Indigenous psychology
Encyclopedia
Indigenous psychology is defined by Kim and Berry (1993) as "the scientific study of human behavior or mind that is native, that is not transported from other regions, and that is designed for its people.” Indigenous psychology generally advocates examining knowledge
, skill
s and belief
s people have about themselves and studying them in their natural contexts. Theories, concepts and methods are developed to correspond with psychological phenomena. Indigenous psychology explicitly advocates for incorporating both the content and the context of research. Indigenous psychology is considered necessary since existing psychological theories are not necessarily universal, and may often represent the psychology and cultural traditions of Europe and North America.
Political and Economic instability has greatly hindered the development of psychology as a science in Latin America, South Africa, and Indian-Asian Psychology. This problem is a phenomenon that is present across the majority of non-northwestern indigenous psychologies, creating unstable societies. (Lawson, Graham, & Baker, 2007, p. 436).
Lack of national capital creates a shortage in influential professional fields like psychology and propagates the science of the leading countries. Nations such as the United States, that flourish economically, affect the poorer and less flourishing countries, and in doing so interject their western ideologies the indigenous nations with whom they trade. (Allwood and Berry 2006, p.248) note six sources of influence on the development of global indigenous psychologies:
Each individual indigenous culture maintains their own emic explanations for, and solutions to, their own psychological and behavioral issues. Western psychology needs to shift over and learn to understand the indigenous cultures in their own setting, as Allwood and Berry state, “…the science has a dual responsibility: to understand people in their own terms (IP), and to search for general principles of human behavior. The development of an IP is valuable in its own right, but they may also collectively serve as building blocks in creating a more general psychology.” (Allwood, 2006, p.265)
In South Africa, specifically, apartheid was a major downfall for their psychology. This period in time intentionally neglected and isolated the field of psychology. “…in 1948 the Afrikaner National Party gained power and created the system of apartheid to maintain control over the country’s social, economic, and political system” (Lawson, Graham, & Baker, 2007, p. 438).
In the India-Asian psychology, there are three strands of psychology which are defined by Rao (1988) “…to be general psychology…that has universal relevance and application…country and region-specific psychology…the study of geographically bound persons…and native based weltanschauung psychology…driven by the understanding of geographically bound persons yet…highly theoretical or philosophical component” (Lawson, Graham, & Baker, 2007, p. 441).
In order for these different countries to better focus their psychological stand points different programs need to instituted and more persons need to become involved in becoming psychologists. “The current and future states of… indigenous psychologies, require the sustained growth of their scientific research base at the same pace as their applied professional interventions” (Lawson, Graham, & Baker, 2007, p. 441).
Indigenous psychologies can be alike when they include two different categories of psychological knowledge, explicitly, scientific and applied knowledge reflected in scientific and professional psychology. Each indigenous psychology prioritizes the two in a distinctive way. Trends do exist between more industrialized nations such as the United States. Challenges arise when trying to achieve a successful applied psychology in a culture. One challenge is finding adequate resources. Another challenge is shaping the practice of psychology to suit the circumstances a new culture. It is important to be able to understand the difference between indigenous psychologies and psychological specialties. Psychological specialties include such topics of study lifespan developmental psychology, health psychology, organizational psychology, and social psychology. Indigenous psychologies are culturally specific, and aim to describe, explain, or predict psychological phenomena from within a given culture's worldview.
Indigenous Psychology, as defined by Heelas and Lock (1981), consists of the cultural views, theories, classifications and assumptions coupled with the overarching social institutions that influence psychological topics in each respective culture. (Lawson, Graham, Baker, 2007 p. 435) While indigenous psychologies have existed for a long time, only recently have they been studied in the context of global psychology.
While international psychology influences indigenous psychology, it is within each indigenous psychology that the unique histories, social mores, needs and practicalities of a certain culture can be addressed. For example, many Indian psychologists with Western training have incorporated their instruction to include aspects of Indian culture that aren’t necessarily relevant to Western psychology. They have learned to place more emphasis on extended family and community which is more suited to the societal norms of Indian culture than Western culture. (Lawson, Graham, Baker, 2007 p.440)
Western European and American psychologies have historically had the resources to advance psychology both in the applied fields and scientifically. This has not been the case for many indigenous psychologies. For example in India, where the population is well over one billion, as of 2005 there were only seventy universities teaching psychology. The lack of trained professionals and the demands of an impoverished population have left psychologists in India struggling to meet the needs of its citizens. This has often taken priority over scientific advancement.
