The
Battle of Pharsalus was a decisive battle of
Caesar's Civil WarThe Great Roman Civil War , aka Caesar’s Civil War, is one of the last politico-military conflicts in the Roman Republic, being the first step to empire...
. On 9 August 48 BC, the battle was fought at Pharsalus in central
GreeceGreece , officially the Hellenic Republic , is a country in southeastern Europe, situated on the southern end of the Balkan Peninsula....
between forces of the
PopularesPopulares were aristocratic leaders in the late Roman Republic who relied on the people's assemblies and tribunate to acquire political power. They are regarded in modern scholarship as in opposition to the optimates, who are identified with the conservative interests of a senatorial elite...
faction and forces of the
OptimatesOptimates were the pro-aristocratic faction of the later Roman Republic. They wished to limit the power of the popular assemblies and the Tribunes of the Plebs, and to extend the power of the Senate, which was viewed as more dedicated to the interests of the aristocrats...
faction. Both factions fielded armies from the
Roman RepublicThe Roman Republic was the phase of the ancient Roman civilization characterized by a republican form of government. It began with the overthrow of the Roman monarchy, c...
. The Populares were led by
Gaius Julius CaesarGaius Julius Caesar , , was a Roman military and political leader. He played a critical role in the transformation of the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire....
(Caesar) and the Optimates were led by
Gnaeus Pompeius MagnusGnaeus Pompeius Magnus, also known as Pompey /'pɑmpi/, Pompey the Great or Pompey the Triumvir , was a military and political leader of the late Roman Republic...
(Pompey). In addition to Pompey, the Optimates faction included most of the
Roman SenateThe Senate of the Roman Republic was a political institution in the ancient Roman Republic. According to the Greek historian Polybius, our principal source on the Constitution of the Roman Republic, the Roman Senate was the predominant branch of government...
. The victory of Caesar weakened the
SenatorialThe Senate of the Roman Republic was a political institution in the ancient Roman Republic. According to the Greek historian Polybius, our principal source on the Constitution of the Roman Republic, the Roman Senate was the predominant branch of government...
forces and solidified his control over the
RepublicThe Roman Republic was the phase of the ancient Roman civilization characterized by a republican form of government. It began with the overthrow of the Roman monarchy, c...
.
Prelude
Pompey and much of the
Roman SenateThe Senate of the Roman Republic was a political institution in the ancient Roman Republic. According to the Greek historian Polybius, our principal source on the Constitution of the Roman Republic, the Roman Senate was the predominant branch of government...
fled
ItalyItaly , officially the Italian Republic , is a country located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe and on the two largest islands in the Mediterranean Sea, Sicily and Sardinia. Italy shares its northern, Alpine boundary with France, Switzerland, Austria and Slovenia...
for
GreeceGreece , officially the Hellenic Republic , is a country in southeastern Europe, situated on the southern end of the Balkan Peninsula....
in
49 BCYear 49 BC was a year of the pre-Julian calendar.-Rome:*Consuls: Lucius Cornelius Lentulus Crus, Gaius Claudius Marcellus Maior.*The Great Roman Civil War commences...
to prepare an army. Caesar, for lack of a fleet, solidified his control over the western Mediterranean —
SpainSpain , officially the Kingdom of Spain , is a country located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula.
[The Spanish constitution does not establish any official denomination of the country, even though España , Estado español and Nación española are used interchangeably...]
specifically — before assembling ships to follow Pompey.
Caesar thereafter marched overland through southern
FranceFrance , officially the French Republic , is a country located in Western Europe, with several overseas islands and territories located on other continents. Metropolitan France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, and from the Rhine to the Atlantic Ocean...
,
blockading what is now MarseilleThe Siege and naval Battle of Massilia was an episode of Caesar's civil war, fought in 49 BC.Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, who was an Optimate, had become proconsul of Gaul and sent to gain control of Massilia in order to oppose Caesar and the Populares...
, and managing to assemble a small fleet. After crushing Pompey's forces in
SpainSpain , officially the Kingdom of Spain , is a country located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula.
[The Spanish constitution does not establish any official denomination of the country, even though España , Estado español and Nación española are used interchangeably...]
