The
Xhosa Wars, also known as the
Kaffir Wars or
Cape Frontier Wars, were a series of nine wars between the
amaXhosaThe Xhosa ) people are speakers of Bantu languages living in south-east South Africa, and in the last two centuries throughout the southern and central-southern parts of the country....
people and
EuropeEurope is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally divided from Asia to its east by the water divide of the Ural Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian Sea, the Caucasus Mountains , and the Black Sea to the southeast...
an settlers from 1779 to 1879 in what is now the
Eastern CapeThe Eastern Cape is a province of South Africa. Its capital is Bhisho. It was formed in 1994 out of the "independent" homelands of Transkei and Ciskei, as well as the eastern portion of the Cape Province. Landing place and home of the 1820 settlers...
in
South AfricaThe Republic of South Africa is a country located at the southern tip of Africa, with a coastline on the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. To the north lie Namibia, Botswana and Zimbabwe, to the east are Mozambique and Swaziland, while Lesotho is an independent country surrounded by South Africa.Modern...
. The wars were responsible for the
amaXhosaThe Xhosa ) people are speakers of Bantu languages living in south-east South Africa, and in the last two centuries throughout the southern and central-southern parts of the country....
people's loss of most of their land, and the incorporation of its people.
The first wars, causes and developments
The competition between the Boers and the
amaXhosaThe Xhosa ) people are speakers of Bantu languages living in south-east South Africa, and in the last two centuries throughout the southern and central-southern parts of the country....
over good grazing land was intense, and skirmishes became wars. Though the Boers had guns and therefore an advantage, they could not fully capitalize on their superior firepower. Chasing the highly mobile Xhosa meant the Boers had to leave their own homes and families undefended, so the local militia strategy was severely limited. Professional troops however were not burdened by such considerations. So, when the
BritishThe United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is a sovereign state located off the northwestern coast of continental Europe. It is an island country, spanning an archipelago including Great Britain, the northeastern part of Ireland, and many small islands...
entered the Cape in 1806, British troops under Harry Smith were sent to help the
BoerBoer is the Dutch word for farmer which came to denote the descendants of the proto Afrikaans-speaking pastoralists of the eastern Cape frontier in Southern Africa during the 18th century as well as those who left the Cape Colony during the 19th century to settle in the Orange Free State,...
settlers. The balance of power changed and in 1811 British and Boer operations began to clear the land of the
amaXhosaThe Xhosa ) people are speakers of Bantu languages living in south-east South Africa, and in the last two centuries throughout the southern and central-southern parts of the country....
people. About four thousand British colonists were stationed on the
Great Fish RiverThe Great Fish River is a river running through the South African province of the Eastern Cape. The river is long and flows into the Indian Ocean...
.
The
XhosaThe Xhosa ) people are speakers of Bantu languages living in south-east South Africa, and in the last two centuries throughout the southern and central-southern parts of the country....
had been expelled from the district between the
Great Fish RiverThe Great Fish River is a river running through the South African province of the Eastern Cape. The river is long and flows into the Indian Ocean...
and the Sundays river known as the Zuurveld, which became a sort of neutral ground. For some time previous to 1811 the
amaXhosaThe Xhosa ) people are speakers of Bantu languages living in south-east South Africa, and in the last two centuries throughout the southern and central-southern parts of the country....
, however, had taken control of the neutral ground and committed depredations of the colonists. In order to expel them from the Zuurveld, Colonel
John GrahamColonel John Graham was a soldier notable for founding Grahamstown, South Africa in 1814. Grahamstown went on to become a military, administrative, judicial and educational centre for its surrounding region.-Family origins:...
took the field with a mixed force in 1811 for a campaign in which the Governor of the
Cape ColonyThe Cape Colony, part of modern South Africa, was established by the Dutch East India Company in 1652, with the founding of Cape Town. It was subsequently occupied by the British in 1795 when the Netherlands were occupied by revolutionary France, so that the French revolutionaries could not take...
, Lt-General
John CradockJohn Francis Cradock, 1st Baron Howden was a British peer, politician and soldier.-Life:He was son of John Cradock, Church of Ireland Archbishop of Dublin....
