Encyclopedia
Yoga, meaning union in
Sanskrit, is a family of ancient spiritual practices, and also a school of spiritual thought that originated in
India, where it remains a vibrant living tradition and is seen as a means to enlightenment. Karma Yoga,
Bhakti Yoga, Jnana Yoga, and Raja Yoga are considered the four main yogas, but there are many other types. In other parts of the world where yoga is popular, notably the West, Yoga has become associated with the
asanas of
Hatha Yoga, which are popularly considered there as fitness
exercises and also form the basis of an expanding business.
Yoga as a means to enlightenment is central to
Hinduism,
Buddhism, and
Jainism, and has influenced other religious and spiritual practices throughout the world. Ancient
Hindu texts establishing the basis for yoga include the Upanishads, Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, the
Bhagavad Gita, the Hatha Yoga Pradipika and many others, which specify the criteria of having successfully mastered a particular yoga technique.
Yoga practice and Intentions
Modern yoga practice often includes traditional elements inherent in eastern religion, such as moral and ethical principles, postures designed to keep the body fit, spiritual philosophy, instruction by a
guru, chanting of
mantras , pranayama , and stilling the mind through
meditation. These elements are sometimes adapted to meet the needs of non-Hindu practitioners, who may be attracted to yoga by its utility as a relaxation technique or as a way to keep fit.
Proponents of yoga see daily practice as beneficial in itself, leading to improved health, emotional well-being, mental clarity, and joy in living. Yoga advocates progress toward the experience of
samadhi, an advanced state of meditation where there is absorption in inner ecstasy, Ananda.
The goals of yoga are expressed differently in different traditions. In theistic
Hinduism, yoga may be seen as a set of practices intended to bring people closer to God - to help them achieve union with God. In
Buddhism, which does not postulate a creator-type god, yoga may help people deepen their
wisdom, compassion, and insight. In Western nations, where there is a strong emphasis on individualism, yoga practice may be an extension of the search for meaning in self, and integration of the different aspects of being. The terms Self-Realization and
god-Realization are used interchangeably in Hindu yoga, with the underlying belief that the true nature of self, revealed through the practice of yoga, is of the same nature as God.
The ultimate goal of yoga is the attainment of liberation from worldly suffering and the cycle of birth and death . Yoga entails mastery over the body, mind, and emotional self, and transcendence of desire. It is said to lead gradually to knowledge of the true nature of reality. The
Yogi reaches an enlightened state where there is a cessation of thought and an experience of blissful union. This union may be of the individual soul with the supreme Reality , as in Vedanta philosophy; or with a specific god or goddess, as in theistic forms of
Hinduism and some forms of
Buddhism. Enlightenment may also be described as extinction of the limited ego, and direct and lasting perception of the non-dual nature of the
universe.
For the average person still far from enlightenment, yoga can be a way of increasing one's spiritual awareness, or cultivating compassion and insight. While the history of yoga strongly connects it with
Hinduism, proponents claim that yoga is not a religion itself, but contains practical steps which can be found in the esoteric spiritual practices of all religions, as well as those who do not consider themselves religious.
Origins
Images of a meditating yogi from the
Indus Valley Civilization are thought to be 6 to 7 thousand years old. The earliest written accounts of yoga appear in the
Rig Veda, which began to be codified between 1500 and 1200 BC. It is difficult to establish the date of yoga from this as the
Rig Veda was orally transmitted for at least a millennium. The first Yoga text dates to around the 2nd century BC by Patanjali, and prescribes adherence to "eight limbs" to quiet one's mind and merge with the infinite.
The first quasi-rational full description of the principles and goals of yoga are found in the
Upanisads, thought to have been composed between the eighth and fourth centuries BC. The Upanisads are also called Vedanta since they constitute the end or conclusion of the Vedas . In the Upanisads, the older practices of offering
sacrifices and ceremonies to appease external gods gives way instead to a new understanding that man can, by means of an inner sacrifice, become one with the Supreme Being -- through moral culture, restraint and training of the mind.
The word "yoga"
The word "yoga" derives from the
Sanskrit root
yuj ; which is cognate to modern
English "yoke", "jugal" and "jugum" in
Latin. All derive from the Proto-Indo-European root *yeug- meaning "to join" or "unite".
