Encyclopedia
In the
arts,
Baroque is both a period and the style that dominated it. The Baroque style used exaggerated motion and clear, easily interpreted detail to produce drama, tension, exuberance, and grandeur in
sculpture,
painting,
literature, and
music. The style started around 1600 in
Rome,
Italy and spread to most of
Europe. In music, the Baroque applies to the final period of dominance of imitative
counterpoint, where different voices and instruments echo each other but at different pitches, sometimes inverting the echo, and even reversing thematic material.
The popularity and success of the "Baroque" was encouraged by the
Roman Catholic Church which had decided at the time of the
Council of Trent that the arts should communicate religious themes in direct and emotional involvement. The secular aristocracy also saw the dramatic style of Baroque architecture and art as a means of impressing visitors and expressing triumphant power and control. Baroque palaces are built around an entrance sequence of courts, anterooms, grand staircases, and reception rooms of sequentially increasing magnificence. In similar profusions of detail, art, music, architecture, and literature inspired each other in the "Baroque" cultural movement as artists explored what they could create from repeated and varied patterns.
The word
baroque derives from the ancient
Portuguese noun "barroco" which is a
pearl that is not round but of unpredictable and elaborate shape. Hence, in informal usage, the word
baroque can simply mean that something is "elaborate," with many details, without reference to the Baroque styles of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
A contrast with the classical
Classical compositions, according to characterizations first elaborated by Heinrich Wölfflin, seek the unchanging truth behind appearances, expressed with simplicity and clarity: each constituent element is complete in itself and rationally ordered. The Baroque artist longs to enter into the multiplicity of phenomena, "into the flux of things in their perpetual becoming", as Germain Bazin observed "his compositions are dynamic and open and tend to expand outside their boundaries; the forms that go to make them are associated in a single organic action and cannot be isolated from each other." If Classical art shows the human figure in full possession of its rational powers, Baroque art is drawn towards the passions and extremes of suffering and violence.
This sense of bi-polar contrast between Baroque and Classical is the fruit of late nineteenth-century distinctions. Contemporary Baroque artists were sensible of a great respect for the art of
Classical Antiquity, universally understood. In the Baroque "period" the arts did not move in unison, nor was "Baroque" a universal style that described all works of art in a "Baroque Period": witness the realism of seventeenth-century Dutch painters . Yet where it was in control of a work of art, the Baroque style was international: artists trained in Rome, and after about 1680 in Paris, brought home on their return ideas that were thoroughly assimilated into local practice.
Evolution of the Baroque
In recent history, western European civilizations have faced three critical questions : Which religion to follow; which government to uphold; and how to bring equality to everyone. The matter of religion was resolved after
Martin Luther,
John Calvin, and others initiated a
Protestant Reformation that gave many European monarchs an excuse to become more independent from
The Holy Roman Empire. This led to a
Counter Reformation by the
Roman Catholic Church which included a push for new forms of art that exalted the Church's holy position.
Beginning around the year 1600, the demands for new art resulted in what is now known as the Baroque. The canon promulgated at the
Council of Trent , by which the
Roman Catholic Church addressed the representational arts by demanding that paintings and sculptures in church contexts should speak to the illiterate rather than to the well-informed, is customarily offered as an inspiration of the Baroque, which appeared, however, a generation later. This turn toward a populist conception of the function of ecclesiastical art is seen by many art historians as driving the innovations of
Caravaggio and the Carracci brothers, all of whom were working in Rome at that time.
The appeal of Baroque style turned consciously from the witty, intellectual qualities of 16th century
Mannerist art to a visceral appeal aimed at the senses. It employed an iconography that was direct, simple, obvious, and dramatic . Baroque art drew on certain broad and heroic tendencies in
Annibale Carracci and his circle, and found inspiration in other artists like
Correggio and
Caravaggio and
Federico Barocci, nowadays sometimes termed 'proto-Baroque'.
Germinal ideas of the Baroque can also be found in the work of
Michelangelo.
Some general parallels in music make the expression "Baroque music" useful. Contrasting phrase lengths, harmony and
counterpoint ousted polyphony, and orchestral color made a stronger appearance. Similar fascination with simple, strong, dramatic expression in poetry, where clear, broad syncopated rhythms replaced the enknotted elaborated metaphysical similes employed by
Mannerists such as
John Donne and imagery that was strongly influenced by visual developments in painting, can be sensed in
John Milton's
Paradise Lost is an epic poem [i] by the 17th-century English [i] poet John Milton [i]. ...
, a Baroque epic.
Though Baroque was superseded in many centers by the
Rococo style, beginning in France in the late 1720s, especially for interiors, paintings and the decorative arts, Baroque architecture remained a viable style until the advent of
Neoclassicism in the later 18th century. See the Neapolitan
palace of Caserta, a Baroque palace that was not even begun until 1752. Critics have given up talking about a "Baroque
period."