, said no more blood had been shed "than was necessary to impress on the minds of these savages a proper degree of terror and respect". The
amaXhosaThe Xhosa ) people are speakers of Bantu languages living in south-east South Africa, and in the last two centuries throughout the southern and central-southern parts of the country....
were driven beyond the
Great Fish RiverThe Great Fish River is a river running through the South African province of the Eastern Cape. The river is long and flows into the Indian Ocean...
. On the site of Colonel Graham's headquarters arose the
townGrahamstown is a city in the Eastern Cape Province of the Republic of South Africa and is the seat of the Makana municipality. The population of greater Grahamstown, as of 2003, was 124,758. The population of the surrounding areas, including the actual city was 41,799 of which 77.4% were black,...
which bears his name.
A difficulty between the Cape Colony government and the
amaXhosaThe Xhosa ) people are speakers of Bantu languages living in south-east South Africa, and in the last two centuries throughout the southern and central-southern parts of the country....
arose in 1817, the immediate cause of which was an attempt by the colonial authorities to enforce the restitution of some stolen cattle. On 22 April 1817, led by a prophet-chief named Makana, they attacked
Graham’s TownGrahamstown is a city in the Eastern Cape Province of the Republic of South Africa and is the seat of the Makana municipality. The population of greater Grahamstown, as of 2003, was 124,758. The population of the surrounding areas, including the actual city was 41,799 of which 77.4% were black,...
, then held by a handful of white troops. Help arrived in time and the Xhosa were beaten back. It was then agreed that the land between the Fish and the Keiskamma rivers should be neutral territory.
After first war (1779-1781), the border was established between the
FishThe Great Fish River is a river running through the South African province of the Eastern Cape. The river is long and flows into the Indian Ocean...
and Sundays Rivers. After the second war (1789-1793), the boundary was moved west to Sundays River. The third war (1799-1803) established the Sundays River boundary. The fourth war (1811-1812) was the first war that featured professional British soldiers who could pursue the enemy with single-minded intensity, and in the fourth Xhosa War they drove the Xhosa back to the east of the Fish River.
The 4th Xhosa War, 1811-1812
The first wars of several with the
XhosaThe Xhosa ) people are speakers of Bantu languages living in south-east South Africa, and in the last two centuries throughout the southern and central-southern parts of the country....
had already been fought by the time that the Cape Colony had been ceded to the
United KingdomThe United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is a sovereign state located off the northwestern coast of continental Europe. It is an island country, spanning an archipelago including Great Britain, the northeastern part of Ireland, and many small islands...
. The Xhosa that crossed the colonial frontier had been expelled from the district between the
Sundays RiverThe Sundays River is a river in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa and is said to be the fastest flowing river in South Africa. The Khoisan people originally named this river Nukakamma because the river's banks are always green and grassy despite the arid terrain that it runs...
and Great Fish River known as the Zuurveld, which became a neutral ground of sorts. For some time before 1811, the Xhosa had taken possession of the neutral ground and attacked the colonists. In order to expel them from the Zuurveld,
Colonel John GrahamColonel John Graham was a soldier notable for founding Grahamstown, South Africa in 1814. Grahamstown went on to become a military, administrative, judicial and educational centre for its surrounding region.-Family origins:...
took the area with a mixed-race army in December 1811, and finally the Xhosa were driven beyond the Fish River. On the site of Colonel Graham’s headquarters arose a town bearing his name: Graham's Town, subsequently becoming
GrahamstownGrahamstown is a city in the Eastern Cape Province of the Republic of South Africa and is the seat of the Makana municipality. The population of greater Grahamstown, as of 2003, was 124,758. The population of the surrounding areas, including the actual city was 41,799 of which 77.4% were black,...
. It started by a man called Willem Prinsloo who shot a Xhosa dead.
The 5th Xhosa War, 1818-1819
A difficulty between the Cape Colony government and the Xhosa arose in 1817, the immediate cause of which was an attempt by the colonial authorities to enforce the restitution of some stolen cattle. When overcrowding among the Xhosa east of the Fish River led to civil war, the British intervened. The Xhosa prophet-chief Maqana Nxele (or Makana) emerged at this time and promised “to turn bullets into water.” He led the Xhosa armies in several attacks. On 22 April 1819, Maqana with 10,000 amaXhosa attacked Graham’s Town, then held by a garrison of 350 troops. The garrison was able to repulse the attack only after timely support was received from a Khoi-khoi group led by Jan Boesak. Maqana suffered the loss of 1,000 soldiers.
