Zoonosis
Encyclopedia
A zoonosis or zoonose
is any infectious disease
that can be transmitted (in some instances, by a vector) from non-human animal
s to human
s or from humans to non-human animals (the latter is sometimes called reverse zoonosis or anthroponosis). In a study of 1415 pathogens known to affect humans, 61% were zoonotic. The emergence of a pathogen into a new host species is called disease invasion.
The emerging interdisciplinary field of conservation medicine
, which integrates human and veterinary medicine
, and environmental science
s, is largely concerned with zoonoses.
(transplantation between species).
Other zoonoses might be:
was spent as small bands of hunter-gatherers; these bands were rarely larger than 150
individuals, and were not in contact with other bands very often. Because of this, epidemic
or pandemic
diseases, which depend on a constant influx of humans who have not developed an immune response, tended to burn out after their first run through a population. To survive, a biological pathogen had to be a chronic
infection, stay alive in the host for long periods, or have a non-human reservoir
in which to live while waiting for new hosts to pass by. In fact, for many 'human' diseases, the human is actually an accidental victim and a dead-end host. (This is the case with rabies
, anthrax, tularemia
, West Nile virus
, and many others). Thus, much of human development has been in relation to zoonotic, not epidemic, diseases.
Many modern diseases, even epidemic diseases, started out as zoonotic diseases. It is hard to be certain which diseases jumped from other animals to humans, but there is good evidence that measles
, smallpox
, influenza
, HIV
, and diphtheria
came to us this way. The common cold
, and tuberculosis
may also have started in other species.
In modern days, zoonoses are of practical interest because they are often previously unrecognized diseases or have increased virulence in populations lacking immunity. The West Nile virus appeared in the United States
in 1999 in the New York City
area, and moved through the country in the summer of 2002, causing much distress. Bubonic plague
is a zoonotic disease, as are salmonella
, Rocky Mountain spotted fever
, and Lyme disease
.
The major factor contributing to the appearance of new zoonotic pathogens in human populations is increased contact between humans and wildlife (Daszak et al.., 2001). This can be caused either by encroachment of human activity into wilderness areas or by movement of wild animals into areas of human activity due to anthropological or environmental disturbances. An example of this is the outbreak of Nipah virus
in peninsular Malaysia in 1999, when intensive pig farming
intruded into the natural habitat of fruit bats carrying the virus. Unidentified spillover events caused infection of the pig population which acted as an amplifier host, eventually transmitting the virus to farmers and resulting in 105 human deaths (Field et al.., 2001).
Similarly, in recent times avian influenza and West Nile virus have spilled over into human populations probably due to interactions between the carrier host and domestic animals. Highly mobile animals such as bats and birds may present a greater risk of zoonotic transmission than other animals due to the ease with which they can move into areas of human habitation.
Diseases like malaria
, schistosomiasis
, river blindness, and elephantiasis
are not zoonotic, even though they may be transmitted by insects or use intermediate hosts vectors, because they depend on the human host for part of their life-cycle.
s of zoonosis have been traced to human interaction with and exposure to animals at fair
s, petting zoo
s, and in other settings. In 2005, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
(CDC) issued an updated list of recommendations for preventing zoonosis transmission in public settings. The CDC recommendations, which were developed in conjunction with the National Association of State Public Health Veterinarians, include sections on the educational responsibilities of venue operators, managing public and animal contact, and animal care and management.
In 1988, a person became ill with swine influenza virus (swine flu) and died after visiting the display area of the pig barn at a Wisconsin
county fair. Three healthcare personnel treating the case patient also developed flu-like illness with laboratory evidence of swine influenza virus infection. Investigators from the CDC indicated in their final report that the swine flu had been transmitted directly from pig to human host.
In 1994, seven cases of E. coli O157:H7 infection were traced to a farm
in Leicestershire
, United Kingdom
. An epidemiological investigation into the outbreak revealed that the strain
of E. coli O157:H7 isolated from nine animals on the farm was indistinguishable from the strain isolated from human samples. Investigators concluded that the most likely cause of this outbreak was direct human contact with animals.
In 1995, 43 children who had visited a rural farm in Wales
became ill with Cryptosporidiosis
. Cryptosporidium was isolated from seven of the ill children. An epidemiological investigation indicated that the source of the children's illness was contact with calves
at the farm.
Also in 1995, at least 13 children became ill with Cryptosporidiosis after visiting a farm in Dublin, Ireland
. In a case-control study
, researchers compared the activities of the 13 ill children, or cases, to the activities of 52 out of 55 people who had visited the farm – the controls
. The study revealed that illness was significantly associated
with playing in the sand in a picnic area beside a stream where animals had access.
In 1997, an E. coli O157:H7 outbreak was identified among one child who lived on an open farm and two children who visited the farm during school parties. Two of the three children developed hemolytic-uremic syndrome
(HUS). Isolates collected from the three children and from samples taken at the farm were indistinguishable, demonstrating evidence of the link between the farm and the children's illness.
In 1999, what is believed to be the largest outbreak of waterborne E. coli O157:H7 illness in United States
history occurred at the Washington County
, New York
fair. The New York State Department of Health
identified 781 individuals who were suspected of being infected with either E. coli O157:H7 or Campylobacter jejuni. An investigation into the outbreak revealed that consumption of beverages purchased from vendors supplied with water drawn from an unchlorinated fairgrounds well was associated with illness. In all, 127 outbreak victims were confirmed ill with E. coli O157:H7 infections; 71 were hospitalized, 14 developed HUS
, and two died.
In 2000, 51 people became ill with confirmed or suspected E. coli O157:H7 infections after visiting a dairy
farm in Pennsylvania
. Eight children developed HUS
. A case-control study among visitors to the dairy was conducted jointly by the CDC, Pennsylvania Department of Health
, and the Montgomery County
Health Department. The study's authors concluded that E. coli was transmitted to visitors as a result of contamination on animal hides and in the environment.
Also in 2000, 43 visitors to the Medina County fair
in Ohio
were confirmed ill with E. coli O157:H7 infections. An investigation into the outbreak suggested that the water system from which food vendors were supplied was the source of the E. coli outbreak. Several months later, five children became ill with E. coli infections after attending a "Carnival of Horrors" event held at the Medina County fairgrounds. PFGE analysis of the strains of E. coli isolated from members of both outbreaks revealed an indistinguishable pattern, and investigators from the Medina County Health Department and the CDC determined that the Medina County Fairgrounds water distribution system was the source of both E. coli outbreaks.
In 2001, an E. coli O157:H7 outbreak was traced to exposure in the Cow Palace at the Lorain County
Fair in Ohio. CDC investigators identified 23 cases of E. coli infection associated with attendance at the Lorain County Fair, with additional secondary cases likely. Two people developed HUS
. An environmental and site investigation revealed E. coli contamination on doorways, rails, bleachers, and sawdust. Investigators concluded that the Lorain County Fair was the source of the outbreak.
Wyandot County
, Ohio, also reported an E. coli O157:H7 outbreak in 2001. Ninety-two E. coli infections were reported to the Wyandot County Health Department and the CDC, with 27 cases confirmed using laboratory analysis. Two cases developed HUS
. Contact with infected cattle was believed to be the source of the outbreak; however, a specific cause was never identified.
In 2002, seven people became ill with E. coli O157:H7 infections after visiting a large agricultural fair in Ontario
, Canada
. Outbreak investigators conducted a case-control study, which indicated that goats and sheep from a petting zoo were the source of the E. coli among fair visitors. Other indications were that the fencing and environment surrounding the petting zoo could have been a source of transmission.
What is believed to be the largest E. coli O157:H7 outbreak in Oregon history
occurred among attendees at the Lane County
fair in 2002. An Oregon Department of Human Services
– Health Services investigation led to the belief that the E. coli outbreak originated from exposure in the sheep and goat barn. In all, 79 people were confirmed ill with E. coli infections as part of the outbreak; 22 were hospitalized, and 12 suffered HUS
.