Indigenous psychology is useful for studying the impact of political, economic, religious, and social aspects on a specific society. South Africa for example, has been in political and racial turmoil for decades if not centuries, enduring violence and apartheid. Development of indigenous psychology as a focus can limit influence of western concepts and encourage cultivation of socially appropriate methods for the area. According to Lawson, Graham, and Baker (2007), South African psychology should address specific issues related to apartheid such as violence, poverty, racism, and HIV/AIDS to overcome social unrest. Other issues that should also be addressed include addressing the lingering individual trauma associated with apartheid and using a more inclusionary theory versus the exclusionary policies of past psychologies (p.439).
It is important to understand the importance of globalization when exploring indigenous psychologies. In article from the Monitor (May 2006), the APA Senior Director of International Affairs, Merry Bullock discusses globalization of psychology. The article defines globalization as the movement of people and knowledge across boarders in the attempt to establish common goals and to develop a homogenized world view of psychology (p.9). According to Lawson, Graham, and Baker (2007); “The challenge facing global psychology is trying to find a way to integrate psychology with culture for a more complete understanding of the Human affective, behavioral and cognitive systems” (p.434).
Globalization is also linked to indigenous psychology. In the globalization of psychology there is the hope that Western psychological ideals can be integrated with indigenous psychologies in order to address specific needs of particular countries and/or cultures. Bullock of the APA addresses the opportunities of incorporating Western psychological ideals with ingenious psychologies when she writes:
“Globalization offers a tremendous opportunity for psychology to enrich its content, methods and scope. Like all opportunities, however, this must be nurtured, and it must be addressed by open discussion about how to do it. Although we might all agree that it is important to keep an inquiring mind, to share and learn as well as to inform and teach, we also know that our cognitive and social systems make this difficult to implement. To do so, we need strategic and open discussion about assumptions and biases, and we need collaborative interaction to seek a common set of psychological principles” (p.9).
The future of psychology is expanding world-wide contributing to the formation of psychologies tailored to fit each culture around the world yet linked to an evolving global psychology.” (Lawson, Graham and, Baker p.435) Understanding indigenous psychologies and finding a way to incorporate them into already established psychological knowledge will positively change the field of psychology.
Related to indigenous psychology is a field called critical psychology
. This branch of psychology investigates how and why psychology focuses on the individual and disregards power differentials, social, and racial impacts on psychopathology. This branch may be applicable specifically in South Africa due to the apartheid. Authors Painter and Terre Blanche (2004) analyze critical psychology and compare it to what they call mainstream psychology. They describe steps being taken to apply social, political, economical, and racial influences to the field in South Africa and a concern for psychology in South Africa mirroring psychology in the UK and US which would be counter-productive. The advocacy of using social influences in South African society by Painter and Terre Blanche supports the effort to apply indigenous psychology in the area. Further application of indigenous psychology or similar methods will contribute to the field of global psychology.
Indigenous psychologies practice applied psychology over research psychology. They often lack financial support and resources for research psychology. They end to focus on the application of psychological knowledge to overcome challenges facing their country such as strengthening education, employment, health, population control, ethnic and religious conflicts rather than allocating limited resources to expand research psychology. With indigenous psychologies they have evolved more as a profession than a science.
Instability of a country greatly hinders the development of psychology.Indigenous psychologies may be influenced by western psychology but develop it to better fit their culture.
“Fortunately, recent developments in social issues such as population control, economic development, community psychology (Freire, 1970), national psychology (Diaz-Guerrero, 1984) and child development (Recagno 1982). Applied interventions will ultimately be enhanced from these and other lines of research, providing a more systematic method for addressing the affective, behavioral and cognitive psychological systems of member of a particular culture.” (Baker, Graham, Lawson and Robert 2007) In the areas that are often looked upon as being problematic for individuals and the Latin American societies, there has been progress in research. It does help some, for American psychologists to continue these studies in America as well. The demographics may be different, however many cultural aspects continue to affect the Latin American population in America today. Those issues are in need of elaboration.