Maqana was eventually captured and imprisoned on
Robben IslandRobben Island is an island in Table Bay, some seven kilometres off the coast of Cape Town, South Africa. The name is Dutch for "seal island". Robben Island is roughly oval in shape, 3.3 km long north-south, and 1.9 km wide, with an area of 5.07 km² . It is flat and only a few metres above sea...
. This time, the British pushed the Xhosa even further east, beyond the Keiskama River. The land between the Fish and the Keiskamma rivers became a neutral buffer zone, which the British tried to populate with loyal Africans. The Albany district was established in 1820 and populated with some
5,000 BritonsThe 1820 Settlers were several groups or parties of white British colonists settled by the British government and the Cape authorities in the South African Eastern Cape in 1820....
. The Grahamstown battle site is still known as Egazini, or Place of Blood, and a monument was erected here for fallen amaXhosa soldiers.
The 6th Xhosa War, 1834-1836
On the eastern border, further trouble arose between the government and the
XhosaThe Xhosa ) people are speakers of Bantu languages living in south-east South Africa, and in the last two centuries throughout the southern and central-southern parts of the country....
, towards whom the policy of the Cape government was marked by much vacillation. On 11 December 1834, a government commando party killed a chief of high rank, incensing the Xhosa: an army of 10,000 men, led by Maqoma, a brother of the chief who had been killed, swept across the frontier, pillaged and burned the homesteads and killed all who resisted. Among the worst sufferers was a colony of freed Khoikhoi who, in 1829, had been settled in the Kat River valley by the British authorities. Inhabitants of the farms and villages took to the safety of Graham's Town, where women and children found refuge in the church.
There were few available soldiers in the colony, but the governor,
Sir Benjamin d'UrbanLieutenant-General Sir Benjamin d'Urban, GCB, KCH, KCTS was a British general and colonial administrator, who is best known for his frontier policy when he was the Governor in the Cape Colony .-Early career:...
acted quickly and all available forces were mustered under
Colonel Sir Harry SmithLieutenant General Sir Henry George Wakelyn Smith, 1st Baronet of Aliwal GCB , known as Sir Harry Smith, was a notable English soldier and military commander in the British Army of the early 19th century...
, who reached Graham’s Town on 6 January 1835, six days after news of the uprising had reached Cape Town. Retaliatory attacks against the amaXhosa were launched from the town, and hostilities continued for nine months until 17 September 1836 with the signing of a new peace treaty. All the country as far as the River Kei was acknowledged to be British, and its inhabitants declared British subjects. A site for the seat of government was selected and named King William’s Town.
The conflict was the catalyst for
Piet RetiefPieter Mauritz Retief , was a South African Boer leader. Settling in the Cape Colony's strife ridden frontier region in 1814, he assumed command of punitive expeditions and acted as spokesperson for the frontier farmers...
's manifesto and the
Great TrekThe Great Trek was an eastward and north-eastward migration away from British control in the Cape Colony during the 1830s and 1840s by Boers...
. In total 40 farmers (Boers) were killed and 416 farmhouses were burnt down. In addition 5,700 horses, 115,000 head of cattle and 162,000 sheep were plundered by
amaXhosaThe Xhosa ) people are speakers of Bantu languages living in south-east South Africa, and in the last two centuries throughout the southern and central-southern parts of the country....
tribes people. In retaliation sixty thousand amaXhosa cattle were taken or retaken by
colonistsThe 1820 Settlers were several groups or parties of white British colonists settled by the British government and the Cape authorities in the South African Eastern Cape in 1820....
.
By the end of the war 7,000 people of all races were left homeless. Cape governor
Benjamin d'UrbanLieutenant-General Sir Benjamin d'Urban, GCB, KCH, KCTS was a British general and colonial administrator, who is best known for his frontier policy when he was the Governor in the Cape Colony .-Early career:...
took far-reaching steps to prevent similar conflict in the future. These were however not to the liking of the British minister of colonies, Lord Glenelg, who revoked all the measures and accused the Boers of instigating the conflict. As a result, the Boer community lost faith in the British justice system and often took the law into their own hands when cattle rustlers were caught.