In 2003, fair visitors and animal exhibitors at the Fort Bend County Fair in Texas became ill with E. coli O157:H7 infections. An outbreak investigation led to the determination that 25 people had become ill with E. coli infections after attending the Fort Bend County Fair; seven people were laboratory-confirmed with E. coli, and 5 developed HUS
or TTP (Thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura
). Investigators isolated a strain of E. coli indistinguishable from the outbreak strain from four animal husbandry sites, and found high levels of E. coli contamination in both rodeo and animal exhibit areas.
In 2004, a large E. coli O157:H7 outbreak occurred among visitors at the 2004 North Carolina State Fair
. During its investigation into the outbreak, the North Carolina Department of Health and Human Services
(NCDHHS) received over 180 reports of illness, and documented 33 culture-confirmed cases of E. coli O157:H7 associated with attendance at the fair, with 15 children developing HUS
. In its final investigation report, NCDHHS concluded that the North Carolina State Fair E. coli outbreak had originated at a petting zoo exhibit. The conclusion was supported by a case-control study, environmental sampling, and laboratory analysis of samples collected from the fair and members of the outbreak.
In 2005, a petting zoo that exhibited at two Florida
fairs and a festival was traced as the source of an E. coli O157:H7 outbreak. Sixty-three people who had visited either the Florida State Fair
, the Central Florida Fair, or the Florida Strawberry Festival reported illness to investigators for the Florida Department of Health
, including 20 who were culture-confirmed and 7 with HUS
. A case-control study revealed that illness was associated with exposure to a petting zoo exhibit present at all three events.
, Campylobacter
, Caliciviridae
, and Salmonella
.
In 2006, a conference held in Berlin was focusing on the issue of zoonotic pathogen effects on food safety
, urging governments to intervene the problem, and the public to be vigilant towards the risks of catching food-borne diseases via the route of farm-to-dining table.
is any infectious disease
Infectious disease
Infectious diseases, also known as communicable diseases, contagious diseases or transmissible diseases comprise clinically evident illness resulting from the infection, presence and growth of pathogenic biological agents in an individual host organism...
that can be transmitted (in some instances, by a vector) from non-human animal
Animal
Animals are a major group of multicellular, eukaryotic organisms of the kingdom Animalia or Metazoa. Their body plan eventually becomes fixed as they develop, although some undergo a process of metamorphosis later on in their life. Most animals are motile, meaning they can move spontaneously and...
s to human
Human
Humans are the only living species in the Homo genus...
s or from humans to non-human animals (the latter is sometimes called reverse zoonosis or anthroponosis). In a study of 1415 pathogens known to affect humans, 61% were zoonotic. The emergence of a pathogen into a new host species is called disease invasion.
The emerging interdisciplinary field of conservation medicine
Conservation medicine
Conservation medicine is an emerging, interdisciplinary field that studies the relationship between human and animal health, and environmental conditions. Also known as ecological medicine, environmental medicine, or medical geology....
, which integrates human and veterinary medicine
Veterinary medicine
Veterinary Medicine is the branch of science that deals with the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of disease, disorder and injury in non-human animals...
, and environmental science
Environmental science
Environmental science is an interdisciplinary academic field that integrates physical and biological sciences, to the study of the environment, and the solution of environmental problems...
s, is largely concerned with zoonoses.
Partial list of carriers
A partial list of agents that can carry infectious organisms that may be zoonotic are listed below. Xenozoonosis is zoonosis transmitted by xenotransplantationXenotransplantation
Xenotransplantation , is the transplantation of living cells, tissues or organs from one species to another. Such cells, tissues or organs are called xenografts or xenotransplants...
(transplantation between species).
- Assassin bugs
- BatBatBats are mammals of the order Chiroptera "hand" and pteron "wing") whose forelimbs form webbed wings, making them the only mammals naturally capable of true and sustained flight. By contrast, other mammals said to fly, such as flying squirrels, gliding possums, and colugos, glide rather than fly,...
s - Bank voleBank VoleThe bank vole is a small vole with red-brown fur and some grey patches, with a tail about half as long as its body. A rodent, it lives in woodland areas and is around in length. The bank vole is found in western Europe and northern Asia...
s - BirdBirdBirds are feathered, winged, bipedal, endothermic , egg-laying, vertebrate animals. Around 10,000 living species and 188 families makes them the most speciose class of tetrapod vertebrates. They inhabit ecosystems across the globe, from the Arctic to the Antarctic. Extant birds range in size from...
s - CatCatThe cat , also known as the domestic cat or housecat to distinguish it from other felids and felines, is a small, usually furry, domesticated, carnivorous mammal that is valued by humans for its companionship and for its ability to hunt vermin and household pests...
s - CattleCattleCattle are the most common type of large domesticated ungulates. They are a prominent modern member of the subfamily Bovinae, are the most widespread species of the genus Bos, and are most commonly classified collectively as Bos primigenius...
- ChimpanzeeChimpanzeeChimpanzee, sometimes colloquially chimp, is the common name for the two extant species of ape in the genus Pan. The Congo River forms the boundary between the native habitat of the two species:...
s - DogDogThe domestic dog is a domesticated form of the gray wolf, a member of the Canidae family of the order Carnivora. The term is used for both feral and pet varieties. The dog may have been the first animal to be domesticated, and has been the most widely kept working, hunting, and companion animal in...
s - FishFishFish are a paraphyletic group of organisms that consist of all gill-bearing aquatic vertebrate animals that lack limbs with digits. Included in this definition are the living hagfish, lampreys, and cartilaginous and bony fish, as well as various extinct related groups...
- FleaFleaFlea is the common name for insects of the order Siphonaptera which are wingless insects with mouthparts adapted for piercing skin and sucking blood...
s - FliesSandflythumb|Sandfly biting a human's little fingerthumb|Sandfly biteSandfly is a colloquial name for any species or genus of flying, biting, blood-sucking Dipteran encountered in sandy areas...
- Geese
- GoatGoatThe domestic goat is a subspecies of goat domesticated from the wild goat of southwest Asia and Eastern Europe. The goat is a member of the Bovidae family and is closely related to the sheep as both are in the goat-antelope subfamily Caprinae. There are over three hundred distinct breeds of...
s
- HamsterHamsterHamsters are rodents belonging to the subfamily Cricetinae. The subfamily contains about 25 species, classified in six or seven genera....
s - HorseHorseThe horse is one of two extant subspecies of Equus ferus, or the wild horse. It is a single-hooved mammal belonging to the taxonomic family Equidae. The horse has evolved over the past 45 to 55 million years from a small multi-toed creature into the large, single-toed animal of today...
s - HumanHumanHumans are the only living species in the Homo genus...
s - HyraxHyraxA hyrax is any of four species of fairly small, thickset, herbivorous mammals in the order Hyracoidea. The rock hyrax Procavia capensis, the yellow-spotted rock hyrax Heterohyrax brucei, the western tree hyrax Dendrohyrax dorsalis, and the southern tree hyrax, Dendrohyrax arboreus live in Africa...
es - Lice
- MicePeromyscusThe genus Peromyscus contains the animal species commonly referred to as deer mice. This is a genus of New World mouse only distantly related to the common house mouse and laboratory mouse, Mus musculus...