Latin America has come a long way when it comes to indigenous psychologies because they basically had to jump through loopholes when they faced democracy. They have experienced people who worked in the field that were killed because of what they were studying, which is psychology. Along with the hardship of losing their teachers they didn’t have funding when they needed it to expand. By working together, people of Latin America can make it happen by sticking together and get this field of study back up on its feet again (pg 436-437).
Indian-Asian psychology, like South African and Latin American psychology, suffers “from a lack of resources
stemming from the political and economic instability of both [India and Asia]” (Lawson, 2007, p. 438). Though it is true that Indian ad Asian (especially Chinese) psychologies were initially very influenced by European and American psychology, local “social, religious, and philosophical pressures and beliefs” have since affected the psychology of the region in huge ways (Lawson, 2007, p. 439).
Formal institutions both cultivated and oppressed psychology in the India-Asia region (Lawson, 2007, p. 439). Turbulent and shaky are good words to describe the political atmosphere that these regions endured, which of course was reflected in the field of psychology. The “lack of intellectual infrastructure as a result of scarce financial resources” (Lawson, 2007, p. 439) was most certainly felt by specific areas, which in turn led to “impoverished sociocultural context and centralized government control of resources” (Lawson, 2007, p. 440).
What can be said for psychology in the region is persistence. Even though there are twenty four native languages (each one having various dialects), and even though psychology has only been in the formal academic setting since the early twentieth century when Western psychology entered Calcutta, forward progress has none the less been made. Although the “region has neither an accreditation nor licensing system for psychology programs and practicing psychologist” (Lawson, 2007, p. 440), there are positive shifts occurring.
This shift can be seen in the relationship between applied psychology and research psychology. Thankfully, the shift from strictly applied professional psychology to scientific research psychology has begun to gain force (Lawson, 2007, p. 439). It is also important to recognize the shift that has taken place between Western psychology and Indian-Asian psychology. Currently many with “formal Western training have molded their instruction to better fit their culture, thereby integrating cultural and traditional components into their practices” (Lawson, 2007, p. 440). Out of this, three different strand of psychology have developed that are specific to this particular region. They are general psychology, country- and region-specific psychology, and native-based weltanschauung psychology (Lawson, 2007, p. 441).
Indian-Asian people have had very strong ties to their culture and what is going on in their countries. They tend to look at how they have been doing things for many centuries and using it in all the different types of studies. Psychology is no different because they still look to their friends and family for input and advice on what needs to happen. They are very strong in their countries (pg 440).
South African psychology during the apartheid period was dominated by political influences, such as selective economic sanctions, segregation, and people being exiled from their native land; the influences of the apartheid period resulted in a grossly underdeveloped psychological field at the time of the fall of the apartheid (Lawson, Graham, & Baker, 2007, p.438). With approximately 5,000 psychologists for a population of over forty-three million people, practicing clinical psychologists greatly outnumber research psychologists, leaving few South African psychologists capable of crafting broad-scale psychological interventions (2007, p. 438). Today, vast efforts are being made to extend South African psychology beyond its borders, which is mostly due to the apartheid no longer isolating the field form international scholarship (2007, p.438).
The first steps for South African psychology in the aftermath of apartheid were to take a more collectivist orientation, indigenous focus, rigorous scholarship, and international exchange (Lawson, Graham, & Baker, 2007, p. 438). South African psychologists face the dilemma of keeping international influence and indigenous psychology in balance with South African perspectives; South Africa is in desperate need of psychologists that are willing and able to assist in overcoming the aftermath of apartheid, especially with issues such as violence, poverty, racism, and HIV/AIDS (2007, p. 439).
While the resources available to South African psychologists are limited due to past apartheid constraints, measures are being taken to expand the number of psychologists trained to be basic researchers and field clinical psychologists (Lawson, Graham, & Baker, 2007, p. 439). Psychologists in South Africa race to respond to the social pressures and constraints placed on the field in the apartheid aftermath and there are now multiple efforts underway to develop South African psychology as both a profession and a science (2007, p. 439).
