Co-Cultural Communication Theory
Encyclopedia
Co-cultural communication theory was built upon the frameworks of muted group theory
and standpoint theory
. The cornerstone of Co-cultural communication theory is Muted Group theory as proposed in the mid 1970’s by Shirley and Edwin Ardener
. The Ardeners were cultural anthropologists who made the observation that most other cultural anthropologists practicing ethnography
in the field were talking only to the leaders of the cultures, who were by and large adult males. The researchers would then use this data to represent the culture as a whole, leaving out the perspectives of women, children and other groups made voiceless by the cultural hierarchy. (S. Ardener, 1975). The Ardeners maintained that groups which function at the top of the society hierarchy determine to a great extent the dominant communication system of the entire society (E. Ardener, 1978). Ardener’s 1975 muted group theory also posited that dominant group members formulate a “communication system that support their perception of the world and conceptualized it as ‘’the’’ appropriate language for the rest of society”.
Communication faculty Stanback and Pearce (1981) referred to these non-dominant groups as
“subordinate social groups”. They noted 4 ways in which the non-dominant groups tend to communicate with the dominant groups. They asserted also that, “From the perspective of the dominant group, the behaviors in each form of communication
are appropriate. However, the meaning of these behaviors to the members of the lower-statused group are quite different, making them different forms of communication with different implications for the relations among the groups”.
In the study of communication, Stanback and Pearce as well as Kramarae used Muted Group Theory to help explain communication patterns and social representation of non-dominant cultural groups Kramarae (1981) believed that “those experiences unique to subordinate group members often cannot be effectively expressed within the confinements of the dominant communication system”. She suggested that people within these groups create alternative forms of communication to articulate their experiences. Although, Kramarae used muted group theory to communications strategies of women she suggested that the framework can be applied with equal validity to a number of dominant/non-dominant relationships (Orbe, 1996).
Kramarae (1981) presented three assumptions of muted-group theory as applied to communication between men and women concluding that women traditionally have been muted by a male-dominated communications system. Additionally, Kramarae proposed seven hypotheses originating in muted group theory.
Standpoint theory was mainly used as a feminist theoretical framework to explore experiences of women as they participate in and oppose their own subordination, however, (Smith, 1987) suggested that the theory had applications for other subordinate groups. A basic tenet of Standpoint theory is that it “seeks to include the experiences of subordinate groups within the process of research inquiry in meaningful ways”. In other words, the members of the underrepresented groups become co-researchers.
Orbe combined the frameworks of Muted group theory with that of Standpoint theory to arrive at five fundamental concepts which describe Co-cultural theory. Orbe states, “co-cultural theory seeks to uncover the commonalities among co-cultural group members as they function in dominant society while substantiating the vast diversity of experiences between and among groups”.
In Orbe, (1997) “A Co-cultural communication approach to intergroup relations”, he provides an
overview of co-cultural theory, including an explanation of the process by which co-cultural group members strategically select different communications styles.
Orbe (1998a) ‘’Constructing co-cultural theory: an explication of culture, power, and communication’’, presents the theoretical framework for co-cultural theory including the development of the theory, clarification of the co-cultural communication process, and limitations and future directions for its use. Orbe (1998b) “From the standpoint(s) of traditionally muted groups: Explicating a co-cultural communication theoretical model”, in which he designated 9 co-cultural orientations based on the intersections of three communication approaches: Non –assertive, Assertive, and Aggressive with 3 preferred outcomes: Separation, Accommodation and Assimilation.
In 2000, Orbe and C. M. Greer presented a paper: “Recognizing the diversity of lived experience: The utility of co-cultural theory in communication and disabilities research” at the annual meeting of the Central States Communication Association
, in Detroit. In 2001, Heuman presented, “Multiracial/ethnic identity: A co-cultural approach” during the annual meeting of the Central States Communication Association in Cincinnati. During the same meeting Dixon presented “Naming issues in the future of intercultural communication
research: The contributions of Mark Orbe’s co-cultural theory”.