It is generally translated as "union of the individual
atma with
Paramatma, the universal soul." This may be understood as union with the Divine by integration of body, mind, and spirit. Thus, in essence, one who attempts yoga may loosely be referred to as a
yogi or in Sanskrit, a
yogin or
yogini . These designations are actually intended for advanced practitioners, who have already made considerable progress along the path towards yoga.
In the west the word has often been taken to mean union between the mind and body, justifying the practice of some forms of Yoga solely for physical and mental benefits. In addition to physical and mental benefits of yoga , it also provides a union with oneself. Day by day , more people are turning to yoga to find solutions for stress relief and peaceful life.
Diversity of yoga
Over the long history of yoga, different schools have emerged, and there are numerous examples of subdivisions and synthesis. It is common to speak of each form of yoga as a "path" to enlightenment. Thus, yoga may include components of love and devotion , selfless work , knowledge and discernment , or an eight-limbed system of disciplines emphasizing meditation . These practices occupy a continuum from the religious to the scientific. They need not be mutually exclusive. Some people pursue Hatha
yoga as exercise divorced from spiritual practice.
Other types of yoga include Mantra Yoga,
Kundalini Yoga,
Iyengar Yoga, Kriya Yoga, Integral Yoga, Nitya Yoga, Maha Yoga, Purna Yoga, Prasara Yoga, Natya Yoga,
Anahata Yoga, Tantra Yoga, Tibetan Yoga,
Sahaja Yoga etc. It is often helpful to check the teacher and lineage to be sure how these terms are being used. Another name for Raja Yoga is Ashtanga Yoga , but this should not be confused with the Ashtanga Vinyasa Yoga developed by Sri K. Pattabhi Jois, which is a specific style of
Hatha Yoga practice.
Yoga and religion
In the Hindu, Buddhist and Jain traditions, the spiritual goals of yoga are seen as inseparable from the religions of which yoga forms a part. Some yogis make a subtle distinction between religion and yoga, seeing religion as more concerned with outward
culture, values, beliefs and
rituals; and yoga as more concerned with inner Self-Realization, i.e., direct perception of the ultimate truth. In this sense, religion and yoga are complementary.
Sri Ramakrishna likened religion to the husk, and direct experience to the kernel. Both are needed, "but if one wants to get at the kernel itself, he must remove the husk of the grain."
Some forms of yoga come replete with a rich
iconography, while others are more austere and
minimalist. Hindu practitioners of yoga are proud of their religious traditions, while non-Hindu practitioners claim that yoga may be practiced sincerely by those who have not accepted the Hindu religion.
While the yoga tradition remains rooted in India, the fact that some modern yogis like
Swami Vivekananda and
Paramahansa Yogananda came to
the West suggests that they saw hope the yoga tradition could also flourish there. Critics of yoga as practiced in the West charge that it is sometimes watered down, corrupted, or cut off from its spiritual roots . The sheer number of people practising yoga outside India suggests the need to define yoga both by its historical roots and its modern adaptations.
Common themes
Common to most forms of yoga is the practice of concentration and
meditation .
Dharana, according to
Patanjali's definition, is the "binding of consciousness to a single point." The awareness is concentrated on a fine point of sensation . Sustained single-pointed concentration gradually leads to meditation , in which the inner faculties are able to expand and merge with something vast. Meditators sometimes report feelings of peace, joy, and oneness.
The focus of meditation may differ from school to school, e.g. meditation on one of the
chakras, such as the heart center or the 'third eye' ; or meditation on a particular deity, such as
Krishna; or on a quality like
peace. Non-dualist schools such as
Advaita Vedanta may stress meditation on the Supreme with no form or qualities . This resembles Buddhist meditation on the Void.
Another common element is the spiritual teacher . While emphasized to varying degrees by all schools of yoga, in some the guru is seen as an embodiment of the Divine. The guru guides the student through yogic discipline from the beginning. Thus, the novice yoga student traditionally devotes himself to a
satguru . Traditionally, knowledge of yoga - as well as permission to practice it or teach it--has been passed down through initiatory chains of gurus and their students. This is called
guruparampara.
The yoga tradition is one of practical experience, but also incorporates texts which explain the techniques and philosophy of yoga. Many gurus write on the subject, either providing modern translations and elucidations of classical texts, or explaining how their particular teachings should be followed. A guru may also found an ashram or order of
monks; these comprise the institutions of yoga. The yoga tradition has also been a fertile source of inspiration for poetry, music, dance, and art.