In South Africa, they had some tough times. They had to bring in their own as president and he has been working hard to get his country back on its feet after the apartheid. There were lots of racial issues that needed to be resolved and also the improving the people’s trains of thought. Psychology is one of their answers and they are working to get it going even it has taken a while (pg 438).
Knowledge
Knowledge is a familiarity with someone or something unknown, which can include information, facts, descriptions, or skills acquired through experience or education. It can refer to the theoretical or practical understanding of a subject...
, skill
Skill
A skill is the learned capacity to carry out pre-determined results often with the minimum outlay of time, energy, or both. Skills can often be divided into domain-general and domain-specific skills...
s and belief
Belief
Belief is the psychological state in which an individual holds a proposition or premise to be true.-Belief, knowledge and epistemology:The terms belief and knowledge are used differently in philosophy....
s people have about themselves and studying them in their natural contexts. Theories, concepts and methods are developed to correspond with psychological phenomena. Indigenous psychology explicitly advocates for incorporating both the content and the context of research. Indigenous psychology is considered necessary since existing psychological theories are not necessarily universal, and may often represent the psychology and cultural traditions of Europe and North America.
The indigenous psychology movement
Kim, Yang and Hwang (2006) identified 10 characteristics of indigenous psychology.- It emphasizes examining psychological phenomena in ecological, historical and cultural context.
- Indigenous psychology needs to be developed for all cultural, native and ethnic groups.
- It advocates use of multiple methods.
- It advocates the integration of "insiders, "outsiders” and multiple perspectives to obtain comprehensive and integrated understanding.
- It acknowledges that people have a complex and sophisticated understanding of themselves and it is necessary to translate their practical and episodic understanding into analytical knowledge.
- It is part of a scientific tradition that advocates multiple perspectives, but not multiple psychologies or absolute relativism.
- Although descriptive analysis is the starting point of research, its final goal is to discover psychological universals that can be theoretically and empirically verifiedFormal verificationIn the context of hardware and software systems, formal verification is the act of proving or disproving the correctness of intended algorithms underlying a system with respect to a certain formal specification or property, using formal methods of mathematics .- Usage :Formal verification can be...
. - It is a part of the cultural sciences tradition in which human agency, meaning and context are incorporated into the research design.
- It advocates a linkage of humanitiesHumanitiesThe humanities are academic disciplines that study the human condition, using methods that are primarily analytical, critical, or speculative, as distinguished from the mainly empirical approaches of the natural sciences....
(which focus on human experience and creativity) with social sciencesSocial sciencesSocial science is the field of study concerned with society. "Social science" is commonly used as an umbrella term to refer to a plurality of fields outside of the natural sciences usually exclusive of the administrative or managerial sciences...
(which focus empirical analysis and verification). - Two starting points of research in indigenous psychology can be identified: indigenization from without and indigenization from within.
Political and Economic instability has greatly hindered the development of psychology as a science in Latin America, South Africa, and Indian-Asian Psychology. This problem is a phenomenon that is present across the majority of non-northwestern indigenous psychologies, creating unstable societies. (Lawson, Graham, & Baker, 2007, p. 436).
Lack of national capital creates a shortage in influential professional fields like psychology and propagates the science of the leading countries. Nations such as the United States, that flourish economically, affect the poorer and less flourishing countries, and in doing so interject their western ideologies the indigenous nations with whom they trade. (Allwood and Berry 2006, p.248) note six sources of influence on the development of global indigenous psychologies:
- changes in developing countries in the 1970s stimulated endogenousEndogenousEndogenous substances are those that originate from within an organism, tissue, or cell. Endogenous retroviruses are caused by ancient infections of germ cells in humans, mammals and other vertebrates...
and indigenous rethinking about their social and economic conditions by social and behavioral scientists; - their dissatisfaction with what they had learned from Western disciplines for solving problems of their homelands;
- their growing dissatisfaction with the unquestioned, imitative, and explicative nature of psychological research that is deeply rooted in Western psychology;
- self-reflection on their own social and cultural characteristics that were beyond Western psychological construction;
- the awareness by some Western psychologists that the nature of psychology was ‘monocultural,’ ‘Euro-American,’ and ‘indigenous psychology of the West’; and
- the parochial and insular stands of Western psychology, which disregarded the interests and research done in other countries and languages.