- MonkeyMonkeyA monkey is a primate, either an Old World monkey or a New World monkey. There are about 260 known living species of monkey. Many are arboreal, although there are species that live primarily on the ground, such as baboons. Monkeys are generally considered to be intelligent. Unlike apes, monkeys...
s - MosquitoMosquitoMosquitoes are members of a family of nematocerid flies: the Culicidae . The word Mosquito is from the Spanish and Portuguese for little fly...
s - Opossums
- PigDomestic pigThe domestic pig is a domesticated animal that traces its ancestry to the wild boar, and is considered a subspecies of the wild boar or a distinct species in its own right. It is likely the wild boar was domesticated as early as 13,000 BC in the Tigris River basin...
s - RabbitRabbitRabbits are small mammals in the family Leporidae of the order Lagomorpha, found in several parts of the world...
s and hareHareHares and jackrabbits are leporids belonging to the genus Lepus. Hares less than one year old are called leverets. Four species commonly known as types of hare are classified outside of Lepus: the hispid hare , and three species known as red rock hares .Hares are very fast-moving...
s - RaccoonRaccoonProcyon is a genus of nocturnal mammals, comprising three species commonly known as raccoons, in the family Procyonidae. The most familiar species, the common raccoon , is often known simply as "the" raccoon, as the two other raccoon species in the genus are native only to the tropics and are...
s - RatRatRats are various medium-sized, long-tailed rodents of the superfamily Muroidea. "True rats" are members of the genus Rattus, the most important of which to humans are the black rat, Rattus rattus, and the brown rat, Rattus norvegicus...
s
- RodentRodentRodentia is an order of mammals also known as rodents, characterised by two continuously growing incisors in the upper and lower jaws which must be kept short by gnawing....
s - SlothSlothSloths are the six species of medium-sized mammals belonging to the families Megalonychidae and Bradypodidae , part of the order Pilosa and therefore related to armadillos and anteaters, which sport a similar set of specialized claws.They are arboreal residents of the jungles of Central and South...
s - Sheep
- SnailSnailSnail is a common name applied to most of the members of the molluscan class Gastropoda that have coiled shells in the adult stage. When the word is used in its most general sense, it includes sea snails, land snails and freshwater snails. The word snail without any qualifier is however more often...
s - TickTickTicks are small arachnids in the order Ixodida, along with mites, constitute the subclass Acarina. Ticks are ectoparasites , living by hematophagy on the blood of mammals, birds, and sometimes reptiles and amphibians...
s - Wolves
List of infectious agents
Zoonoses can be listed according to the infectious agent:- ParasitesParasitismParasitism is a type of symbiotic relationship between organisms of different species where one organism, the parasite, benefits at the expense of the other, the host. Traditionally parasite referred to organisms with lifestages that needed more than one host . These are now called macroparasites...
- protozoaProtozoaProtozoa are a diverse group of single-cells eukaryotic organisms, many of which are motile. Throughout history, protozoa have been defined as single-cell protists with animal-like behavior, e.g., movement...
, helminths (nematodes, cestodes and trematodes)
- protozoa
- Fungi
- BacteriaBacteriaBacteria are a large domain of prokaryotic microorganisms. Typically a few micrometres in length, bacteria have a wide range of shapes, ranging from spheres to rods and spirals...
- Viruses
- PriaPrionA prion is an infectious agent composed of protein in a misfolded form. This is in contrast to all other known infectious agents which must contain nucleic acids . The word prion, coined in 1982 by Stanley B. Prusiner, is a portmanteau derived from the words protein and infection...
Partial list of zoonoses
- Anthrax
- BabesiosisBabesiosisBabesiosis is a malaria-like parasitic disease caused by infection with Babesia, a genus of protozoal piroplasms. After trypanosomes, Babesia are thought to be the second most common blood parasites of mammals and they can have a major impact on health of domestic animals in areas without severe...
- BalantidiasisBalantidiasisBalantidiasis is a protozoan infection caused by infection with Balantidium coli.-Symptoms:Symptoms can be local due to involvement of the intestinal mucosa, or systemic in nature and include either diarrhea or constipation.-Treatment:...
- Barmah Forest virusBarmah Forest virusBarmah Forest virus is a virus currently found only in Australia. According to a Queensland Public Health Services fact sheet, "there is no specific drug treatment" for the virus, but the disease is non-fatal and relatively mild. The virus is transmitted to humans by bites from infected...
- BartonellosisBartonellosisBartonellosis is an infectious disease produced by bacteria of the genus Bartonella. Bartonella species cause diseases such as Carrión´s disease, trench fever, and cat scratch disease, and other recognized diseases, such as bacillary angiomatosis, peliosis hepatis, chronic bacteremia, endocarditis,...
- Bilharzia
- Bolivian hemorrhagic feverBolivian hemorrhagic feverBolivian hemorrhagic fever , also known as black typhus or Ordog Fever, is a hemorrhagic fever and zoonotic infectious disease originating in Bolivia after infection by Machupo virus....
- BrucellosisBrucellosisBrucellosis, also called Bang's disease, Crimean fever, Gibraltar fever, Malta fever, Maltese fever, Mediterranean fever, rock fever, or undulant fever, is a highly contagious zoonosis caused by ingestion of unsterilized milk or meat from infected animals or close contact with their secretions...
- BorreliaBorreliaBorrelia is a genus of bacteria of the spirochete phylum. It causes borreliosis, a zoonotic, vector-borne disease transmitted primarily by ticks and some by lice, depending on the species...
(Lyme disease and others) - Borna virus infection
- Bovine tuberculosisMycobacterium bovisMycobacterium bovis is a slow-growing , aerobic bacterium and the causative agent of tuberculosis in cattle...
- CampylobacteriosisCampylobacteriosisCampylobacteriosis is an infection by the Campylobacter bacterium, most commonly C. jejuni. It is among the most common bacterial infections of humans, often a foodborne illness. It produces an inflammatory, sometimes bloody, diarrhea or dysentery syndrome, mostly including cramps, fever and...
- Cat Scratch DiseaseCat scratch diseaseCat scratch disease is a usually benign infectious disease caused by the intracellular bacterium Bartonella. It is most commonly found in children following a scratch or bite from a cat by about one to two weeks...
- Chagas diseaseChagas diseaseChagas disease is a tropical parasitic disease caused by the flagellate protozoan Trypanosoma cruzi. T. cruzi is commonly transmitted to humans and other mammals by an insect vector, the blood-sucking insects of the subfamily Triatominae most commonly species belonging to the Triatoma, Rhodnius,...
- Chlamydophila psittaciChlamydophila psittaciChlamydophila psittaci is a lethal intracellular bacterial species that may cause endemic avian chlamydiosis, epizootic outbreaks in mammals, and respiratory psittacosis in humans. Chlamydophila psittaci is transmitted by inhalation, contact or ingestion among birds and to mammals...
- CholeraCholeraCholera is an infection of the small intestine that is caused by the bacterium Vibrio cholerae. The main symptoms are profuse watery diarrhea and vomiting. Transmission occurs primarily by drinking or eating water or food that has been contaminated by the diarrhea of an infected person or the feces...
- CowpoxCowpoxCowpox is a skin disease caused by a virus known as the Cowpox virus. The pox is related to the vaccinia virus and got its name from the distribution of the disease when dairymaids touched the udders of infected cows. The ailment manifests itself in the form of red blisters and is transmitted by...
- Creutzfeldt-Jakob diseaseCreutzfeldt-Jakob diseaseCreutzfeldt–Jakob disease or CJD is a degenerative neurological disorder that is incurable and invariably fatal. CJD is at times called a human form of mad cow disease, given that bovine spongiform encephalopathy is believed to be the cause of variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease in humans.CJD...
(vCJD),
- a transmissible spongiform encephalopathyTransmissible spongiform encephalopathyTransmissible spongiform encephalopathies , also known as prion diseases, are a group of progressive conditions that affect the brain and nervous system of many animals, including humans. According to the most widespread hypothesis they are transmitted by prions, though some other data suggest an...
(TSE) - from bovine spongiform encephalopathyBovine spongiform encephalopathyBovine spongiform encephalopathy , commonly known as mad-cow disease, is a fatal neurodegenerative disease in cattle that causes a spongy degeneration in the brain and spinal cord. BSE has a long incubation period, about 30 months to 8 years, usually affecting adult cattle at a peak age onset of...
(BSE) or "mad cow disease"- Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic feverCrimean-Congo hemorrhagic feverCrimean–Congo hemorrhagic fever is a widespread tick-borne viral disease, a zoonosis of domestic animals and wild animals, that may affect humans. The pathogenic virus, especially common in East and West Africa, is a member of the Bunyaviridae family of RNA viruses. Clinical disease is rare in...
- CryptosporidiosisCryptosporidiosisCryptosporidiosis, also known as crypto, is a parasitic disease caused by Cryptosporidium, a protozoan parasite in the phylum Apicomplexa. It affects the intestines of mammals and is typically an acute short-term infection...
- Cutaneous larva migransCutaneous larva migransCutaneous larva migrans is a skin disease in humans, caused by the larvae of various nematode parasites of the hookworm family...
- Dengue feverDengue feverDengue fever , also known as breakbone fever, is an infectious tropical disease caused by the dengue virus. Symptoms include fever, headache, muscle and joint pains, and a characteristic skin rash that is similar to measles...