In paintings, Baroque gestures are broader than Mannerist gestures: less ambiguous, less arcane and mysterious, more like the stage gestures of
opera, a major Baroque artform. Baroque poses depend on
contrapposto , the tension within the figures that moves the planes of shoulders and hips in counterdirections. See Bernini's
David .
The dryer, chastened, less dramatic and coloristic, later stages of 18th century Baroque architectural style are often seen as a separate
Late Baroque manifestation. Academic characteristics in the neo-
Palladian architectural style, epitomized by
William Kent, are a parallel development in Britain and the British colonies: within doors, Kent's furniture designs are vividly influenced by the Baroque furniture of Rome and Genoa, hieratic tectonic sculptural elements meant never to be moved from their positions completing the wall elevation. Baroque is a style of unity imposed upon rich and massy detail.
The Baroque was defined by Heinrich Wölfflin as the age where the oval replaced the circle as the center of composition, centralization replaced balance, and coloristic and "painterly" effects began to become more prominent. Art historians, often Protestant ones, have traditionally emphasized that the Baroque style evolved during a time in which the
Roman Catholic Church had to react against the many revolutionary cultural movements that produced a new science and new forms of
religion—the
Reformation. It has been said that the monumental Baroque is a style that could give the
Papacy, like secular absolute monarchies, a formal, imposing way of expression that could restore its prestige, at the point of becoming somehow symbolic of the
Catholic Reformation. Whether this is the case or not, it was successfully developed in
Rome, where Baroque architecture widely renewed the central areas with perhaps the most important urbanistic revision during this period of time.
Baroque visual art
Main article: Baroque art
A defining statement of what
Baroque signifies in painting is provided by the series of paintings executed by
Peter Paul Rubens for
Marie de Medici at the
Luxembourg Palace in Paris , in which a Catholic painter satisfied a Catholic patron: Baroque-era conceptions of monarchy, iconography, handling of paint, and compositions as well as the depiction of space and movement. There were highly diverse strands of Italian baroque painting, from
Caravaggio to
Cortona; both approaching emotive dynamism with different styles. Another frequently cited work of Baroque art is
Bernini's
Saint Theresa in Ecstasy is a marble sculpture [i] by Gian Lorenzo Bernini [i], which is part of hi ...
for the Cornaro chapel in S. Maria della Vittoria, which brings together architecture, sculpture, and theater into one grand conceit .
The later Baroque style gradually gave way to a more decorative
Rococo, which, through contrast, further defines Baroque.
Baroque sculpture
In Baroque sculpture, groups of figures assumed new importance, and there was a dynamic movement and energy of human forms— they spiralled around an empty central vortex, or reached outwards into the surrounding space. For the first time, Baroque sculpture often had multiple ideal viewing angles. The characteristic Baroque sculpture added extra-sculptural elements, for example, concealed lighting, or water
fountains.
The architecture, sculpture and fountains of
Bernini give highly charged characteristics of Baroque style. Bernini was undoubtedly the most important sculptor of the Baroque period. He approached
Michelangelo in his omnicompetence: Bernini sculpted, worked as an architect, painted, wrote plays, and staged spectacles. In the late 20th century Bernini was most valued for his sculpture, both for his virtuosity in carving marble and his ability to create figures that combine the physical and the spiritual. He was also a fine sculptor of bust portraits in high demand among the powerful.
Bernini's Cornaro chapel: the complete work of art
A good example of Bernini's work that helps us understand the Baroque is his
St. Theresa in Ecstasy is a marble sculpture [i] by Gian Lorenzo Bernini [i], which is part of hi ...
, created for the Cornaro Chapel of the church of
Santa Maria della Vittoria,
Rome. Bernini designed the entire chapel, a subsidiary space along the side of the church, for the Cornaro family.
He had, in essence, a brick box shaped something like a proscenium stage space with which to work. Saint Theresa, the focal point of the chapel, is a monochromatic marble statue surrounded by a polychromatic marble architectural framing concealing a window to light the statue from above. In shallow relief, sculpted figure-groups of the Cornaro family inhabit in opera boxes along the two side walls of the chapel. The setting places the viewer as a spectator in front of the statue with the Cornaro family leaning out of their box seats and craning forward to see the mystical ecstasy of the saint. St. Theresa is highly idealized in detail and in an imaginary setting. St. Theresa of Avila, a popular saint of the
Catholic Reformation, wrote narratives of her mystical experiences aimed at the nuns of her
Carmelite Order; these writings had become popular reading among lay people interested in pursuing spirituality. She once described the love of God as piercing her heart like a burning arrow. Bernini literalizes this image by placing St. Theresa on a cloud in a reclining pose; what can only be described as a Cupid figure holds a golden arrow and smiles down at her. The angelic figure is not preparing to plunge the arrow into her heart— rather, he has withdrawn it. St. Theresa's face reflects not the anticipation of ecstasy, but her current fulfillment, which has been described as orgasmic.