Each individual indigenous culture maintains their own emic explanations for, and solutions to, their own psychological and behavioral issues. Western psychology needs to shift over and learn to understand the indigenous cultures in their own setting, as Allwood and Berry state, “…the science has a dual responsibility: to understand people in their own terms (IP), and to search for general principles of human behavior. The development of an IP is valuable in its own right, but they may also collectively serve as building blocks in creating a more general psychology.” (Allwood, 2006, p.265)
In South Africa, specifically, apartheid was a major downfall for their psychology. This period in time intentionally neglected and isolated the field of psychology. “…in 1948 the Afrikaner National Party gained power and created the system of apartheid to maintain control over the country’s social, economic, and political system” (Lawson, Graham, & Baker, 2007, p. 438).
In the India-Asian psychology, there are three strands of psychology which are defined by Rao (1988) “…to be general psychology…that has universal relevance and application…country and region-specific psychology…the study of geographically bound persons…and native based weltanschauung psychology…driven by the understanding of geographically bound persons yet…highly theoretical or philosophical component” (Lawson, Graham, & Baker, 2007, p. 441).
In order for these different countries to better focus their psychological stand points different programs need to instituted and more persons need to become involved in becoming psychologists. “The current and future states of… indigenous psychologies, require the sustained growth of their scientific research base at the same pace as their applied professional interventions” (Lawson, Graham, & Baker, 2007, p. 441).
Indigenous psychologies can be alike when they include two different categories of psychological knowledge, explicitly, scientific and applied knowledge reflected in scientific and professional psychology. Each indigenous psychology prioritizes the two in a distinctive way. Trends do exist between more industrialized nations such as the United States. Challenges arise when trying to achieve a successful applied psychology in a culture. One challenge is finding adequate resources. Another challenge is shaping the practice of psychology to suit the circumstances a new culture. It is important to be able to understand the difference between indigenous psychologies and psychological specialties. Psychological specialties include such topics of study lifespan developmental psychology, health psychology, organizational psychology, and social psychology. Indigenous psychologies are culturally specific, and aim to describe, explain, or predict psychological phenomena from within a given culture's worldview.
Indigenous Psychology, as defined by Heelas and Lock (1981), consists of the cultural views, theories, classifications and assumptions coupled with the overarching social institutions that influence psychological topics in each respective culture. (Lawson, Graham, Baker, 2007 p. 435) While indigenous psychologies have existed for a long time, only recently have they been studied in the context of global psychology.
While international psychology influences indigenous psychology, it is within each indigenous psychology that the unique histories, social mores, needs and practicalities of a certain culture can be addressed. For example, many Indian psychologists with Western training have incorporated their instruction to include aspects of Indian culture that aren’t necessarily relevant to Western psychology. They have learned to place more emphasis on extended family and community which is more suited to the societal norms of Indian culture than Western culture. (Lawson, Graham, Baker, 2007 p.440)
Western European and American psychologies have historically had the resources to advance psychology both in the applied fields and scientifically. This has not been the case for many indigenous psychologies. For example in India, where the population is well over one billion, as of 2005 there were only seventy universities teaching psychology. The lack of trained professionals and the demands of an impoverished population have left psychologists in India struggling to meet the needs of its citizens. This has often taken priority over scientific advancement.
Indigenous psychology is useful for studying the impact of political, economic, religious, and social aspects on a specific society. South Africa for example, has been in political and racial turmoil for decades if not centuries, enduring violence and apartheid. Development of indigenous psychology as a focus can limit influence of western concepts and encourage cultivation of socially appropriate methods for the area. According to Lawson, Graham, and Baker (2007), South African psychology should address specific issues related to apartheid such as violence, poverty, racism, and HIV/AIDS to overcome social unrest. Other issues that should also be addressed include addressing the lingering individual trauma associated with apartheid and using a more inclusionary theory versus the exclusionary policies of past psychologies (p.439).
It is important to understand the importance of globalization when exploring indigenous psychologies. In article from the Monitor (May 2006), the APA Senior Director of International Affairs, Merry Bullock discusses globalization of psychology. The article defines globalization as the movement of people and knowledge across boarders in the attempt to establish common goals and to develop a homogenized world view of psychology (p.9). According to Lawson, Graham, and Baker (2007); “The challenge facing global psychology is trying to find a way to integrate psychology with culture for a more complete understanding of the Human affective, behavioral and cognitive systems” (p.434).