- EbolaEbolaEbola virus disease is the name for the human disease which may be caused by any of the four known ebolaviruses. These four viruses are: Bundibugyo virus , Ebola virus , Sudan virus , and Taï Forest virus...
- EchinococcosisEchinococcosisEchinococcosis, which is often referred to as hydatid disease or echinococcal disease, is a parasitic disease that affects both humans and other mammals, such as sheep, dogs, rodents and horses. There are three different forms of echinococcosis found in humans, each of which is caused by the larval...
- Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever
- Escherichia coli O157:H7Escherichia coli O157:H7Escherichia coli O157:H7 is an enterohemorrhagic strain of the bacterium Escherichia coli and a cause of foodborne illness. Infection often leads to hemorrhagic diarrhea, and occasionally to kidney failure, especially in young children and elderly persons...
- Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiaeErysipelothrix rhusiopathiaeErysipelothrix rhusiopathiae is a gram-positive, catalase-negative, rod-shaped bacterium. It grows aerobically and anaerobically and does not contain endotoxin. Distributed worldwide, E. rhusiopathiae is primarily considered an animal pathogen, causing a disease known as erysipelas in animals...
- Eastern equine encephalitis virusEastern equine encephalitis virusEastern equine encephalitis virus , commonly called sleeping sickness or Triple E, is a zoonotic alphavirus and arbovirus present in North, Central and South America and the Caribbean. EEE was first recognized in Massachusetts, USA in 1831 when 75 horses died of encephalitic illness...
- Western equine encephalitis virusWestern equine encephalitis virusThe Western equine encephalomyelitis virus is the causative agent of relatively uncommon viral disease Western equine encephalomyelitis . An Alphavirus of the family Togaviridae, the WEE virus is an arbovirus transmitted by mosquitoes of the genera Culex and Culiseta...
- Venezuelan equine encephalitis virusVenezuelan equine encephalitis virusVenezuelan equine encephalitis virus is a mosquito-borne viral pathogen that causes Venezuelan equine encephalitis or encephalomyelitis . VEE can affect all equine species, such as horses, donkeys, and zebras. After infection, equines may suddenly die or show progressive central nervous system...
- Giardia lambliaGiardia lambliaGiardia lamblia is a flagellated protozoan parasite that colonizes and reproduces in the small intestine, causing giardiasis. The giardia parasite attaches to the epithelium by a ventral adhesive disc, and reproduces via binary fission...
- H1N1 fluH1N1'Influenza A virus is a subtype of influenza A virus and was the most common cause of human influenza in 2009. Some strains of H1N1 are endemic in humans and cause a small fraction of all influenza-like illness and a small fraction of all seasonal influenza. H1N1 strains caused a few percent of...
- HantavirusHantavirusHantaviruses are negative sense RNA viruses in the Bunyaviridae family. Humans may be infected with hantaviruses through rodent bites, urine, saliva or contact with rodent waste products...
- Helminths
- Hendra virus
- HenipavirusHenipavirusHenipavirus is a genus of the family Paramyxoviridae, order Mononegavirales containing two established species, Hendra virus and Nipah virus. The henipaviruses are naturally harboured by Pteropid fruit bats , and some microbat species...
- Human Immunodeficiency Virus
- Korean hemorrhagic fever
- Kyasanur forest diseaseKyasanur forest diseaseKyasanur forest disease is a tick-borne viral hemorrhagic fever endemic to South Asia. The disease is caused by a virus belonging to the family flaviviridae, which also includes yellow fever and dengue fever.-History:...
- Lábrea feverLábrea feverLábrea fever, also known as Lábrea's black fever and Lábrea hepatitis, is a lethal tropical viral infection discovered in the 1950s in the city of Lábrea, in the Brazilian Amazon basin, where it occurs mostly in the area south of the Amazon River, in the states of Acre, Amazonas and Rondônia. The...
- Lassa feverLassa feverLassa fever is an acute viral hemorrhagic fever caused by the Lassa virus and first described in 1969 in the town of Lassa, in Borno State, Nigeria, in the Yedseram river valley at the south end of Lake Chad. Clinical cases of the disease had been known for over a decade but had not been connected...
- LeishmaniasisLeishmaniasisLeishmaniasis is a disease caused by protozoan parasites that belong to the genus Leishmania and is transmitted by the bite of certain species of sand fly...
- LeptospirosisLeptospirosisLeptospirosis is caused by infection with bacteria of the genus Leptospira, and affects humans as well as other mammals, birds, amphibians, and reptiles.The...
- Listeriosis
- Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus
- Marburg feverMarburg virusMarburg virus disease is the name for the human disease caused by any of the two marburgviruses Marburg virus and Ravn virus...
- Mediterranean spotted fever
- Mycobacterium marinumMycobacterium marinumMycobacterium marinum is a free-living bacterium, which causes opportunistic infections in humans.- History :Although Aronson isolated this mycobacterium in 1926 from a fish, it was not until 1951 that it was found to be the cause of human disease by Linell and Norden...
- Monkey BHerpes B VirusHerpes Simian B virus is the endemic simplexvirus of macaque monkeys. B virus is an alphaherpesvirus, which consists of a subset of herpesviruses that travel within hosts using the peripheral nerves...
- Nipah fever
- Ocular larva migransOcular larva migransOcular larva migrans is the ocular form of the larva migrans syndrome that occurs when toxocara canis larvae invade the eye. They may be associated with visceral larva migrans...
- Omsk hemorrhagic feverOmsk hemorrhagic feverOmsk Hemorrhagic Fever is a viral hemorrhagic fever caused by a Flavivirus.It is found in Siberia. It is named for an outbreak in Omsk.-Virology:...
- Ornithosis (psittacosis)
- Orf (animal disease)Orf (animal disease)Orf is an exanthemous disease caused by a parapox virus and occurring primarily in sheep and goats. It is also known as contagious pustular dermatitis, infectious labial dermatitis, ecthyma contagiosum, and sheep pox, thistle disease and scabby mouth...
- Oropouche feverOropouche feverOropouche fever is a tropical viral infection, a zoonosis similar to dengue fever, transmitted by biting midge and mosquitoes from the blood of sloths to humans. It occurs mainly in the Amazonic region, the Caribbean and Panama...
- PasteurellosisPasteurellosisPasteurellosis is an infection with a species of the bacteria genus Pasteurella, which is found in humans and animals.Pasteurella multocida is carried in mouth and respiratory tract of several animals, notably cats. It is a small Gram negative bacillus with bipolar staining by Wayson stain...
- Plague
- Puumala virusPuumala virusPuumala virus is a species of hantavirus. Humans infected with the virus may develop a haemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome known as nephropathia epidemica. Puumala virus HFRS is lethal in a small percentage of cases....
- Q-FeverQ feverQ fever is a disease caused by infection with Coxiella burnetii, a bacterium that affects humans and other animals. This organism is uncommon but may be found in cattle, sheep, goats and other domestic mammals, including cats and dogs...
- PsittacosisPsittacosisIn medicine , psittacosis — also known as parrot disease, parrot fever, and ornithosis — is a zoonotic infectious disease caused by a bacterium called Chlamydophila psittaci and contracted from parrots, such as macaws, cockatiels and budgerigars, and pigeons, sparrows, ducks, hens, gulls and many...
, or "parrot fever" - RabiesRabiesRabies is a viral disease that causes acute encephalitis in warm-blooded animals. It is zoonotic , most commonly by a bite from an infected animal. For a human, rabies is almost invariably fatal if post-exposure prophylaxis is not administered prior to the onset of severe symptoms...
- Rift Valley feverRift Valley feverRift Valley Fever is a viral zoonosis causing fever. It is spread by the bite of infected mosquitoes, typically the Aedes or Culex genera. The disease is caused by the RVF virus, a member of the genus Phlebovirus...
- Ringworms (Tinea canis)
- RotavirusRotavirusRotavirus is the most common cause of severe diarrhoea among infants and young children, and is one of several viruses that cause infections often called stomach flu, despite having no relation to influenza. It is a genus of double-stranded RNA virus in the family Reoviridae. By the age of five,...