The blending of religious and erotic was intensely offensive to both neoclassical restraint and, later, to Victorian prudishness; it is part of the genius of the Baroque. Bernini, who in life and writing was a devout Catholic, is not attempting to satirize the experience of a chaste nun, but to embody in marble a complex truth about religious experience— that it is an experience that takes place in the body. Theresa described her bodily reaction to spiritual enlightenment in a language of ecstasy used by many mystics, and Bernini's depiction is earnest.
The Cornaro family promotes itself discreetly in this chapel; they are represented visually, but are placed on the sides of the chapel, witnessing the event from balconies. As in an opera house, the Cornaro have a privileged position in respect to the viewer, in their private reserve, closer to the saint; the viewer, however, has a better view from the front. They attach their name to the chapel, but St. Theresa is the focus. It is a private chapel in the sense that no one could say mass on the altar beneath the statue without permission from the family, but the only thing that divides the viewer from the image is the altar rail. The spectacle functions both as a demonstration of mysticism and as a piece of family pride.
Baroque architecture
Main article: Baroque architectureIn Baroque architecture, new emphasis was placed on bold massing,
colonnades,
domes, light-and-shade , 'painterly' color effects, and the bold play of volume and void. In interiors, Baroque movement around and through a void informed monumental staircases that had no parallel in previous architecture. The other Baroque innovation in worldly interiors was the state apartment, a processional sequence of increasingly rich interiors that culminated in a presence chamber or throne room or a state bedroom. The sequence of monumental stairs followed by a state apartment was copied in smaller scale everywhere in aristocratic dwellings of any pretensions.
Baroque architecture was taken up with enthusiasm in central
Germany ,
Austria and
Russia . In
England the culmination of Baroque architecture was embodied in work by Sir
Christopher Wren, Sir
John Vanbrugh and Nicholas Hawksmoor, from ca. 1660 to ca. 1725. Many examples of Baroque architecture and town planning are found in other European towns, and in Latin America. Town planning of this period featured radiating avenues intersecting in squares, which took cues from
Baroque garden plans.
Baroque theater and dance
In theater, the elaborate conceits, multiplicity of plot turns, and variety of situations characteristic of
Mannerism are superseded by
opera, which drew together all the arts in a unified whole.
Theater evolves in the Baroque era and becomes a
multimedia experience, starting with the actual architectural space. It is during this era that most of the technologies that we currently see in current Broadway or commercial plays were invented and developed. The stage changes from a romantic garden to the interior of a palace in a matter of seconds. The entire space becomes a framed selected area that only allows the users to see a specific action, hiding all the machinery and technology - mostly ropes and pollies
This technology affects the CONTENT of the narrated or performed pieces, practicing at its best the Deus ex Machina solution. Gods were finally able to come down - literally - from the heavens and rescue the hero in the most extreme and dangerous, even absurd situations.
The term Theatrum Mundi - the world is a stage - was also created. The social and political realm in the real world is manipulated in exactly the same way the actor and the machines are presenting/limiting what is being presented on stage, hiding selectiveley all the machinery that makes the actions happen. There is a wonderful german documentary called Theatrum Mundi that clearly portrays the political extents of the Baroque and its main representative,
Louis XIV.
Watch movies like Vatel,
Farinelli, and the wonderful staging of Monteverdi's Orpheus at the Gran Teatre del Liceu in Barcelona to see some wonderful recreations of this time period. William Christie, American, and Les Arts Florissants have performed an extensive research on all the French Baroque Opera, performing pieces from Charpentier and Lully, among others that are extemelly faithful to the original 17th century creations.
Dance was popular in the Baroque era.
Baroque literature and philosophy
Baroque actually expressed new values, which often are summarized in the use of metaphor and
allegory, widely found in Baroque literature, and in the research for the "maraviglia" , the use of artifices. If Mannerism was a first breach with Renaissance, Baroque was an opposed language. The
psychological pain of Man -- a theme disbanded after the
Copernican and the
Lutheran revolutions in search of solid anchors, a proof of an "ultimate human power" -- was to be found in both the art and architecture of the Baroque period. A relevant part of works was made on religious themes, since the Roman Church was the main "customer."
Virtuosity was researched by artists together with realism and care for details .