Globalization is also linked to indigenous psychology. In the globalization of psychology there is the hope that Western psychological ideals can be integrated with indigenous psychologies in order to address specific needs of particular countries and/or cultures. Bullock of the APA addresses the opportunities of incorporating Western psychological ideals with ingenious psychologies when she writes:
“Globalization offers a tremendous opportunity for psychology to enrich its content, methods and scope. Like all opportunities, however, this must be nurtured, and it must be addressed by open discussion about how to do it. Although we might all agree that it is important to keep an inquiring mind, to share and learn as well as to inform and teach, we also know that our cognitive and social systems make this difficult to implement. To do so, we need strategic and open discussion about assumptions and biases, and we need collaborative interaction to seek a common set of psychological principles” (p.9).
The future of psychology is expanding world-wide contributing to the formation of psychologies tailored to fit each culture around the world yet linked to an evolving global psychology.” (Lawson, Graham and, Baker p.435) Understanding indigenous psychologies and finding a way to incorporate them into already established psychological knowledge will positively change the field of psychology.
Related to indigenous psychology is a field called critical psychology
Critical psychology
Critical psychology is an approach to psychology that takes a critical theory–based perspective. Critical psychology is aimed at critiquing mainstream psychology and attempts to apply psychology in more progressive ways, often looking towards social change as a means of preventing and treating...
. This branch of psychology investigates how and why psychology focuses on the individual and disregards power differentials, social, and racial impacts on psychopathology. This branch may be applicable specifically in South Africa due to the apartheid. Authors Painter and Terre Blanche (2004) analyze critical psychology and compare it to what they call mainstream psychology. They describe steps being taken to apply social, political, economical, and racial influences to the field in South Africa and a concern for psychology in South Africa mirroring psychology in the UK and US which would be counter-productive. The advocacy of using social influences in South African society by Painter and Terre Blanche supports the effort to apply indigenous psychology in the area. Further application of indigenous psychology or similar methods will contribute to the field of global psychology.
Indigenous psychologies
Three things are in common with indigenous societies including a shortage of resources, professional vs. scientific priority of psychology and the challenge of integrating psychology with culture.Indigenous psychologies practice applied psychology over research psychology. They often lack financial support and resources for research psychology. They end to focus on the application of psychological knowledge to overcome challenges facing their country such as strengthening education, employment, health, population control, ethnic and religious conflicts rather than allocating limited resources to expand research psychology. With indigenous psychologies they have evolved more as a profession than a science.
Instability of a country greatly hinders the development of psychology.Indigenous psychologies may be influenced by western psychology but develop it to better fit their culture.
Latin America
The Latin American Community has been attempting to rectify their current status, even if it has been a challenge for the professionals in the field of Psychology in Latin America.“Fortunately, recent developments in social issues such as population control, economic development, community psychology (Freire, 1970), national psychology (Diaz-Guerrero, 1984) and child development (Recagno 1982). Applied interventions will ultimately be enhanced from these and other lines of research, providing a more systematic method for addressing the affective, behavioral and cognitive psychological systems of member of a particular culture.” (Baker, Graham, Lawson and Robert 2007) In the areas that are often looked upon as being problematic for individuals and the Latin American societies, there has been progress in research. It does help some, for American psychologists to continue these studies in America as well. The demographics may be different, however many cultural aspects continue to affect the Latin American population in America today. Those issues are in need of elaboration.
Latin America has come a long way when it comes to indigenous psychologies because they basically had to jump through loopholes when they faced democracy. They have experienced people who worked in the field that were killed because of what they were studying, which is psychology. Along with the hardship of losing their teachers they didn’t have funding when they needed it to expand. By working together, people of Latin America can make it happen by sticking together and get this field of study back up on its feet again (pg 436-437).
Indian-Asian Psychology
Indian-Asian psychology, like South African and Latin American psychology, suffers “from a lack of resources
stemming from the political and economic instability of both [India and Asia]” (Lawson, 2007, p. 438). Though it is true that Indian ad Asian (especially Chinese) psychologies were initially very influenced by European and American psychology, local “social, religious, and philosophical pressures and beliefs” have since affected the psychology of the region in huge ways (Lawson, 2007, p. 439).