- SalmonellosisSalmonellosisSalmonellosis is an infection with Salmonella bacteria. Most people infected with Salmonella develop diarrhea, fever, vomiting, and abdominal cramps 12 to 72 hours after infection. In most cases, the illness lasts four to seven days, and most people recover without treatment...
- Sodoku
- SparganosisSparganosisSparganosis is a parasitic infection caused by the plerocercoid larvae of diphyllobothroid tapeworms belonging to the genus Spirometra. First described by Manson in 1882, the infection is transmitted by ingestion of contaminated water, ingestion of a second intermediate host such as a frog or...
- Streptococcus suisStreptococcus suisStreptococcus suis is a peanut-shaped, Gram-positive bacterium, and an important pathogen of pigs. Endemic in nearly all countries with an extensive pig industry, S. suis is also a zoonotic disease, capable of transmission to humans from pigs. Humans can be infected with S...
- ToxocariasisToxocariasis-History of discovery:Werner described a parasitic nematode in dogs in 1782 which he named Ascaris canis. Johnston determined that what Werner had described was actually a member of the genus Toxocara established by Stiles in 1905. Fữlleborn speculated that T canis larvae might cause granulomatous...
- ToxoplasmosisToxoplasmosisToxoplasmosis is a parasitic disease caused by the protozoan Toxoplasma gondii. The parasite infects most genera of warm-blooded animals, including humans, but the primary host is the felid family. Animals are infected by eating infected meat, by ingestion of feces of a cat that has itself...
- TrichinosisTrichinosisTrichinosis, also called trichinellosis, or trichiniasis, is a parasitic disease caused by eating raw or undercooked pork or wild game infected with the larvae of a species of roundworm Trichinella spiralis, commonly called the trichina worm. There are eight Trichinella species; five are...
- TularemiaTularemiaTularemia is a serious infectious disease caused by the bacterium Francisella tularensis. A Gram-negative, nonmotile coccobacillus, the bacterium has several subspecies with varying degrees of virulence. The most important of those is F...
, or "rabbit fever" - Typhus of Rickettsiae
- Venezuelan hemorrhagic feverVenezuelan hemorrhagic feverVenezuelan hemorrhagic fever is a zoonotic human illness, first identified in 1989.-Presentation:It causes fever and malaise followed by hemorrhagic manifestations and convulsions. It is fatal in 30% of cases. The disease is endemic to Portuguesa state and Barinas state in Venezuela . This virus...
- Visceral larva migrans
- West Nile virusWest Nile virusWest Nile virus is a virus of the family Flaviviridae. Part of the Japanese encephalitis antigenic complex of viruses, it is found in both tropical and temperate regions. It mainly infects birds, but is known to infect humans, horses, dogs, cats, bats, chipmunks, skunks, squirrels, domestic...
- Yellow feverYellow feverYellow fever is an acute viral hemorrhagic disease. The virus is a 40 to 50 nm enveloped RNA virus with positive sense of the Flaviviridae family....
- YersiniosisYersiniosisYersiniosis is an infectious disease caused by a bacterium of the genus Yersinia. In the United States, most yersiniosis infections among humans are caused by Y. enterocolitica. Yersiniosis is mentioned as a specific zoonotic disease to prevent outbreaks in European Council Directive...
Other zoonoses might be:
- GlandersGlandersGlanders is an infectious disease that occurs primarily in horses, mules, and donkeys. It can be contracted by other animals such as dogs, cats and goats...
- SARS (possibly; civetCivetThe family Viverridae is made up of around 30 species of medium-sized mammal, including all of the genets, the binturong, most of the civets, and the two African linsangs....
cats may spread the disease, or may catch the disease from humans.)
Historical development of zoonotic diseases
Most of human prehistoryPrehistory
Prehistory is the span of time before recorded history. Prehistory can refer to the period of human existence before the availability of those written records with which recorded history begins. More broadly, it refers to all the time preceding human existence and the invention of writing...
was spent as small bands of hunter-gatherers; these bands were rarely larger than 150
Dunbar's number
Dunbar's number is suggested to be a theoretical cognitive limit to the number of people with whom one can maintain stable social relationships. These are relationships in which an individual knows who each person is, and how each person relates to every other person...
individuals, and were not in contact with other bands very often. Because of this, epidemic
Epidemic
In epidemiology, an epidemic , occurs when new cases of a certain disease, in a given human population, and during a given period, substantially exceed what is expected based on recent experience...
or pandemic
Pandemic
A pandemic is an epidemic of infectious disease that is spreading through human populations across a large region; for instance multiple continents, or even worldwide. A widespread endemic disease that is stable in terms of how many people are getting sick from it is not a pandemic...
diseases, which depend on a constant influx of humans who have not developed an immune response, tended to burn out after their first run through a population. To survive, a biological pathogen had to be a chronic
Chronic (medicine)
A chronic disease is a disease or other human health condition that is persistent or long-lasting in nature. The term chronic is usually applied when the course of the disease lasts for more than three months. Common chronic diseases include asthma, cancer, diabetes and HIV/AIDS.In medicine, the...
infection, stay alive in the host for long periods, or have a non-human reservoir
Natural reservoir
Natural reservoir or nidus, refers to the long-term host of the pathogen of an infectious disease. It is often the case that hosts do not get the disease carried by the pathogen or it is carried as a subclinical infection and so asymptomatic and non-lethal...
in which to live while waiting for new hosts to pass by. In fact, for many 'human' diseases, the human is actually an accidental victim and a dead-end host. (This is the case with rabies
Rabies
Rabies is a viral disease that causes acute encephalitis in warm-blooded animals. It is zoonotic , most commonly by a bite from an infected animal. For a human, rabies is almost invariably fatal if post-exposure prophylaxis is not administered prior to the onset of severe symptoms...
, anthrax, tularemia
Tularemia
Tularemia is a serious infectious disease caused by the bacterium Francisella tularensis. A Gram-negative, nonmotile coccobacillus, the bacterium has several subspecies with varying degrees of virulence. The most important of those is F...
, West Nile virus
West Nile virus
West Nile virus is a virus of the family Flaviviridae. Part of the Japanese encephalitis antigenic complex of viruses, it is found in both tropical and temperate regions. It mainly infects birds, but is known to infect humans, horses, dogs, cats, bats, chipmunks, skunks, squirrels, domestic...
, and many others). Thus, much of human development has been in relation to zoonotic, not epidemic, diseases.
Many modern diseases, even epidemic diseases, started out as zoonotic diseases. It is hard to be certain which diseases jumped from other animals to humans, but there is good evidence that measles
Measles
Measles, also known as rubeola or morbilli, is an infection of the respiratory system caused by a virus, specifically a paramyxovirus of the genus Morbillivirus. Morbilliviruses, like other paramyxoviruses, are enveloped, single-stranded, negative-sense RNA viruses...
, smallpox
Smallpox
Smallpox was an infectious disease unique to humans, caused by either of two virus variants, Variola major and Variola minor. The disease is also known by the Latin names Variola or Variola vera, which is a derivative of the Latin varius, meaning "spotted", or varus, meaning "pimple"...
, influenza
Influenza
Influenza, commonly referred to as the flu, is an infectious disease caused by RNA viruses of the family Orthomyxoviridae , that affects birds and mammals...
, HIV
HIV
Human immunodeficiency virus is a lentivirus that causes acquired immunodeficiency syndrome , a condition in humans in which progressive failure of the immune system allows life-threatening opportunistic infections and cancers to thrive...
, and diphtheria
Diphtheria
Diphtheria is an upper respiratory tract illness caused by Corynebacterium diphtheriae, a facultative anaerobic, Gram-positive bacterium. It is characterized by sore throat, low fever, and an adherent membrane on the tonsils, pharynx, and/or nasal cavity...
came to us this way. The common cold
Common cold
The common cold is a viral infectious disease of the upper respiratory system, caused primarily by rhinoviruses and coronaviruses. Common symptoms include a cough, sore throat, runny nose, and fever...
, and tuberculosis
Tuberculosis
Tuberculosis, MTB, or TB is a common, and in many cases lethal, infectious disease caused by various strains of mycobacteria, usually Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Tuberculosis usually attacks the lungs but can also affect other parts of the body...
may also have started in other species.