, Caesar focused once again on Pompey and his troops in Greece. Pompey had a large fleet, as well as much support from all Roman provinces and
client stateClient state is one of several terms used to describe the subordination of one state to a more powerful state in international affairs. It is the least specific of these terms and may be treated as a broad category which includes satellite state, puppet state, neo-colony, protectorate, vassal...
s east of Italy. Caesar, however, managed to cross the Adriatic in the winter, with
Mark AntonyMarcus Antonius , known in English as Mark Antony, was a Roman politician and General. He was an important supporter and the loyal friend of Gaius Julius Caesar as a military commander and administrator, being Caesar's second cousin, once removed, by his mother Julia Antonia...
following a little later because Caesar lacked sufficient ships. Although Pompey had a larger army, he recognized that Caesar's troops were more experienced, and could prove victorious in a pitched battle. Instead, Pompey waited Caesar's troops out, attempting to starve them by cutting off Caesar's supply lines. Caesar made a near disastrous attack on Pompey's camp at
DyrrhachiumThe Battle of Dyrrachium on 10 July 48 BC, was a battle of Caesar's civil war in the area of Dyrrachium . In the battle Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus defeated Gaius Julius Caesar....
and was forced to pull away.
Pompey did not immediately follow up on his success. An indecisive winter (
49Year 49 BC was a year of the pre-Julian calendar.-Rome:*Consuls: Lucius Cornelius Lentulus Crus, Gaius Claudius Marcellus Maior.*The Great Roman Civil War commences...
–
48 BCYear 48 BC was a year of the pre-Julian calendar.-Rome:*Consuls: Gaius Julius Caesar, Publius Servilius Vatia Isauricus.*Civil War:** January 4—Caesar lands at Dyrrhachium .** March—Mark Antony joins Caesar.** April—Siege of Dyrrhachium....
) of blockade and siege followed. Pompey eventually pushed Caesar into
ThessalyThessaly is one of the 13 peripheries of Greece, and is further sub-divided into 4 prefectures. The capital of the periphery and traditional geographical region is Larissa. Together with the regions of Macedonia and Thrace, it is often referred to unofficially as Northern Greece...
and urged on by his senatorial allies, he confronted Caesar near Pharsalus. Caesar began the battle with a smaller, but veteran, force. Pompey's troops were more numerous, but far less experienced. Moreover, Pompey's senatorial allies disagreed with Pompey over whether to fight at Pharsalus, and pushed Pompey, who wanted to starve Caesar's soldiers, into a quick decision.
Caesar had the following legions with him:
- Legions of veterans from the Gallic Wars
The Gallic Wars were a series of military campaigns waged by the Roman proconsul Julius Caesar against several Gallic tribes, lasting from 58 BC to 51 BC. The Romans would also raid Britannia and Germania, but these expeditions never developed into full-scale invasions...
– Caesar's favourite legion, X EquestrisLegio X Equestris , a Roman legion, was levied by Julius Caesar in 61 BC when he was the Governor of Further Spain. The Tenth was the first legion levied personally by Caesar, and was consistently his most trusted...
, and those later known with the names of VIII AugustaLegio octava Augusta was a Roman legion created by Pompey in 65 BC, along with the 6th, 7th & 9th, and continuing in service to Rome for at least 400 years thereafter. ....
, IX HispanaLegio nona Hispana was a Roman legion. The legion's symbol is unknown, likely a bull, as other legions created by Julius Caesar. It was raised, along with the 6th, 7th and 8th, by Pompey in Spain in 65 BC . Caesar first commanded them as Governor of Further Spain in 61 BC...
, and XII FulminataLegio duodecima Fulminata , also known as Paterna, Victrix, Antiqua, Certa Constans, and Galliena, was a Roman legion, levied by Julius Caesar in 58 BC and which accompanied him during the Gallic wars until 49 BC. The unit was still guarding the Euphrates River crossing near Melitene at the...
- Legions levied for the civil war – legions later known as I Germanica
Legio prima Germanica , was a Roman legion, possibly levied in 48 BC by Julius Caesar to fight for him in the civil war against Pompey. After the Batavian rebellion , the remaining men of the Germanica were added to Galba's seventh legion, which became VII Gemina...
, III GallicaLegio tertia Gallica was a Roman legion levied by Julius Caesar around 49 BC, for his civil war against the conservative republicans led by Pompey. The cognomen Gallica suggests that recruits were originally from the Gallic Roman provinces. The legion was still active in Egypt in the early 4th...
, and IV MacedonicaLegio quarta Macedonica , was a Roman legion levied by Julius Caesar in 48 BC with Italian legionaries. The legion was disbanded in 70 by Emperor Vespasian. The legion symbols were a bull and a capricorn.In 48 BC, the Roman Republic was decaying rapidly...
However, all of these legions were 'short', and did not have the requisite numbers of troops. Some only had about a thousand men at the time of Pharsalus, due partly to losses at Dyrrhachium and partly to Caesar's wish to rapidly advance with a picked body as opposed to a ponderous movement with a large army.
Battle
Deployment
According to Frontinus, both forces deployed in three lines.