Formal institutions both cultivated and oppressed psychology in the India-Asia region (Lawson, 2007, p. 439). Turbulent and shaky are good words to describe the political atmosphere that these regions endured, which of course was reflected in the field of psychology. The “lack of intellectual infrastructure as a result of scarce financial resources” (Lawson, 2007, p. 439) was most certainly felt by specific areas, which in turn led to “impoverished sociocultural context and centralized government control of resources” (Lawson, 2007, p. 440).
What can be said for psychology in the region is persistence. Even though there are twenty four native languages (each one having various dialects), and even though psychology has only been in the formal academic setting since the early twentieth century when Western psychology entered Calcutta, forward progress has none the less been made. Although the “region has neither an accreditation nor licensing system for psychology programs and practicing psychologist” (Lawson, 2007, p. 440), there are positive shifts occurring.
This shift can be seen in the relationship between applied psychology and research psychology. Thankfully, the shift from strictly applied professional psychology to scientific research psychology has begun to gain force (Lawson, 2007, p. 439). It is also important to recognize the shift that has taken place between Western psychology and Indian-Asian psychology. Currently many with “formal Western training have molded their instruction to better fit their culture, thereby integrating cultural and traditional components into their practices” (Lawson, 2007, p. 440). Out of this, three different strand of psychology have developed that are specific to this particular region. They are general psychology, country- and region-specific psychology, and native-based weltanschauung psychology (Lawson, 2007, p. 441).
Indian-Asian people have had very strong ties to their culture and what is going on in their countries. They tend to look at how they have been doing things for many centuries and using it in all the different types of studies. Psychology is no different because they still look to their friends and family for input and advice on what needs to happen. They are very strong in their countries (pg 440).
South African Psychology
According to Robert B. Lawson, Jean E. Graham, and Kristin M. Baker, psychology has been strongly influenced by the nation’s political turmoil, particularly over the past sixty years (Lawson, Graham, & Baker, 2007, p. 437). Colonial, apartheid, capitalist, and patriarchal forces all influenced South African psychology, resulting in the formation of a psychology faced with adversity; the apartheid period intentionally neglected and isolated the field of psychology so that when South Africa first held democratic elections in the mid-1990s, the problems facing psychology as a science and profession were merely beginning to surface (2007, p. 438).South African psychology during the apartheid period was dominated by political influences, such as selective economic sanctions, segregation, and people being exiled from their native land; the influences of the apartheid period resulted in a grossly underdeveloped psychological field at the time of the fall of the apartheid (Lawson, Graham, & Baker, 2007, p.438). With approximately 5,000 psychologists for a population of over forty-three million people, practicing clinical psychologists greatly outnumber research psychologists, leaving few South African psychologists capable of crafting broad-scale psychological interventions (2007, p. 438). Today, vast efforts are being made to extend South African psychology beyond its borders, which is mostly due to the apartheid no longer isolating the field form international scholarship (2007, p.438).
The first steps for South African psychology in the aftermath of apartheid were to take a more collectivist orientation, indigenous focus, rigorous scholarship, and international exchange (Lawson, Graham, & Baker, 2007, p. 438). South African psychologists face the dilemma of keeping international influence and indigenous psychology in balance with South African perspectives; South Africa is in desperate need of psychologists that are willing and able to assist in overcoming the aftermath of apartheid, especially with issues such as violence, poverty, racism, and HIV/AIDS (2007, p. 439).
While the resources available to South African psychologists are limited due to past apartheid constraints, measures are being taken to expand the number of psychologists trained to be basic researchers and field clinical psychologists (Lawson, Graham, & Baker, 2007, p. 439). Psychologists in South Africa race to respond to the social pressures and constraints placed on the field in the apartheid aftermath and there are now multiple efforts underway to develop South African psychology as both a profession and a science (2007, p. 439).
In South Africa, they had some tough times. They had to bring in their own as president and he has been working hard to get his country back on its feet after the apartheid. There were lots of racial issues that needed to be resolved and also the improving the people’s trains of thought. Psychology is one of their answers and they are working to get it going even it has taken a while (pg 438).