When students associate with a particular teacher, school, ashram or order, this naturally creates yoga communities where there are shared practices. Chanting of
mantras such as
Aum, singing of spiritual songs, and studying sacred texts are all common themes. The importance of any one element may differ from school to school, or student to student. Differences do not always reflect disagreement, but rather a multitude of approaches meant to serve students of differing needs, background and temperament.
The yogi is sometimes portrayed as going beyond rules-based morality. This does not mean that a yogi will act in an immoral fashion, but rather that he or she will act with direct knowledge of the supreme Reality. In some legends, a yogi - having amassed merit through spiritual practice, may then cause mischief even to the gods. Some yogis in history have been naked
ascetics, such as Swami Trailanga, who greatly vexed the
occupying British in
19th century Benares by wandering about naked.
Roots of Yoga
Bhagavad Gita
The Bhagavad Gita famously distinguishes several types of "yoga", corresponding to the duties of different nature of people. Capturing the essence and at the same time going into detail about the various Yogas and their
philosophies, it constantly refers to itself as such, the "Scripture of Yoga" . The book is thought to have been written some time between the
5th and the 2nd century BC. In it, Krishna describes the following yogas:
- Karma yoga, the yoga of "action" in the world.
- Jnana yoga, the yoga of knowledge and intellectual endeavor.
- Bhakti yoga, the yoga of devotion to a deity.
- Raja yoga, the yoga of meditation
Patanjali
Perhaps the classic description of yoga is the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, which form the basis not only of the darshana called "yoga"—one of six such "orthodox" schools of Hindu philosophy—but also of the practice of yoga in most ashrams . The school of Indian philosophy known as "yoga" is primarily Upanishadic with roots in Samkhya, and some scholars see some influence from Buddhism. The Yoga philosophy fully believes in the epistemology of the Samkhya school, as well as its concept of the individual spirits and the Nature —but differs from Samkhya's atheism.
Patanjali in the Yoga Sutras presents the goal of yoga as 'the cessation of mental fluctuations' , an achievement which gives rise to the possibility of stable
meditation and thus deeper states of absorption . This requires considerable restraint and self-discipline ). Patanjali's yoga is sometimes called Raja Yoga or "Ashtanga Yoga" , in order to distinguish it from Hatha yoga. It is held as authoritative by all schools. Patanjali is also known for writing commentaries on the Sutras of the great Sanskrit grammarian Panini. In fact, Panini, Patanjali and Katyayana are regarded are the highest authority not only in Sanskrit but also in the whole of Linguistics.
Patanjali's text sets forth eight "limbs" of yoga practice. Interestingly, only one of them involves physical postures . The eight are:
- Yama : violence, lying, theft, sex, and possessions
- Niyama : purity, contentment, austerities, study, and surrender to god
- Asana: This term literally means "seat," and originally referred mainly to seated positions. With the rise of Hatha yoga, it came to be used of these yoga "postures" as well.
- Pranayama: Control of prana or vital breath
- Pratyahara : Reversal of the sense organs
- Dharana : Fixing the attention on a single object
- Dhyana
- Samadhi: Super-conscious state or trance
God in Yoga philosophy
The philosophy of Yoga also presented certain arguments for the existence of
God :
- The Vedas are regarded as evidence. The Vedas and their commentaries, the Upanishads mention and describe god—hence god exists.
- Continuity: people and things have various degrees of differences among themselves. Some people are foolish, some are wise. Hence there ought to be some Being who has the highest level of knowledge among all—who is omniscient. That being is god.
- Cosmic Evolution, leading to this universe, occurs because of the contact between Purusha and Prakriti . Purusha is static, and Prakriti is unconscious. Hence there can be no contact between these two things of opposite characteristics, unless god—the omniscient being—brings about this contact.
- Meditation upon a deity is regarded as the best means of attaining liberation. If meditation on such a being helps in liberation, and all obstacles are removed, then the object of the meditation must have a real existence.
Ishvara is regarded as a special Purusha, who is beyond sorrow and Karma laws. He is one, perfect, infinite, omniscient, omnipresent, omnipotent and eternal. He is beyond the three qualities of Sattva, Rajas and Tamas. He is different from an ordinary liberated spirit, because the latter were bound once, whereas Ishvara was never bound. He is kind and merciful. He is the father of the demigods and of the sages , as well as their
guru; He is the author of the Vedas.