In modern days, zoonoses are of practical interest because they are often previously unrecognized diseases or have increased virulence in populations lacking immunity. The West Nile virus appeared in the United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
in 1999 in the New York City
New York City
New York is the most populous city in the United States and the center of the New York Metropolitan Area, one of the most populous metropolitan areas in the world. New York exerts a significant impact upon global commerce, finance, media, art, fashion, research, technology, education, and...
area, and moved through the country in the summer of 2002, causing much distress. Bubonic plague
Bubonic plague
Plague is a deadly infectious disease that is caused by the enterobacteria Yersinia pestis, named after the French-Swiss bacteriologist Alexandre Yersin. Primarily carried by rodents and spread to humans via fleas, the disease is notorious throughout history, due to the unrivaled scale of death...
is a zoonotic disease, as are salmonella
Salmonella
Salmonella is a genus of rod-shaped, Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, predominantly motile enterobacteria with diameters around 0.7 to 1.5 µm, lengths from 2 to 5 µm, and flagella which grade in all directions . They are chemoorganotrophs, obtaining their energy from oxidation and reduction...
, Rocky Mountain spotted fever
Rocky Mountain spotted fever
Rocky Mountain spotted fever is the most lethal and most frequently reported rickettsial illness in the United States. It has been diagnosed throughout the Americas. Some synonyms for Rocky Mountain spotted fever in other countries include “tick typhus,” “Tobia fever” , “São Paulo fever” or “febre...
, and Lyme disease
Lyme disease
Lyme disease, or Lyme borreliosis, is an emerging infectious disease caused by at least three species of bacteria belonging to the genus Borrelia. Borrelia burgdorferi sensu stricto is the main cause of Lyme disease in the United States, whereas Borrelia afzelii and Borrelia garinii cause most...
.
The major factor contributing to the appearance of new zoonotic pathogens in human populations is increased contact between humans and wildlife (Daszak et al.., 2001). This can be caused either by encroachment of human activity into wilderness areas or by movement of wild animals into areas of human activity due to anthropological or environmental disturbances. An example of this is the outbreak of Nipah virus
Henipavirus
Henipavirus is a genus of the family Paramyxoviridae, order Mononegavirales containing two established species, Hendra virus and Nipah virus. The henipaviruses are naturally harboured by Pteropid fruit bats , and some microbat species...
in peninsular Malaysia in 1999, when intensive pig farming
Intensive pig farming
Intensive piggeries are a type of factory farm ' specialized in the raising of domestic pigs up to slaughter weight...
intruded into the natural habitat of fruit bats carrying the virus. Unidentified spillover events caused infection of the pig population which acted as an amplifier host, eventually transmitting the virus to farmers and resulting in 105 human deaths (Field et al.., 2001).
Similarly, in recent times avian influenza and West Nile virus have spilled over into human populations probably due to interactions between the carrier host and domestic animals. Highly mobile animals such as bats and birds may present a greater risk of zoonotic transmission than other animals due to the ease with which they can move into areas of human habitation.
Diseases like malaria
Malaria
Malaria is a mosquito-borne infectious disease of humans and other animals caused by eukaryotic protists of the genus Plasmodium. The disease results from the multiplication of Plasmodium parasites within red blood cells, causing symptoms that typically include fever and headache, in severe cases...
, schistosomiasis
Schistosomiasis
Schistosomiasis is a parasitic disease caused by several species of trematodes , a parasitic worm of the genus Schistosoma. Snails often act as an intermediary agent for the infectious diseases until a new human host is found...
, river blindness, and elephantiasis
Elephantiasis
Elephantiasis is a disease that is characterized by the thickening of the skin and underlying tissues, especially in the legs and male genitals. In some cases the disease can cause certain body parts, such as the scrotum, to swell to the size of a softball or basketball. It is caused by...
are not zoonotic, even though they may be transmitted by insects or use intermediate hosts vectors, because they depend on the human host for part of their life-cycle.
Partial list of outbreaks of zoonosis associated with fairs and petting zoos
OutbreakOutbreak
Outbreak is a term used in epidemiology to describe an occurrence of disease greater than would otherwise be expected at a particular time and place. It may affect a small and localized group or impact upon thousands of people across an entire continent. Two linked cases of a rare infectious...
s of zoonosis have been traced to human interaction with and exposure to animals at fair
Fair
A fair or fayre is a gathering of people to display or trade produce or other goods, to parade or display animals and often to enjoy associated carnival or funfair entertainment. It is normally of the essence of a fair that it is temporary; some last only an afternoon while others may ten weeks. ...
s, petting zoo
Petting zoo
A petting zoo features a combination of domestic animals and some wild species that are docile enough to touch and feed. In addition to independent petting zoos, also called children's farms or petting farms, many general zoos contain a petting zoo...
s, and in other settings. In 2005, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention are a United States federal agency under the Department of Health and Human Services headquartered in Druid Hills, unincorporated DeKalb County, Georgia, in Greater Atlanta...
(CDC) issued an updated list of recommendations for preventing zoonosis transmission in public settings. The CDC recommendations, which were developed in conjunction with the National Association of State Public Health Veterinarians, include sections on the educational responsibilities of venue operators, managing public and animal contact, and animal care and management.
In 1988, a person became ill with swine influenza virus (swine flu) and died after visiting the display area of the pig barn at a Wisconsin
Wisconsin
Wisconsin is a U.S. state located in the north-central United States and is part of the Midwest. It is bordered by Minnesota to the west, Iowa to the southwest, Illinois to the south, Lake Michigan to the east, Michigan to the northeast, and Lake Superior to the north. Wisconsin's capital is...
county fair. Three healthcare personnel treating the case patient also developed flu-like illness with laboratory evidence of swine influenza virus infection. Investigators from the CDC indicated in their final report that the swine flu had been transmitted directly from pig to human host.
In 1994, seven cases of E. coli O157:H7 infection were traced to a farm
Farm
A farm is an area of land, or, for aquaculture, lake, river or sea, including various structures, devoted primarily to the practice of producing and managing food , fibres and, increasingly, fuel. It is the basic production facility in food production. Farms may be owned and operated by a single...
in Leicestershire
Leicestershire
Leicestershire is a landlocked county in the English Midlands. It takes its name from the heavily populated City of Leicester, traditionally its administrative centre, although the City of Leicester unitary authority is today administered separately from the rest of Leicestershire...
, United Kingdom
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
. An epidemiological investigation into the outbreak revealed that the strain
Strain (biology)
In biology, a strain is a low-level taxonomic rank used in three related ways.-Microbiology and virology:A strain is a genetic variant or subtype of a micro-organism . For example, a "flu strain" is a certain biological form of the influenza or "flu" virus...
of E. coli O157:H7 isolated from nine animals on the farm was indistinguishable from the strain isolated from human samples. Investigators concluded that the most likely cause of this outbreak was direct human contact with animals.
In 1995, 43 children who had visited a rural farm in Wales
Wales
Wales is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and the island of Great Britain, bordered by England to its east and the Atlantic Ocean and Irish Sea to its west. It has a population of three million, and a total area of 20,779 km²...
became ill with Cryptosporidiosis
Cryptosporidiosis
Cryptosporidiosis, also known as crypto, is a parasitic disease caused by Cryptosporidium, a protozoan parasite in the phylum Apicomplexa. It affects the intestines of mammals and is typically an acute short-term infection...
. Cryptosporidium was isolated from seven of the ill children. An epidemiological investigation indicated that the source of the children's illness was contact with calves
Calf
Calves are the young of domestic cattle. Calves are reared to become adult cattle, or are slaughtered for their meat, called veal.-Terminology:...
at the farm.
Also in 1995, at least 13 children became ill with Cryptosporidiosis after visiting a farm in Dublin, Ireland
Ireland
Ireland is an island to the northwest of continental Europe. It is the third-largest island in Europe and the twentieth-largest island on Earth...
. In a case-control study
Case-control
A case-control study is a type of study design in epidemiology. Case-control studies are used to identify factors that may contribute to a medical condition by comparing subjects who have that condition with patients who do not have the condition but are otherwise similar .Case-control studies are...