The privilege given to external forms had to compensate and balance the lack of content that has been observed in many Baroque works: Marino's "Maraviglia", for example, is practically made of the pure, mere form. Fantasy and imagination should be evoked in the spectator, in the reader, in the listener. All was focused around the individual Man, as a straight relationship between the artist, or directly the art and its user, its client. Art is then less distant from user, more directly approaching him, solving the cultural gap that used to keep art and user reciprocally far, by Maraviglia. But the increased attention to the individual, also created in these schemes some important genres like the
Romanzo and let popular or local forms of art, especially dialectal literature, to be put into evidence. In
Italy this movement toward the single individual caused
Latin to be definitely replaced by Italian.
In Spain, the baroque writers are framed in the
Siglo de Oro. Naturalism and sharp criticist points of view about Spanish society are common in the
conceptista writers like
Quevedo, while
culterano authors emphasize the importance of form with complicated images and the use of hyperbaton. Theater was extensively developed by authors like
Lope de Vega and Calderón de la Barca. Overall,
Cervantes is considered the most complete author of Spanish literature due to his main work,
Don Quixote.
In the
Portuguese Empire the most famous baroque writer of the time was
Father António Vieira ,a
Jesuit who lived in
Brazil during the
18th century. Secondary writers are Gregório de Matos and Francisco Rodrigues Lobo.
In
English literature, the metaphysical poets represent a closely related movement; their poetry likewise sought unusual metaphors, which they then examined in often extensive detail. Their verse also manifests a taste for paradox, and deliberately inventive and unusual turns of phrase.
Baroque music
Main article: Baroque musicThe term
Baroque is also used to designate the style of music composed during a period that overlaps with that of Baroque art, but usually encompasses a slightly later period.
J.S. Bach and
G.F. Handel are often considered its culminating figures.
It is a still-debated question as to what extent Baroque music shares aesthetic principles with the visual and literary arts of the Baroque period. A fairly clear, shared element is a love of ornamentation, and it is perhaps significant that the role of ornament was greatly diminished in both music and architecture as the Baroque gave way to the Classical period.
It should be noted that the application of the term "Baroque" to music is a relatively recent development. The first use of the word "Baroque" in music was only in 1919, by Curt Sachs, and it was not until 1940 that it was first used in English . Even as late as 1960 there was still considerable dispute in academic circles over whether music as diverse as that by Jacopo Peri,
François Couperin and J.S. Bach could be meaningfully bundled together under a single stylistic term.
Opera was born during the Baroque era out of the experimentation of the Florentine Camerata, the creators of
monody, who attempted to recreate the theatrical arts of the ancient Greeks. Indeed, it is exactly that development which is often used to denote the beginning of the musical Baroque, around 1600.
Typical Instruments
Examples of Baroque music
...
VespersThe term "Baroque"
The word "Baroque", like most period or stylistic designations, was invented by later critics rather than practitioners of the arts in the 17th and early 18th centuries. It is a
French translation of the
Portuguese word "Barroco". It means an irregular
pearl, or false jewel—notably, an ancient similar word, "Barlocco" or "Brillocco", is used in
Roman dialect for the same meaning—and natural pearls that deviate from the usual, regular forms so they do not have an
axis of rotation are known as "baroque pearls". Alternatively, it may derive from the now obsolete
Italian "Baroco" . A common definition, before the term
Barocco was used, called this genre simply the style of
The Flying Forms.
The term "Baroque" was initially used with a derogatory meaning, to underline the excesses of its emphasis, of its eccentric redundancy, its noisy abundance of details, as opposed to the clearer and sober rationality of the Renaissance. It was first rehabilitated by the
Swiss-born art historian, Heinrich Wölfflin in his
Renaissance und Barock ; Wölfflin identified the Baroque as "movement imported into mass," an art antithetic to
Renaissance art. He did not make the distinctions between
Mannerism and Baroque that modern writers do, and he ignored the later phase, the academic Baroque that lasted into the 18th century. Writers in French and English did not begin to treat Baroque as a respectable study until Wölfflin's influence had made German scholarship pre-eminent.
In modern usage, the term "Baroque" may still be used, usually pejoratively, to describe works of art, craft, or design that are thought to have excessive ornamentation or complexity of line, or, as a synonym for "Byzantine", to describe literature, computer programs, contracts, or laws that are thought to be excessively complex, indirect, or obscure in language, to the extent of concealing or confusing their meaning. A "Baroque fear" is deeply felt, but utterly beyond daily reality.
Modern usage
In contemporary culture the term "baroque" is also commonly used to describe a type of popular music that is especially ornately arranged. See baroque pop.
See also
External links
Further reading
- Heinrich Wölfflin, 1964. Renaissance and Baroque The classic study. ISBN 0801490464
- Michael Kitson, 1966. The Age of Baroque
- John Rupert Martin, 1977. Baroque A more detailed survey.
- Germain Bazin, 1964. Baroque and Rococo,
