucopsyche lygdamusThe Silvery Blue is a small butterfly native to North America. Upperside is a light blue in males, a dull grayish blue in females. Underside is gray with single row of round spots of differing sizes depending upon region.G...
– Silvery Blue - Glaucopsyche lygdamus palosverdesensis – Palos Verdes Blue
- Glaucopsyche xerces (extinct) – Xerces Blue
- Plebejus argus – Silver-studded Blue
- Maculinea arion – Large Blue
- Icaricia icarioides fenderi – Fender's Blue
- Pseudozizeeria mahaPseudozizeeria maha.The Pale Grass Blue is a small butterfly found in Asia that belongs to the Lycaenids or Blues family.-Wet-season brood:Male. Upperside silvery light blue with a satiny sheen in certain lights...
– Pale Grass Blue
- Celastrina neglecta
External links
- Tree of Life
- BugGuide.net
- Family Lycaenidae at Lepidoptera.pro