, researchers compared the activities of the 13 ill children, or cases, to the activities of 52 out of 55 people who had visited the farm – the controls
Scientific control
Scientific control allows for comparisons of concepts. It is a part of the scientific method. Scientific control is often used in discussion of natural experiments. For instance, during drug testing, scientists will try to control two groups to keep them as identical and normal as possible, then...
. The study revealed that illness was significantly associated
Statistical significance
In statistics, a result is called statistically significant if it is unlikely to have occurred by chance. The phrase test of significance was coined by Ronald Fisher....
with playing in the sand in a picnic area beside a stream where animals had access.
In 1997, an E. coli O157:H7 outbreak was identified among one child who lived on an open farm and two children who visited the farm during school parties. Two of the three children developed hemolytic-uremic syndrome
Hemolytic-uremic syndrome
Hemolytic-uremic syndrome , abbreviated HUS, is a disease characterized by hemolytic anemia, acute renal failure and a low platelet count . It predominantly, but not exclusively, affects children. Most cases are preceded by an episode of diarrhea caused by E. coli O157:H7, which is acquired as a...
(HUS). Isolates collected from the three children and from samples taken at the farm were indistinguishable, demonstrating evidence of the link between the farm and the children's illness.
In 1999, what is believed to be the largest outbreak of waterborne E. coli O157:H7 illness in United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
history occurred at the Washington County
Washington County, New York
Washington County is a county located in the U.S. state of New York. It is part of the Glens Falls, New York, Metropolitan Statistical Area. As of the 2010 census, the population was 63,216. It was named for the Revolutionary War general George Washington...
, New York
New York
New York is a state in the Northeastern region of the United States. It is the nation's third most populous state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south, and by Connecticut, Massachusetts and Vermont to the east...
fair. The New York State Department of Health
New York State Department of Health
The New York State Department of Health, ', is the governmental body responsible for public health in the state of New York. The cabinet-level department is headed by the Health Commissioner, a position held since January 24, 2011 by Nirav R. Shah, M.D., M.P.H.....
identified 781 individuals who were suspected of being infected with either E. coli O157:H7 or Campylobacter jejuni. An investigation into the outbreak revealed that consumption of beverages purchased from vendors supplied with water drawn from an unchlorinated fairgrounds well was associated with illness. In all, 127 outbreak victims were confirmed ill with E. coli O157:H7 infections; 71 were hospitalized, 14 developed HUS
Hemolytic-uremic syndrome
Hemolytic-uremic syndrome , abbreviated HUS, is a disease characterized by hemolytic anemia, acute renal failure and a low platelet count . It predominantly, but not exclusively, affects children. Most cases are preceded by an episode of diarrhea caused by E. coli O157:H7, which is acquired as a...
, and two died.
In 2000, 51 people became ill with confirmed or suspected E. coli O157:H7 infections after visiting a dairy
Dairy
A dairy is a business enterprise established for the harvesting of animal milk—mostly from cows or goats, but also from buffalo, sheep, horses or camels —for human consumption. A dairy is typically located on a dedicated dairy farm or section of a multi-purpose farm that is concerned...
farm in Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania
The Commonwealth of Pennsylvania is a U.S. state that is located in the Northeastern and Mid-Atlantic regions of the United States. The state borders Delaware and Maryland to the south, West Virginia to the southwest, Ohio to the west, New York and Ontario, Canada, to the north, and New Jersey to...
. Eight children developed HUS
Hemolytic-uremic syndrome
Hemolytic-uremic syndrome , abbreviated HUS, is a disease characterized by hemolytic anemia, acute renal failure and a low platelet count . It predominantly, but not exclusively, affects children. Most cases are preceded by an episode of diarrhea caused by E. coli O157:H7, which is acquired as a...
. A case-control study among visitors to the dairy was conducted jointly by the CDC, Pennsylvania Department of Health
Pennsylvania Department of Health
-See also:* Health department* List of Pennsylvania state agencies-External links:*...
, and the Montgomery County
Montgomery County, Pennsylvania
Montgomery County is a county located in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania, in the United States. As of 2010, the population was 799,874, making it the third most populous county in Pennsylvania . The county seat is Norristown.The county was created on September 10, 1784, out of land originally part...
Health Department. The study's authors concluded that E. coli was transmitted to visitors as a result of contamination on animal hides and in the environment.
Also in 2000, 43 visitors to the Medina County fair
County Fair
"County Fair" is a song written by Brian Wilson and Gary Usher for the American rock band The Beach Boys. It was originally released as the second track on their 1962 album Surfin' Safari. On November 26th of that year, it was released as the B-side to The Beach Boys' third single, "Ten Little...
in Ohio
Ohio
Ohio is a Midwestern state in the United States. The 34th largest state by area in the U.S.,it is the 7th‑most populous with over 11.5 million residents, containing several major American cities and seven metropolitan areas with populations of 500,000 or more.The state's capital is Columbus...
were confirmed ill with E. coli O157:H7 infections. An investigation into the outbreak suggested that the water system from which food vendors were supplied was the source of the E. coli outbreak. Several months later, five children became ill with E. coli infections after attending a "Carnival of Horrors" event held at the Medina County fairgrounds. PFGE analysis of the strains of E. coli isolated from members of both outbreaks revealed an indistinguishable pattern, and investigators from the Medina County Health Department and the CDC determined that the Medina County Fairgrounds water distribution system was the source of both E. coli outbreaks.
In 2001, an E. coli O157:H7 outbreak was traced to exposure in the Cow Palace at the Lorain County
Lorain County, Ohio
Lorain County is a county located in the U.S. state of Ohio, and is considered to be a part of what is locally referred to as Greater Cleveland. As of the 2010 census, its population was 301,356. an increase from 284,664 in 2000...
Fair in Ohio. CDC investigators identified 23 cases of E. coli infection associated with attendance at the Lorain County Fair, with additional secondary cases likely. Two people developed HUS
Hemolytic-uremic syndrome
Hemolytic-uremic syndrome , abbreviated HUS, is a disease characterized by hemolytic anemia, acute renal failure and a low platelet count . It predominantly, but not exclusively, affects children. Most cases are preceded by an episode of diarrhea caused by E. coli O157:H7, which is acquired as a...
. An environmental and site investigation revealed E. coli contamination on doorways, rails, bleachers, and sawdust. Investigators concluded that the Lorain County Fair was the source of the outbreak.
Wyandot County
Wyandot County, Ohio
As of the census of 2000, there were 22,908 people, 8,882 households, and 6,270 families residing in the county. The population density was 56 people per square mile . There were 9,324 housing units at an average density of 23 per square mile...
, Ohio, also reported an E. coli O157:H7 outbreak in 2001. Ninety-two E. coli infections were reported to the Wyandot County Health Department and the CDC, with 27 cases confirmed using laboratory analysis. Two cases developed HUS
Hemolytic-uremic syndrome
Hemolytic-uremic syndrome , abbreviated HUS, is a disease characterized by hemolytic anemia, acute renal failure and a low platelet count . It predominantly, but not exclusively, affects children. Most cases are preceded by an episode of diarrhea caused by E. coli O157:H7, which is acquired as a...
. Contact with infected cattle was believed to be the source of the outbreak; however, a specific cause was never identified.
In 2002, seven people became ill with E. coli O157:H7 infections after visiting a large agricultural fair in Ontario
Ontario
Ontario is a province of Canada, located in east-central Canada. It is Canada's most populous province and second largest in total area. It is home to the nation's most populous city, Toronto, and the nation's capital, Ottawa....
, Canada
Canada
Canada is a North American country consisting of ten provinces and three territories. Located in the northern part of the continent, it extends from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west, and northward into the Arctic Ocean...
. Outbreak investigators conducted a case-control study, which indicated that goats and sheep from a petting zoo were the source of the E. coli among fair visitors. Other indications were that the fencing and environment surrounding the petting zoo could have been a source of transmission.
What is believed to be the largest E. coli O157:H7 outbreak in Oregon history
History of Oregon
The history of Oregon, a U.S. state, may be considered in five eras: geologic history, inhabitation by native peoples, early exploration by Europeans , settlement by pioneers, and modern development....
occurred among attendees at the Lane County
Lane County, Oregon
-National protected areas:*Oregon Islands National Wildlife Refuge *Siuslaw National Forest *Umpqua National Forest *Willamette National Forest -Government:...
fair in 2002. An Oregon Department of Human Services
Oregon Department of Human Services
The Oregon Department of Human Services is the primary health and human services agency of the government of the U.S. state of Oregon. The ODHS was established in 1971 as the Oregon Department of Human Resources but renamed in 1999...
