Landscape architecture

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Landscape architecture is the most modern of the environment professions and represents a synthesis of arts, science and technical philosphies and practices that seek to care for the Earth's landscapes in a truly holistic, creative and sustainable manner. It involves the investigation and designed response to the landscape. The scope of the profession includes masterplanning, site planning

Site planning

Site planning in landscape architecture and architecture refers to the organizational stage of the landscape design process. It involves the organization of land use zoning, access, circulation, privacy, security, shelter, land drainage, and other factors....
, environmental

Natural environment

The natural environment, commonly referred to simply as the environment, is a term that encompasses all life and non-living things occurring nature on Earth or some region thereof....
restoration, town or urban planning

Urban planning

Urban, city, and town planning is the integration of the disciplines of land use planning and transport planning, to explore a very wide range of aspects of the built and social environments of urbanized municipalities and communities....
, urban design

Urban design

Urban design concerns the arrangement, appearance and functionality of towns and cities, and in particular the shaping and uses of urban public space....
, park

Park

A park is a Environmental protection, in its natural or semi-natural state or planted, and set aside for human recreation and enjoyment....
s and recreation planning; green infrastructure planning and provsion, all at varying scales of design, planning and management. A practitioner in the field of landscape architecture is called a landscape architect
Landscape architect

A landscape architect is a person involved in the planning, design and sometimes oversight of an exterior landscape or space. Their professional practice is known as landscape architecture....
.

History of landscape architecture

The history of landscape architecture is related to the history of gardening but is not coextensive. Both arts are concerned with the composition of planting, landform, water, paving and other structures but:

garden design is essentially concerned with enclosed private space such as parks,gardens etc.
landscape design is concerned with the design of enclosed space, as well as unenclosed space which is open to the public town squares,country parks,greenways etc.

The Romans undertook landscape architecture on an extensive scale,and Vitruvius wrote on many topics (eg the layout of towns) which still concern landscape architects. As with the other arts, it was not until the Renaissance, that garden design was revived, with outstanding examples including the pleasure grounds at the Villa d'Este,Tivoli,Italy. The renaissance garden developed through the 16th and 17th centuries,reaching an ultimate grandeur in the work of André le Nôtre at Vaux-le-Vicomte and Versailles.

In the 18th century,England became the focus of a new style of landscape design. Figures such as William Kent,Humphry Repton, and most famously Lancelot 'Capability' Brown remodelled the great estate parks of the English gentry to resemble a neat and tidy version of nature. Many of these parks remain today. The term 'landscape architecture' was first used by the Scotsman Gilbert Laing Meason in the title of his book on The Landscape Architecture of the Great Painters of Italy(London, 1828). It was about the type of architecture found in landscape paintings. The term "landscape architecture" was then taken up by JC Loudon and AJ Downing.

Through the 19th century, urban planning became more important, and it was the combination of modern planning with the tradition of landscape gardening that gave Landscape Architecture its unique focus. In the second half of the century,Frederick Law Olmsted completed a series of parks which continue to have a huge influence on the practices of Landscape Architecture today. Among these were Central Park in New York, Prospect Park in Brooklyn,and Boston's so called Emerald Necklace park system.

Landscape architecture continues to develop as a design discipline, and has responded to many of the movements of design and architecture through the 20th century. Today, a healthy level of innovation continues to provide challenging design solutions for streetscapes,parks and gardens. The work of Martha Schwartz in the US,and in Europe designs such as Schouwburgplein in Rotterdam by the Dutch design group (West 8) are just two examples.

Ian McHarg is considered an important influence on the modern Landscape Architecture profession and land planning in particular. With his book "Design with Nature", he popularized a system of analyzing the layers of a site in order to compile a complete understanding of the qualitative attributes of a place. This system became the foundation of today's Geographic Information Systems (GIS). McHarg would give every qualitative aspect of the site a layer, such as the history, hydrology, topography, vegetation, etc. GIS software is ubiquitously used in the landscape architecture profession today to analyze materials in and on the earth's surface and is similarly used by Urban Planners, Geographers, Forestry and Natural Resources professionals, etc.