Yoga system is perhaps the first philosophy in the world to give arguments for monotheism. Yoga says that Ishvara can be only one and unique. If many gods are assumed:
- Let us assume there are two gods. If god #1 gives a certain quality to a thing and god #2 gives another to the same thing, this would be mutually contradictory. On the other hand, if god #1's choice reigns supreme, god #2 would fail to remain as god.
- Let us assume the gods work in as a committee to do certain tasks one by one. Then while one god is doing his work, the existence of the other gods would be superfluous and unnecessary.
Hatha Yoga
Over the last century the term
yoga has come to be especially associated with the postures of
hatha yoga . Hatha yoga has gained wide popularity outside of
India and traditional yoga-practicing religions, and the postures are sometimes presented as entirely secular or non-spiritual in nature.
Traditional Hatha Yoga is a complete yogic path, including moral disciplines, physical exercises , and meditation - and encompasses far more than the yoga of postures and
exercises practiced in the West as a physical culture. The seminal work on Hatha Yoga is the Hatha Yoga Pradipika, written by Swami Svatmarama.
Hatha Yoga was designed to provide a form of physical purification and training that would prepare aspirants for the higher training that is called
Raja Yoga . This is still true today. Despite this, many in the West practice 'Hatha yoga' solely for the perceived
health benefits it provides, and not as a path to
enlightenment.
Natya Yoga
Natya Shastra, a guide to Natya Yoga was written by Bharata Muni. Sage
Narada along with Gandharvas were the first to practise Natya Yoga, which comprise all the four main yogas. Natya Yoga was practised by the medieval
devadasis, and is currently taught in a few orthodox schools of
Bharatanatyam and
Odissi.
Yoga and Buddhism
Within the various schools of
Tibetan Buddhism yoga likewise holds a central place, though not in the form presented by Patanjali or the Gita. An example would be "guru yoga," the union with the mind of the spiritual teacher which must be done at the beginning of the spiritual path and regularly throughout. In the tantric traditions a number of practices are classified with the name "yoga", for example, the two of the four general classification of tantras -"Yoga Tantra" and "Highest Yoga Tantra".
A system of 108 bodily postures practiced with breath and heart rhythm timing in movement exercises is known as Trul khor or union of moon and sun prajna energies. The body postures of Tibetan ancient yogis are depicted on the walls of the Dalai Lama's summer temple of Lukhang.
As the whole buddhist lineage transmission of Kagyu school came to Tibet over the Indian Yogis Naropa, Tilopa, Marpa then Milarepa, Gampopa, authentic old buddhist yogic practices have been passed over to students still following these instructions throughout many Kagyu Monasteries and institutes worldwide.
Yogacara , which is also known as Cittamatra is an important philosophical school within Indo-Tibetan Buddhism.
Yoga among Christians
While some Christians have adopted selected elements of yoga to supplement their own approach to spirituality,
others oppose major components of yoga outright. According to Donal O’Mathuna, Ph.D., and Walt Larimore, M.D., in their book
Alternative Medicine, they claim: "Yoga is an alternative therapy that is difficult to wholeheartedly accept or reject. As a set of physical and breathing exercises, it can improve general well-being. As a deeply religious practice with the goal of union with the divine, it is antithetical to biblical Christianity."
Other Christians have gone farther and embraced many aspects of yoga practice, incorporating them into their ministry. One example of this trend is the Outstretched ministry of Susan Bordenkirche, author of
Yoga For Christians. Another is the book
An Invitation to Christian Yoga by Nancy Roth.
Yoga and Tantra
Yoga is often mentioned in company with Tantra. While the two have deep similarities, most traditions distinguish them from one another.
They are similar in that both amount to families of spiritual texts, practices, and lineages with origins in the Indian subcontinent. . It should be noted however that for the most part, we are speaking of
different families of texts, lineages, etc.
Their differences are variously expressed. Some Hindu commentators see yoga as a process whereby body consciousness is seen as the root cause of bondage, while tantra views the body as a means to understanding, rather than as an obstruction. It must be said that in India, tantra often carries quite negative connotations involving sexual misbehavior and black magic. Nevertheless, most forms of tantra follow more mainstream social mores. The Hatha Yoga Pradipika is generally classified as a Hindu tantric scripture.
Tantra has roots in the first millennium CE, and incorporates much more of a theistic basis. Almost entirely founded on Shiva and Shakti worship, Hindu tantra visualizes the ultimate Brahman as Param Shiva, manifested through Shiva and Shakti . It focuses on the
kundalini, a three and a half-coiled 'snake' of spiritual energy at the base of the spine that rises through the chakras until union between Shiva and Shakti is achieved.