Orbe, 2004) used co-cultural theory as a foundation to explore the processes by which public dialogue can be facilitated across cultural boundaries. (Orbe and Spellers, 2005) reflected in this book chapter on the origins of co-cultural theory from the perspectives of their different areas of research as well as point to implications for future work.
Orbe & Lapinski, (2007) published the design of a self-report measure of the two components of co-cultural theory, preferred outcome and communication approach, and provides evidence from two studies for the construct validity
and reliability
of the co-cultural theory scales (C-CTS).
(Ramirez-Sanchez, 2008) examines the possibility of applying co-cultural theory to co-cultural
groups that are marginalized in a larger co-cultural context and to “offer a complex cultural context to which co-cultural theory can be applied and generate questions that could serve to enrich the analytical scope of co-cultural theory and its implications”
Muted group theory
Muted Group Theory developed out of the cultural anthropology field, but more recently has been developed in communication mostly as a feminist and cross-cultural theory...
and standpoint theory
Standpoint theory
Standpoint theory is a postmodern method for analyzing inter-subjective discourses. "Developed primarily by social scientists, especially sociologists & political theorists. It extends some of the early insights about consciousness that emerged from Marxist/socialist feminist theories and the wider...
. The cornerstone of Co-cultural communication theory is Muted Group theory as proposed in the mid 1970’s by Shirley and Edwin Ardener
Edwin Ardener
Edwin Ardener was a British social anthropologist and academic. He was also noted for his contributions to the study of history. Within anthropology, some of his most important contributions were to the study of gender, as in his 1975 work in which he described women as "muted" in social...
. The Ardeners were cultural anthropologists who made the observation that most other cultural anthropologists practicing ethnography
Ethnography
Ethnography is a qualitative method aimed to learn and understand cultural phenomena which reflect the knowledge and system of meanings guiding the life of a cultural group...
in the field were talking only to the leaders of the cultures, who were by and large adult males. The researchers would then use this data to represent the culture as a whole, leaving out the perspectives of women, children and other groups made voiceless by the cultural hierarchy. (S. Ardener, 1975). The Ardeners maintained that groups which function at the top of the society hierarchy determine to a great extent the dominant communication system of the entire society (E. Ardener, 1978). Ardener’s 1975 muted group theory also posited that dominant group members formulate a “communication system that support their perception of the world and conceptualized it as ‘’the’’ appropriate language for the rest of society”.
Communication faculty Stanback and Pearce (1981) referred to these non-dominant groups as
“subordinate social groups”. They noted 4 ways in which the non-dominant groups tend to communicate with the dominant groups. They asserted also that, “From the perspective of the dominant group, the behaviors in each form of communication
Communication
Communication is the activity of conveying meaningful information. Communication requires a sender, a message, and an intended recipient, although the receiver need not be present or aware of the sender's intent to communicate at the time of communication; thus communication can occur across vast...
are appropriate. However, the meaning of these behaviors to the members of the lower-statused group are quite different, making them different forms of communication with different implications for the relations among the groups”.
In the study of communication, Stanback and Pearce as well as Kramarae used Muted Group Theory to help explain communication patterns and social representation of non-dominant cultural groups Kramarae (1981) believed that “those experiences unique to subordinate group members often cannot be effectively expressed within the confinements of the dominant communication system”. She suggested that people within these groups create alternative forms of communication to articulate their experiences. Although, Kramarae used muted group theory to communications strategies of women she suggested that the framework can be applied with equal validity to a number of dominant/non-dominant relationships (Orbe, 1996).
Kramarae (1981) presented three assumptions of muted-group theory as applied to communication between men and women concluding that women traditionally have been muted by a male-dominated communications system. Additionally, Kramarae proposed seven hypotheses originating in muted group theory.
Standpoint theory was mainly used as a feminist theoretical framework to explore experiences of women as they participate in and oppose their own subordination, however, (Smith, 1987) suggested that the theory had applications for other subordinate groups. A basic tenet of Standpoint theory is that it “seeks to include the experiences of subordinate groups within the process of research inquiry in meaningful ways”. In other words, the members of the underrepresented groups become co-researchers.