Pompey arrayed his lines 10 men deep. He posted his most experienced legions on the flanks (the first and the third legion on his left with Pompey himself commanding, the Syrian legions in the center with Scipio the Cilician legion and the Spanish cohorts on the right with Afranius), dispersing his new recruits along the center. In total, Caesar counted 110 complete cohorts in the Pompeiian army, about 45,000 men. Pompey also placed 600 horses on his right flank towards the
River EnipeusThe Enipefs is a river in central Greece, tributary of the Pineios. Its source is in the northern part of the Phthiotis prefecture, north of Lamia. It flows generally northwest, through Thessaly. It flows through Farsala and Fyllo, and flows into the Pineios near Farkadona....
, a natural barrier that protected the wings of both armies, and the rest he deployed on his left together with his auxiliary troops. His main battle plan consisted of an effort to push back the numerically inferior Julian horses and then attack the enemy from behind. Aware of Pompey's plans and his tactical disadvantage, Pompey had disclosed his plans days before the battle to his companions.
Caesar also deployed in three lines. He rested his right on the marshland of the river and he positioned all his cavalry on the right, against Pompey's squadrons. Among them he placed light troops, trained to fight alongside cavalry, and oblique to his phalanx facing right, he posted six cohorts with orders to attack the enemy horse once engaged. He posted the notorious tenth legion on his right under Sulla, with the understrength eighth and possibly the ninth on his left under Antonius. In the center he designated Domitius as the commanding officer. Caesar placed himself directly against Pompey. According to his accounts, he had 80 cohorts on the battlefield, about 22,000 men.
Conflict
Pompey ordered his men to not charge the enemy, but rather to patiently await until Caesar's legions came into close quarters. This he did by the advice of Caius Triarius, expecting the enemy to fall into disorder having to cover double the expected distance. Although critical of Pompey's decision, Caesar praised his men's discipline and experience, since they stopped their charge halfway of their own accord, to regroup and catch their breath, before completing the charge.
When the lines came in close contact, Pompey ordered his cavalry to attack, at first successfully pushing the Caesarian horse and starting to flank the legions. It was then that Caesar ordered his reserve to attack. The Pompeiian horse did not withstand their charge and quickly fled to nearby hills and mountains exposing the left of their phalanx. The cohorts slaughtered the enemy light troops which supported their cavalry, wheeled towards the enemy, and attacked them from the rear. To further pressure his opponent, Caesar ordered his, as yet uninvolved, third line to relieve the front ranks, and soon the battle was won.
Pompey retreated to his camp and ordered the garrison to defend it. Caesar urged his men to end the day by capturing the enemy camp, and they complied with his wishes, furiously attacking the walls. The Thracians and the other auxiliaries who were left in the camp, in total seven cohorts, defended bravely, but they were not able to fend off the enemy assault. Pompey fled with a very small retinue, claiming that he had been betrayed. Caesar had won his greatest victory.
Aftermath
Pompey fled from Pharsalus to
EgyptEgypt , officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a country mainly in North Africa, with the Sinai Peninsula forming a land bridge in Western Asia...
, where he was assassinated on the order of
PharaohPharaoh is a title used in many modern discussions of the ancient Egyptian rulers of all periods. In antiquity this title began to be used for the ruler who was the religious and political leader of united ancient Egypt. This was true only during the New Kingdom, specifically during the middle of...
Ptolemy XIII. Interestingly enough, Ptolemy XIII sent Pompey's head to Caesar in an effort to win his favor (Caesar was not pleased about receiving the head of his son in law in a box). The Battle of Pharsalus ended the wars of the
First TriumvirateThe First Triumvirate was the political alliance of Gaius Julius Caesar, Marcus Licinius Crassus, and Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus. Unlike the Second Triumvirate, the First Triumvirate had no official status whatsoever – its overwhelming power in the Roman Republic was strictly unofficial...
. The Roman Civil War, however, was not ended. Pompey's two sons, the most important of whom was Sextus Pompeius, and the Pompeian faction led now by Labienus, survived and fought their cause in the name of Pompey the Great. Caesar spent the next few years 'mopping up' remnants of the
senatorial factionOptimates were the pro-aristocratic faction of the later Roman Republic. They wished to limit the power of the popular assemblies and the Tribunes of the Plebs, and to extend the power of the Senate, which was viewed as more dedicated to the interests of the aristocrats...
. After finally completing this task, he was assassinated in a conspiracy arranged by
Marcus Junius BrutusMarcus Junius Brutus , often referred to simply as Brutus, was a politician of the late Roman Republic...
and
Gaius Cassius LonginusGaius Cassius Longinus was a Roman senator, a leading instigator of the plot to kill Julius Caesar, and the brother in-law of Marcus Brutus.-Early life:...