Tantra emphasises
mantra , yantra , and rituals that range from simple murti or image worship to meditation on a corpse! While tantric texts and teachers may seem odd and highly arcane from the point of view of classical yoga, that these incorporate yoga concepts seems clear.
Notable Yogis
Many dedicated individuals have influenced the practice of yoga, and spread awareness of yoga throughout the world.
Centuries ago, such individuals included Meera from the Bhakti tradition,
Shankaracharya from the Jnana Yoga tradition,
Patanjali, who formalized the system of Raja Yoga, are just a few examples.
In the late 1800s,
Ramakrishna Paramahamsa, a Bhakti Yogi, brought about a rebirth of yoga in India. A devotee of Mother
Kali and a teacher of
Advaita Vedanta, he preached that "all religions lead to the same goal."
The noted Indian author
Sri Aurobindo translated and interpreted Yogic scriptures, such as the Upanishads and Bhagavad-Gita. His epic poem
Savitri is a treasure of Hindu Yogic literature, among the longest poems ever written in English. He also founded Sri Aurobindo Ashram in
Pondicherry, which continues to propagate the practice of Integral Yoga, which is Aurobindo's synthesis of the four main Yogas .
Other Indian yogis who inspired their countrymen include Swami Rama Tirtha and
Swami Sivananda who authored over 300 books on yoga and spirituality.
Gopi Krishna was a Kashmiri office worker and spiritual seeker who wrote best-selling autobiographical accounts of his spiritual experiences.
During the early twentieth century, many yogis travelled to the west to spread knowledge of Yoga.
Swami Vivekananda, Ramakrishna's disciple, is well known for introducing Yoga philosophy to many in the west, as well as reinvigorating Hinduism in a modern setting during India's freedom struggle.
Swami Sivananda , founder of the Divine Life Society lived most of his life in Rishikesh, India. He wrote an impressive 300 books on various aspects of Yoga, religions, philosophy, spirituality, Hinduism, moral ethics, hygiene and health. He was a pioneering Yogi in bringing Yoga to the west and throughout the world. He was clear, simple and precise in all his teachings. His motto being: "Serve. Love. Give. Meditate. Purify. Realise."
Paramahansa Yogananda , a practitioner of Kriya Yoga, taught Yoga as the binding force that reconciled
Hinduism and
Christianity. Yogananda founded the
Self-Realization Fellowship in Los Angeles, in 1925. His book
Autobiography of a Yogi continues to be one of the best-selling books on yoga.
A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada popularised Bhakti Yoga for Krishna in many countries through his movement, the
International Society for Krishna Consciousness, which he founded in 1966. His followers, known for enthusiastic chanting in public places, brought Bhakti Yoga to the attention of many westerners.
In 1955, the socio-spiritual organization Ananda Marga was founded by P.R. Sarkar also known as Shrii Shrii Anandamurti. Based on tantric yoga, his teaching emphasizes social service in the context of a political, economic and cultural theory; or
“self-realization and service to all.”Also during this period, many yogis brought greater awareness of Hatha yoga to the west. Some of these individuals include students of Sri Tirumalai Krishnamacharya, who taught at
Mysore Palace from 1924 until his death in 1989; these students include Sri K. Pattabhi Jois,
B.K.S. Iyengar, Indra Devi and Krishnamacharya's son T.K.V. Desikachar.
Notable American Yoga InstructorsNotable American Yoga instructors include: Jean Couch, Erich Schiffman, Mukunda Stiles, Swami Jnaneshvara Bharati,
Rodney Yee,
About the same time, the
Beatles' interest in Transcendental Meditation served to make a celebrity of
Maharishi Mahesh Yogi.
See also
...
References
- Donatelle, Rebecca J. Health: The Basics. 6th ed. San Francisco: Pearson Education, Inc. 2005.
- Feuerstein, Georg. The Shambhala Guide to Yoga. 1st ed. Boston & London: Shambhala Publications 1996.
- Saraswati, swami satyananda "Asana Pranayama Mudra Bandha" ISBN 81-86336-14-1
- Mittra, Dharma Sri. Asanas: 608 Yoga Poses. 1st ed. California: New World Library 2003.
- Usharabudh, Arya Pandit. Philosophy of Hatha Yoga. 2nd ed. Pennsylvania: Himalayan Institute Press 1977, 1985.