The 7th Xhosa War, 1846-1847
Known as the "War of the Axe", the seventh war began with a pre-emptive strike by the colonists on the Xhosa. Tension continued to simmer between farmers and marauders. A
KhoikhoiThe Khoikhoi or Khoi, in standardised Khoekhoe/Nama orthography spelled Khoekhoe, are a historical division of the Khoisan ethnic group, the native people of southwestern Africa, closely related to the Bushmen...
escort, manacled to an
amaXhosaThe Xhosa ) people are speakers of Bantu languages living in south-east South Africa, and in the last two centuries throughout the southern and central-southern parts of the country....
thief, was murdered while transporting the man to
GrahamstownGrahamstown is a city in the Eastern Cape Province of the Republic of South Africa and is the seat of the Makana municipality. The population of greater Grahamstown, as of 2003, was 124,758. The population of the surrounding areas, including the actual city was 41,799 of which 77.4% were black,...
to be tried for stealing an axe. A party of
amaXhosaThe Xhosa ) people are speakers of Bantu languages living in south-east South Africa, and in the last two centuries throughout the southern and central-southern parts of the country....
attacked and killed the escort. The surrender of the murderer was refused and war was declared in March 1846. The Ngqikas were the chief tribe engaged in the war, assisted by portions of the Ndlambe and the
ThembuThe Thembu are one of the handful of nations and population groups which speak Xhosa in South Africa. In Xhosa the name is abaThembu, aba- being a common prefix for peoples....
. A British column sent to attack the Ngqika chief, Sandile, was defeated in the Amathole Mountains. The attacking amaXhosa were able to capture the undefended center of the three mile long wagon train, carrying away important supplies (besides the British officer's supply of wine). On 28 May, a force of 8,000
amaXhosaThe Xhosa ) people are speakers of Bantu languages living in south-east South Africa, and in the last two centuries throughout the southern and central-southern parts of the country....
attacked the British Garrison at Fort Peddie. The assault was unsuccessful, but did result in the loss of nearly 4,000 cattle (which stampeded due to the noise of the British rockets and artillery).
A sizable group of Ndlambe
amaXhosaThe Xhosa ) people are speakers of Bantu languages living in south-east South Africa, and in the last two centuries throughout the southern and central-southern parts of the country....
were defeated on June 7, 1846 by
General SomersetLieutenant General Sir Henry Somerset KCB KH was a British Army officer, the eldest son of Lord Charles Somerset....
on the Gwangu, a few miles from
Fort Peddie. By early 1847, most of the major Xhosa clans were at peace with the colony. However, violence flared up again after members of Sandile's tribe stole a small number of goats from the neighbouring Kat River Settlement. The war continued until Sandile was captured (he was arrested and sent to
GrahamstownGrahamstown is a city in the Eastern Cape Province of the Republic of South Africa and is the seat of the Makana municipality. The population of greater Grahamstown, as of 2003, was 124,758. The population of the surrounding areas, including the actual city was 41,799 of which 77.4% were black,...
after entering a British camp to seek terms). The other chiefs gradually followed suit, and by the end of 1847 the
amaXhosaThe Xhosa ) people are speakers of Bantu languages living in south-east South Africa, and in the last two centuries throughout the southern and central-southern parts of the country....
had been completely subdued after twenty-one months of fighting. On 23rd December 1847, the Keiskamma to upper Kei region was annexed as the
British KaffrariaBritish Kaffraria was a former colony / subordinate administrative entity in present-day South Africa, consisting of the districts now known as King Williams Town and East London....
Colony with
King William's TownKing William's Town, a town in the Eastern Cape province of South Africa along the banks of the Buffalo River. The town is about 40 minutes' motorway drive WNW of the Indian Ocean port of East London. It forms part of a Transitional Local Council area incorporating Bisho, Zwlitsha, Dimbaza,...
as capital.
The 8th Xhosa War, 1850-1853
Also known as Mlanjeni's War. Prophet Mlanjeni predicted that the amaXhosa would be unaffected by the colonists' bullets. Believing that the chiefs were responsible for the unrest caused by Mlanjeni's preaching, Governor Sir Harry Smith travelled in British Kafraria to meet with the prominent chiefs. When the Ngqika chief Sandile refused to attend a meeting outside Fort Cox, Governor Smith deposed him and declared him a fugitive. On 24 December, a British detachment of 650 men under Colonel Mackinnon was ambushed by amaXhosa warriors in the Boomah Pass. The party was forced to retreat to Fort White under heavy fire, having sustained forty-two casualties.