Duties Landscape architecture is a multi-disciplinary field, which includes:Geography,Mathematics,Science,Engineering,Art, Horticulture,Technology,Social Sciences etc. The activities of a landscape architect can range from the creation of public parks and parkways to site planning for corporate office buildings, from the design of residential estates to the design of civil infrastructure and the management of large wilderness areas or reclamation of degraded landscapes such as mines or landfills. Landscape architects work on all types of structures and external space - large or small, urban

Urban area

An urban area is an area with an increased Population density of human-created structures in comparison to the areas surrounding it. Urban areas may be city, towns or conurbations, but the term is not commonly extended to rural settlements such as villages and hamlet ....
or rural, and with "hard"/"soft" materials, hydrology and ecological issues.

The breadth of the professional task that landscape architects collaborate on is very broad, but some examples of project types include:

The planning, form, scale and siting of new developments
Civil design and public infrastructure
Stormwater management including rain gardens,green roofs and treatment wetlands
Campus and site design for institutions
Parks,botanical gardens,arboretums,greenways, and nature preserves
Recreation facilities like golf,theme parks and sports facilities
Housing areas, industrial parks and commercial developments
Highway
Highway

A highway is a main road intended for travel by the public between important destinations, such as city and towns. Highway designs vary widely and can range from a two-lane road without margins to a multi-lane, grade separated freeway....
s, transportation structures, bridge
Bridge

A bridge is a structure built to span a gorge, valley, road, Rail tracks, river, body of water, or any other physical obstacle, for the purpose of providing passage over the obstacle....
s, and transit corridors
Urban design
Urban design

Urban design concerns the arrangement, appearance and functionality of towns and cities, and in particular the shaping and uses of urban public space....
, town and city squares, waterfronts, pedestrian schemes, and parking lots
Large or small urban regeneration
Urban renewal

File:Melbourne docklands urban renewal.jpgUrban renewal is a program of land re-development in areas of moderate to high density urban land use....
schemes
Forest, tourist or historic landscapes, and historic garden
Historic garden

Historic garden restoration is the professional task of restoring historic gardens to the character they had at a previous point in history. Since the use of old gardens is in flux, this normally involves a consideration of current and future use....
appraisal and conservation studies
Reservoirs, dam
Dam

A dam is a barrier that Reservoirs surface water or underground streams. Dams generally serve the primary purpose of retaining water, while other structures such as floodgates, levees, and Dike are used to manage or prevent water flow into specific land regions....
s, power station
Power station

A power station is an industrial facility for the Electricity generation of electric power.Power plant is also used to refer to the engine in ships, aircraft and other large vehicles....
s, reclamation of extractive industry applications or major industrial projects
Environmental assessment and landscape assessment
Landscape assessment

Landscape assessment is a sub-category of Environmental impact assessment concerned with quality assessment of the landscape. Landscape quality is assessed either as part of a strategic planning process or in connection with a specific development which will have an impact on the landscape....
, planning advice and land management proposals.
Coastal and offshore developments
Ecological Design
Ecological design

Ecological design was defined by Sim Van der Ryn and Stuart Cowan as "any form of design that minimizes environmentally destructive impacts by integrating itself with living processes."...
any form of design that minimizes environmentally destructive impacts by integrating itself with natural processes.

The most valuable contribution is often made at the earliest stage of a project in generating ideas and bringing flair and creativity to the use of space. The landscape architect can contribute to the overall concept and prepare an initial master plan, from which detailed designs can subsequently be prepared. He or she can also let and supervise contracts for construction work, prepare design impact assessments, conduct environmental assessments or audits and act as an expert witness at inquiries on land use. He or she can also support or prepare applications for capital or revenue funding grants.

For the period before 1800 (see section on History, below), the history of landscape architecture is largely that of master planning. The first person to write of "making" a landscape was Joseph Addison

Joseph Addison

??File:Joseph Addison.pngJoseph Addison was an English essayist and poet. He was a man of letters, eldest son of Lancelot Addison, and later the dean of Lichfield....
in 1712. The term "landscape gardener" was invented by William Shenstone

William Shenstone

William Shenstone was an England poet and one of the earliest practitioners of History of gardening#Landscape gardens through the development of his estate, The Leasowes....
in 1754 but the first professional designer to use this term was Humphry Repton