Theory
The Theory of Co-Cultural Communication was introduced in 1996 by Mark Orbe, professor in the School of Communication at Western Michigan University, when he found previously used names for the groups under consideration to have negative connotations. He cites previous studies which looked at the communication styles of different co-cultural groups which were referred to by a variety of terms. Orbe was the first to refer to this type of work as “Co-cultural Communication Theory”. Orbe states, “in the past researchers have used a variety of terms to describe co-cultural communication: “intracultural” (Sitaram and Cogdell,1976); “subordinate”, “inferior”, “minority” (Stanback and Pearce, 1981); “sub-cultural” (Pearson & Nelson, 1991); (Folb, 1994); and “muted group” (Kramarae, 1981).”Orbe combined the frameworks of Muted group theory with that of Standpoint theory to arrive at five fundamental concepts which describe Co-cultural theory. Orbe states, “co-cultural theory seeks to uncover the commonalities among co-cultural group members as they function in dominant society while substantiating the vast diversity of experiences between and among groups”.
Application of the Theory
Since the introduction of co-cultural theory in “ Laying the foundation for co-cultural communication theory: An inductive approach to studying “non-dominant” communication strategies and the factors that influence them” (1996), Orbe has published two works describing the theory and its use as well as several studies on communication patterns and strategies based on different co-cultural groups.In Orbe, (1997) “A Co-cultural communication approach to intergroup relations”, he provides an
overview of co-cultural theory, including an explanation of the process by which co-cultural group members strategically select different communications styles.
Orbe (1998a) ‘’Constructing co-cultural theory: an explication of culture, power, and communication’’, presents the theoretical framework for co-cultural theory including the development of the theory, clarification of the co-cultural communication process, and limitations and future directions for its use. Orbe (1998b) “From the standpoint(s) of traditionally muted groups: Explicating a co-cultural communication theoretical model”, in which he designated 9 co-cultural orientations based on the intersections of three communication approaches: Non –assertive, Assertive, and Aggressive with 3 preferred outcomes: Separation, Accommodation and Assimilation.
In 2000, Orbe and C. M. Greer presented a paper: “Recognizing the diversity of lived experience: The utility of co-cultural theory in communication and disabilities research” at the annual meeting of the Central States Communication Association
Central States Communication Association
The Central States Communication Association is a professional, academic organization of university professors, communication professionals, and primary and secondary school teachers. CSCA was founded in 1931 to promote the communications discipline in educational, scholarly, and professional...
, in Detroit. In 2001, Heuman presented, “Multiracial/ethnic identity: A co-cultural approach” during the annual meeting of the Central States Communication Association in Cincinnati. During the same meeting Dixon presented “Naming issues in the future of intercultural communication
Intercultural communication
Intercultural communication is a form of global communication. It is used to describe the wide range of communication problems that naturally appear within an organization made up of individuals from different religious, social, ethnic, and educational backgrounds. Intercultural communication is...
research: The contributions of Mark Orbe’s co-cultural theory”.
Orbe, 2004) used co-cultural theory as a foundation to explore the processes by which public dialogue can be facilitated across cultural boundaries. (Orbe and Spellers, 2005) reflected in this book chapter on the origins of co-cultural theory from the perspectives of their different areas of research as well as point to implications for future work.
Orbe & Lapinski, (2007) published the design of a self-report measure of the two components of co-cultural theory, preferred outcome and communication approach, and provides evidence from two studies for the construct validity
Construct validity
In science , construct validity refers to whether a scale measures or correlates with the theorized psychological scientific construct that it purports to measure. In other words, it is the extent to which what was to be measured was actually measured...
and reliability
Reliability
In general, reliability is the ability of a person or system to perform and maintain its functions in routine circumstances, as well as hostile or unexpected circumstances.Reliability may refer to:...
of the co-cultural theory scales (C-CTS).
(Ramirez-Sanchez, 2008) examines the possibility of applying co-cultural theory to co-cultural
groups that are marginalized in a larger co-cultural context and to “offer a complex cultural context to which co-cultural theory can be applied and generate questions that could serve to enrich the analytical scope of co-cultural theory and its implications”