.
Importance
Paul K. Davis wrote:
"Caesar’s victory took him to the pinnacle of power, effectively ending the Republic."
Battle date
The date of the battle is given as 9 August
48 BCYear 48 BC was a year of the pre-Julian calendar.-Rome:*Consuls: Gaius Julius Caesar, Publius Servilius Vatia Isauricus.*Civil War:** January 4—Caesar lands at Dyrrhachium .** March—Mark Antony joins Caesar.** April—Siege of Dyrrhachium....
. This is according to the republican calendar. The date according to the Julian calendar, however, was either 29 June
48 BCYear 48 BC was a year of the pre-Julian calendar.-Rome:*Consuls: Gaius Julius Caesar, Publius Servilius Vatia Isauricus.*Civil War:** January 4—Caesar lands at Dyrrhachium .** March—Mark Antony joins Caesar.** April—Siege of Dyrrhachium....
(according to Le Verrier's chronological reconstruction) or possibly 7 June
48 BCYear 48 BC was a year of the pre-Julian calendar.-Rome:*Consuls: Gaius Julius Caesar, Publius Servilius Vatia Isauricus.*Civil War:** January 4—Caesar lands at Dyrrhachium .** March—Mark Antony joins Caesar.** April—Siege of Dyrrhachium....
(according to Drumann/Groebe). Pompey was assassinated on 3 September 48 BC. The point is not entirely academic; had the battle taken place in the true month of August, when the harvest was becoming ripe, Pompey's strategy of starving Caesar would have been senseless.
Location
Controversy long raged among scholars over the location of the battlefield. Although the battle is called after Pharsalos, four ancient writers - the author of the
Bellum Alexandrinum (48.1), Frontinus (
Strategemata 2.3.22), Eutropius (20), and Orosius (6.15.27) - place it specifically at
Palaepharsalos. Until the early 20th century, unsure of the site of Palaepharsalos, scholars placed the battle south of the Enipeus or close to Pharsalos (today's
FarsalaFarsala or Pharsala , known in Antiquity as Farsalos or Farsalus, is a city in southern Thessaly, in Greece. Farsala is located in the southern part of Larissa Prefecture, and is one of its largest cities. The city is linked with GR-3, the old highway linking Larissa and Lamia and is also accessed...
). The “north-bank” conjecture of
F. L. LucasFrank Laurence Lucas was an English literary critic, poet, novelist, playwright, political polemicist, and Fellow of King's College, Cambridge.He is now best remembered for his scathing attacks on the poetry of T. S...
(
Annual of the British School at Athens, No. XXIV, 1919-21), based on his 1921 solo field-trip to Thessaly, is now, however, broadly accepted by historians. “A visit to the ground has only confirmed me,” Lucas wrote in 1921; “and it was interesting to find that Mr. Apostolides, son of the large local landowner, the hospitality of whose farm at Tekés I enjoyed, was convinced too that the site was by Driskole [now Krini], for the very sound reason that neither the hills nor the river further east suit Caesar’s description.” John D. Morgan in his definitive “Palae-pharsalus – the Battle and the Town” (
The American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 87, No. 1, Jan. 1983), arguing for a site closer still to Krini, writes: “My reconstruction is similar to Lucas’s, and in fact I borrow one of his alternatives for the line of the Pompeian retreat. Lucas’s theory has been subjected to many criticisms, but has remained essentially unshaken.”
Named after battle
The battle gives its name to
- Pharsalia
Pharsalia is a Roman epic poem by the poet Lucan, telling of the civil war between Julius Caesar and the forces of the Roman Senate led by Pompey the Great. Pharsalia is a reference to the Battle of Pharsalus, which occurred in 48 BC, near Pharsalus, Thessaly, in northern Greece...
, a poem by LucanMarcus Annaeus Lucanus , better known in English as Lucan, was a Roman poet, born in Corduba , in the Hispania Baetica. Despite his short life, he is regarded as one of the outstanding figures of the Silver Latin period...
- Pharsalia, New York
Pharsalia is a town in Chenango County, New York, United States. The population was 542 at the 2000 census. Pharsalia is a name related to the location of Julius Caesar's victory over Pompey....
, U.S.The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
- Pharsalia Technologies
Pharsalia Technologies, Inc. was founded in December 1999, located in Roswell, Georgia, as an emerging company developing network infrastructure products for the Internet market. Led by a team of over 28 software engineers, Pharsalia focused on developing software products for the rapidly...
, Inc.
Further reading