– Health Services investigation led to the belief that the E. coli outbreak originated from exposure in the sheep and goat barn. In all, 79 people were confirmed ill with E. coli infections as part of the outbreak; 22 were hospitalized, and 12 suffered HUS
Hemolytic-uremic syndrome
Hemolytic-uremic syndrome , abbreviated HUS, is a disease characterized by hemolytic anemia, acute renal failure and a low platelet count . It predominantly, but not exclusively, affects children. Most cases are preceded by an episode of diarrhea caused by E. coli O157:H7, which is acquired as a...
.
In 2003, fair visitors and animal exhibitors at the Fort Bend County Fair in Texas became ill with E. coli O157:H7 infections. An outbreak investigation led to the determination that 25 people had become ill with E. coli infections after attending the Fort Bend County Fair; seven people were laboratory-confirmed with E. coli, and 5 developed HUS
Hemolytic-uremic syndrome
Hemolytic-uremic syndrome , abbreviated HUS, is a disease characterized by hemolytic anemia, acute renal failure and a low platelet count . It predominantly, but not exclusively, affects children. Most cases are preceded by an episode of diarrhea caused by E. coli O157:H7, which is acquired as a...
or TTP (Thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura
Thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura
Thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura is a rare disorder of the blood-coagulation system, causing extensive microscopic thromboses to form in small blood vessels throughout the body...
). Investigators isolated a strain of E. coli indistinguishable from the outbreak strain from four animal husbandry sites, and found high levels of E. coli contamination in both rodeo and animal exhibit areas.
In 2004, a large E. coli O157:H7 outbreak occurred among visitors at the 2004 North Carolina State Fair
North Carolina State Fair
The North Carolina State Fair is an annual fair and agricultural exposition held in Raleigh, North Carolina, and organized by the North Carolina Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services....
. During its investigation into the outbreak, the North Carolina Department of Health and Human Services
North Carolina Department of Health and Human Services
The North Carolina Department of Health and Human Services is a large government agency in the U.S. state of North Carolina, somewhat analogous to the United States Department of Health and Human Services. DHHS has more than 19,000 employees...
(NCDHHS) received over 180 reports of illness, and documented 33 culture-confirmed cases of E. coli O157:H7 associated with attendance at the fair, with 15 children developing HUS
Hemolytic-uremic syndrome
Hemolytic-uremic syndrome , abbreviated HUS, is a disease characterized by hemolytic anemia, acute renal failure and a low platelet count . It predominantly, but not exclusively, affects children. Most cases are preceded by an episode of diarrhea caused by E. coli O157:H7, which is acquired as a...
. In its final investigation report, NCDHHS concluded that the North Carolina State Fair E. coli outbreak had originated at a petting zoo exhibit. The conclusion was supported by a case-control study, environmental sampling, and laboratory analysis of samples collected from the fair and members of the outbreak.
In 2005, a petting zoo that exhibited at two Florida
Florida
Florida is a state in the southeastern United States, located on the nation's Atlantic and Gulf coasts. It is bordered to the west by the Gulf of Mexico, to the north by Alabama and Georgia and to the east by the Atlantic Ocean. With a population of 18,801,310 as measured by the 2010 census, it...
fairs and a festival was traced as the source of an E. coli O157:H7 outbreak. Sixty-three people who had visited either the Florida State Fair
Florida State Fair
The Florida State Fair is held annually at the bugger Florida State Fairgrounds near Tampa. The official state fair of Florida, it includes indoor and outdoor exhibits, rides and shows. It is a chance for the state to showcase its agricultural industry. The Fair also offers competitions and food...
, the Central Florida Fair, or the Florida Strawberry Festival reported illness to investigators for the Florida Department of Health
Florida Department of Health
The Florida Department of Health is responsible for protecting the public health and safety of the residents and visitors of the State of Florida. It is a cabinet level agency of the state government, headed by a State surgeon general who reports to the Governor...
, including 20 who were culture-confirmed and 7 with HUS
Hemolytic-uremic syndrome
Hemolytic-uremic syndrome , abbreviated HUS, is a disease characterized by hemolytic anemia, acute renal failure and a low platelet count . It predominantly, but not exclusively, affects children. Most cases are preceded by an episode of diarrhea caused by E. coli O157:H7, which is acquired as a...
. A case-control study revealed that illness was associated with exposure to a petting zoo exhibit present at all three events.
Contribution of zoonotic pathogens to foodborne illness
The most significant zoonotic pathogens that cause the foodborne diseases are those of Escherichia coli O157:H7Escherichia coli O157:H7
Escherichia coli O157:H7 is an enterohemorrhagic strain of the bacterium Escherichia coli and a cause of foodborne illness. Infection often leads to hemorrhagic diarrhea, and occasionally to kidney failure, especially in young children and elderly persons...
, Campylobacter
Campylobacter
Campylobacter is a genus of bacteria that are Gram-negative, spiral, and microaerophilic. Motile, with either unipolar or bipolar flagella, the organisms have a characteristic spiral/corkscrew appearance and are oxidase-positive. Campylobacter jejuni is now recognized as one of the main causes...
, Caliciviridae
Caliciviridae
The Caliciviridae family are a family of viruses, members of Class IV of the Baltimore scheme. They are positive-sense, single stranded RNA which is non-segmented. The caliciviruses have been found in a number of organisms such as humans, cattle, pigs, cats, chickens, reptiles, dolphins and...
, and Salmonella
Salmonella
Salmonella is a genus of rod-shaped, Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, predominantly motile enterobacteria with diameters around 0.7 to 1.5 µm, lengths from 2 to 5 µm, and flagella which grade in all directions . They are chemoorganotrophs, obtaining their energy from oxidation and reduction...
.
In 2006, a conference held in Berlin was focusing on the issue of zoonotic pathogen effects on food safety
Food safety
Food safety is a scientific discipline describing handling, preparation, and storage of food in ways that prevent foodborne illness. This includes a number of routines that should be followed to avoid potentially severe health hazards....
, urging governments to intervene the problem, and the public to be vigilant towards the risks of catching food-borne diseases via the route of farm-to-dining table.
See also
- Anthroponotic diseaseAnthroponotic diseaseAn anthroponotic disease, or anthroponosis, is an infectious disease in which a disease causing agent carried by humans is transferred to other animals...
- DisinfectionDisinfectionDisinfectants are substances that are applied to non-living objects to destroy microorganisms that are living on the objects. Disinfection does not necessarily kill all microorganisms, especially nonresistant bacterial spores; it is less effective than sterilisation, which is an extreme physical...
- Foodborne illnessFoodborne illnessFoodborne illness is any illness resulting from the consumption of contaminated food, pathogenic bacteria, viruses, or parasites that contaminate food, as well as chemical or natural toxins such as poisonous mushrooms.-Causes:Foodborne illness usually arises from improper handling, preparation, or...
- Human parasitic diseasesHuman parasitic diseasesThis is a list of topics related to human parasitic diseases. See also the categories shown below.-Diseases:*Acanthamoeba keratitis*Amoebiasis*Ascariasis*Babesiosis*Balantidiasis*Baylisascariasis*Chagas disease*Clonorchiasis*Cochliomyia*Cryptosporidiosis...
- List of parasites (human)
- Spanish fluSpanish fluThe 1918 flu pandemic was an influenza pandemic, and the first of the two pandemics involving H1N1 influenza virus . It was an unusually severe and deadly pandemic that spread across the world. Historical and epidemiological data are inadequate to identify the geographic origin...
- ZoophiliaZoophiliaZoophilia, from the Greek ζῷον and φιλία is the practice of sex between humans and non-human animals , or a preference or fixation on such practice...
- Zoophilia and healthZoophilia and healthSee: Zoophilia.Sexual contact with animals is associated with several significant health risks. Areas of possible concern are infection, physical injury and allergic reaction.-Zoonoses acquired via sexual contact:...