Humphry Repton

Humphry Repton , was the last great England Landscape architecture of the eighteenth century, often regarded as the successor to Capability Brown; he also sowed the seeds of the more intricate and eclectic styles of the nineteenth century....
in 1794. The term "landscape architecture" was invented by Gilbert Laing Meason

Gilbert Laing Meason

Gilbert Laing Meason was a Scottish gentry, best remembered as the originator of the term landscape architecture.Laing Meason lived on an estate called Lindertis, in Forfar, and was a friend of Sir Walter Scott....
in 1828 and was first used as a professional title by Frederick Law Olmsted

Frederick Law Olmsted

Frederick Law Olmsted was an United States journalist, landscape designer and father of American landscape architecture, famous for designing many well-known urban parks, including Central Park and Prospect Park in New York, New York....
in 1863. Lancelot Brown, (also known as "Capability" Brown), who remains one of the best known "landscape gardeners" actually called himself a "place maker". During the nineteenth century, the term "landscape gardener" became applied to people who build (and sometimes design) landscapes and the term "landscape architect" became reserved for people who design (and sometimes build) landscapes. This use of "landscape architect" became established after the American Society of Landscape Architects

American Society of Landscape Architects

The American Society of Landscape Architects is the national professional association representing landscape architecture, with more than 17,000 members and 48 chapters, representing all 50 American states, US territories, and 42 countries around the world....
was founded in 1899 and the International Federation of Landscape Architects

International Federation of Landscape Architects

The International Federation of Landscape Architects represents the landscape architecture profession globally, providing leadership and networks to support the development of the profession and its effective participation in the realization of attractive, equitable and sustainable environments....
(IFLA) in 1948.

Specializations

Landscape designers and Landscape technicians or engineers are employed with landscape construction and service companies or may be independent professionals. Landscape designers, like garden designer

Garden designer

The term garden designer can refer either to an amateur or a professional. Amateurs design their own gardens. Professionals design other people's gardens....
s, design all types of planting and green spaces - and are not registered. Many landscape engineers

Landscape engineering

"Landscaping" is the application of mathematics and science to create useful land- and waterscapes. It can also be described as green engineering, but the design professionals best known for landscape engineering are landscape architecture....
work in public offices in central and local government while others work for landscape architecture firms.

Landscape managers use their knowledge of plants and the natural environment to advise on the long-term care and development of the landscape. Landscape manager

Landscape manager

Landscape managers are professionally qualified experts in landscaping management for conservation and recreation. They work on designed landscapes and on natural landscapes ....
s work in horticulture

Horticulture

'Horticulture' is the industry and science of plant cultivation. Horticulturists work and conduct research in the disciplines of plant propagation and cultivation, Crop , plant breeding and genetic engineering, plant biochemistry, and plant physiology....
, estate management, forestry

Forestry

Forestry is the art and science of managing forests, tree plantations, and related natural resources. Silviculture, a related science, involves the growing and tending of trees and forests....
, nature conservation

Conservation ethic

Conservation is an ethic of resource use, allocation, and protection. Its primary focus is upon maintaining the health of the Natural environment: its forests, fishery, habitat , and biological diversity....
and agriculture

Agriculture

Agriculture refers to the production of food and goods through farming and forestry. Agriculture was the key development that led to the rise of civilization, with the animal husbandry of domestication animals and plants creating food surpluses that enabled the development of more Population density and Social stratification societies....
.

Landscape scientists have specialist skills such as soil science

Soil science

Soil science is the study of soil as a natural resource on the surface of the earth including pedogenesis, soil classification and mapping; physical, chemical, biological, and fertility properties of soils; and these properties in relation to the use and management of soils....
, hydrology

Hydrology

Hydrology is the study of the movement, distribution, and quality of water throughout the Earth, and thus addresses both the hydrologic cycle and water resources....
, geomorphology

Geomorphology

Geomorphology is the scientific study of landforms and the processes that shape them. Geomorphologists seek to understand why landscapes look the way they do: to understand landform history and dynamics, and predict future changes through a combination of field observation, physical experiment, and numerical mathematical model....
or botany

Botany

Botany, plant science, phytology, or plant biology is a branch of biology and is the Scientific method of plant life and development....
that they relate to the practical problems of landscape work. Their projects can range from site surveys to the ecological assessment of broad areas for planning or management purposes. They may also report on the impact of development or the importance of particular species

Species

In biology, a species is one of the basic units of biological classification and a taxonomic rank. A species is often defined as a group of organisms capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring....
in a given area.

Landscape planners are concerned with landscape planning

Planning

Planning in organizations and public policy is both the organizational process of creating and maintaining a plan; and the psychological process of thinking about the activities required to create a desired goal on some scale....
for the location, scenic, ecological and recreational aspects of urban, rural and coastal land use. Their work is embodied in written statements of policy and strategy, and their remit includes masterplanning for new developments, landscape evaluations and assessments, and preparing countryside management or policy plans. Some may also apply an additional specialism such as landscape archaeology or law to the process of landscape planning.

Garden designers are concerned with the design of small gardens and outdoor spaces and also with historic garden conservation

Historic garden conservation

Historic garden conservation is a specialised type of historic preservation concerned with gardens. Practitioners tend to come from backgrounds in horticulture, garden design or landscape architecture....
.

Green roof
Green roof

A green roof is a roof of a building that is partially or completely covered with vegetation and soil, or a growing medium, planted over a waterproofing membrane....
designers design extensive and intensive roof garden

Roof garden

A roof garden is any garden on the roof of a building.Humans have grown plants atop structures since ancient history. An early example is in the History of Arab Egypt city of Fustat, which had a number of high-rise buildings that Nasir Khusraw in the early 11th century described as rising up to 14 stories, with roof gardens on the top s...
s for storm water management, sustainable architecture

Sustainable architecture

Sustainable architecture, is a general term that describes environmentally-conscious design techniques in the field of architecture. Sustainable architecture is framed by the larger discussion of sustainability and the pressing economic and political issues of our world....
, aesthetics, and habitat creation.

Profession

In many countries, a professional institute

Institute

An institute is a permanent organizational body created for a certain purpose. Often it is a research organization created to do research on specific topics....
, comprised of members of the professional community, exists in order to protect the standing of the profession and promote its interests, and sometimes also regulate the practice of landscape architecture. The standard and strength of legal regulations governing HI landscape architecture practice varies from nation to nation, with some requiring licensure in order to practice; and some having little or no regulation.

United States

In the United States, Landscape Architecture is regulated by individual state governments, with only one state requiring no regulation at all (Vermont). For a landscape architect, obtaining licensure or membership of a professional institute requires advanced education and/or continuing training and work experience. Full membership or licensure often depends on the outcome of examination

Examination

To examine somebody or something is to inspect it closely; hence, an examination is a detailed inspection or analysis of an object or person....
s in professional practice matters, and/or an interview with senior members of the profession. In the U.S. licensing is overseen both at the state level, and nationally by the Council of Landscape Architectural Registation Boards (CLARB). Landscape architecture has been identified as an above-average growth profession by the US Bureau of Labor Statistics and was listed in US News and World Report's list of Best Jobs to Have in 2006. Landscape architects are considered professionals because they are often required to obtain specialized education and professional licensure.

Canada

In Canada, Landscape architecture is regulated by provincial or territorial components. These components are then governed by a national organization, the Canadian Society of Landscape Architects / L'Association des Architectes Paysagistes du Canada. Membership in the CSLA/AAPC is obtained through joining one of the provincial or territorial components. Two provinces, British Columbia and Ontario, require successful completion of the L.A.R.E (Landscape Architecture Registration Examination), a series of exams that aims to determine whether potential landscape architects have sufficient knowledge to practice the profession without endangering the public, in order to acquire full membership in the CSLA/AAPC. Quebec has an innovative mentor system in which experienced landscape architects mentor new intern members toward gaining full membership after at least two years of practice, of which six months should be under the direct supervision of the mentor.

Known as Canada's Premier Landscape Architect, Cornelia Hahn Oberlander, works on many significant sites, such as the Vancouver Public Library Central Branch including rooftop garden, the National Gallery, the NY Times Building, and the Law Courts at Robson Square in Vancouver. She was raised in connection with Rudolf Steiner

Rudolf Steiner

Rudolf Steiner was an Austrians philosopher, literary scholar, educator, architect, playwright, social thinker, and Esotericism. After gaining initial recognition as a literary critic and cultural philosopher, at the beginning of the twentieth century he founded a new spiritual movement, Anthroposophy, as an esoteric philosophy growing...
, and has crossed paths with John Todd (biologist)

John Todd (biologist)

Dr. John Todd is a Buckminster Fuller 2008 Challenge-winning biologist working in the field of ecology design. His ideas often involve applications that make use of alternative technology....
. Her work on the C.K Choi Building at UBC includes similar designs.

Australia

The Australian Institute of Landscape Architects (AILA) provides professional recognition for landscape architects. Once recognised, landscape architects use the title ‘Registered Landscape Architect’.

Across the eight states and territories within Australia, there is a mix of requirements for landscape architects to be ‘Registered’. Generally there is no clear legislative registration requirement in place. Any regulations or requirements are state based, not national.

The AILA’s system of professional recognition is a national system overseen by AILA’s National Office in Canberra.

Most agencies require AILA professional recognition or registration as part of the pre-requisite for contracts. Landscape architects within Australia find that many contracts and competitions require the AILA recognition or ‘registration’ as the basis of demonstrating a professional status.

To apply for AILA Registration, an applicant usually needs to satisfy the following pre-requisites:

A university qualification from an AILA accredited program.
At least two years of practice.
A record of Continuing Professional Practice (CPD).

The application is in two stages:

First Stage: A minimum 6 months (12 months preferred) period of mentoring and assessment.
Second Stage: Oral assessment/interview.

Professional recognition includes a commitment to continue professional development. AILA Registered Landscape Architects are required to report annually on their Continuing Professional Development.

The AILA has in place processes to recognise equivalent qualifications and experience, which when combined with a number of years of recognised practice as a landscape architect, may provide the basis of recognition as a Registered Landscape Architect.

Republic of Ireland

The profession is now firmly established in the Republic, though its penetration into the public sector is problematic and under-represented. The recent economic boom saw a flourishing and expansion of private practices.

The profession has gained a standing and status, outweighing its relatively small numbers in Ireland; and is closely involved in multi-disciplinary endeavours and initiatives with allied built environment and natural heritage professionals, including architects, civil engineers, spatial planners, ecologists and chartered surveyors.

United Kingdom

The UK’s professional body is the Landscape Institute

Landscape Institute

The Landscape Institute is the United Kingdom professional body for landscape architecture. The LI was founded in 1929 as the Institute of Landscape Architects , and was granted a Royal Charter in 1997....
. They are a royal charter

Royal Charter

A royal charter is a charter granted by a Monarch to create institutions or other forms of incorporated bodies . In the United Kingdom legal tradition a royal charter is in the form of letters patent....
ed body who accredit Landscape professionals and university courses. At present there are fifteen accredited schools in the UK. Membership of the LI is available to students, academics and professionals Landscape Architects.

The Institute provides services to assist members including support and promotion of the work of landscape architects; information and guidance to the public and industry about the specific expertise offered by those in the profession; and training and educational advice to students and professionals looking to build upon their experience.

In 2008 the LI launched a major recruitment drive entitled I want to be a Landscape Architect to encourage the study of Landscape Architecture. The campaign aims to raise the profile of landscape architecture and highlight its valuable role in building sustainable communities and fighting climate change

Climate change

Climate change is any long-term significant change in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region over an appropriately significant period of time....
.

Italy

AIAPP (Italian Association of Landscape Architecture)is the Italian association of professional landscape architects formed in 1950 and is a member of EFLA and IFLA. AIAPP is in the process of contesting this new law which has given the Architects’ Association the new title of Architects, Landscape Architects, Planners and Conservationists whether or not they have had any training or experience in any of these fields other than Architecture. At the same time the Existence of AIAPP has been totally ignored in spite of its international recognition In Italy there are several different professions involved in landscape architecture :

Architetti (Architects)
Paesaggisti (Landscape designs)
Dottori Agronomi Paesaggisti e Dottori Forestali Paesaggisti (Doctor landscape agronomists and Doctor landscape foresters)
Periti Agrari e Periti Agrari Laureati (Agrarian Experts and Graduated Agrarian experts)

Landscape architecture

History of landscape architecture

Specializations

Profession

United States

Canada

Australia

Republic of Ireland

United Kingdom

Italy

See also