With the Governor cut off at Fort Cox, the Xhosa forces advanced on the colony. British military villages along the frontier were burned, and the post at Line Drift captured. Meanwhile, the Khoi of the Blinkwater River Valley and Kat River Settlement revolted, under the leadership of a half-Khoi, half-Xhosa chief Hermanus Matroos, and managed to capture Fort Armstrong. Large numbers of the "Kafir Police" - a paramilitary police force established by the British to combat cattle theft - also deserted their posts and joined Xhosa war parties. For a moment, it appeared that all of the coloured people of the eastern Cape were taking up arms against the British.
After these initial successes, however, the Xhosa experienced a series of setbacks. Xhosa forces were repulsed in separate attacks on Fort White and Fort Hare. Similarly, on January 7th, Hermanus and his supporters launched an offensive on the town of
Fort BeaufortFort Beaufort is a town in the Amatole District of South Africa's Eastern Cape Province, and has a population of 78,300. The town was established in 1837 and became a municipality in 1883. The town lies at the confluence of the Kat and Brak rivers between the Keiskamma and Great Fish rivers...
, which was defended by a small detachment of troops and local volunteers. The attack failed, however, and Hermanus was killed. By the end of January, the British had received reinforcements from Cape Town and a force under Colonel Mackinnon was able to successfully drive north from King William's Town to resupply the beleaguered garrisons at Fort White, Fort Cox and Fort Hare. With fresh men and supplies, the British expelled the remainder of Hermanus' rebel forces (now under the command of Willem Uithaalder) from Fort Armstrong and drove them west toward the Amatola Mountains.
Insurgents led by Maqoma established themselves in the forested Water Kloof. From this base they managed to plunder surrounding farms and torch the homesteads. Maqoma's stronghold was situated on Mount Misery, a natural fortress on a narrow neck wedged between the Water Kloof and Harry's Kloof. The Water Kloof conflicts lasted two years. Maqoma also led an attack on Fort Fordyce and inflicted heavy losses on the forces of Sir Harry Smith.
In 1852,
HMS BirkenheadHMS Birkenhead, also referred to as HM Troopship Birkenhead or steam frigate Birkenhead, was one of the first iron-hulled ships built for the Royal Navy...
was wrecked at Gansbaai while bringing reinforcements to the war at the request of Sir Harry Smith. Of the 450 people who perished in the incident, most of these were soldiers of the
73rd Regiment of FootThe 73rd Regiment of Foot also known as MacLeod's Highlanders after its founder Lord MacLeod , was an infantry regiment of the British Army.- History :- First raising :...
.
- Prophet Mlanjeni apparently started this war
- Thomas Baines
Thomas Baines was an English artist and explorer of British colonial southern Africa and Australia. Born in King's Lynn, Norfolk, Baines was apprenticed to a coach painter at an early age...
became South Africa’s first official war artist and recorded the Eighth Frontier War (1850-1853).
Cattle Killings, 1856-1858
In April 1856 the sixteen-year-old
amaXhosaThe Xhosa ) people are speakers of Bantu languages living in south-east South Africa, and in the last two centuries throughout the southern and central-southern parts of the country....
prophetIn religion, a prophet is a person who has been contacted by, or has encountered, the supernatural or the divine, and serves as an intermediary with humanity, delivering this newfound knowledge from the supernatural entity to other humans...
ess
NongqawuseNongqawuse was the Xhosa prophetess whose prophecies led to a millennialist movement that culminated in the Xhosa cattle-killing crisis of 1856–1857, in what is now the KwaZulu Natal province of the Republic of South Africa....
believed she had received a message from her ancestors that promised deliverance from their hardships such as horses, sheep, goats, dogs and fowls, all kinds of clothing, and everything you wish to eat will come in great amounts. The old will become young and the settlers will be driven into the sea if they destroyed their cattle. This was a big sacrifice for their ancestors. At first no one believed Nongquwuse's prophecy and the Xhosa nation ignored her prophecy. But when Chief Sarhili killed his cattle, more and more people began to believe that Nongquwuse was an
igqirha (diviner) who could communicate with the ancestors. They too killed their cattle and destroyed their crops. The Xhosa nation waited for the old to become young again and the settlers to be driven in the sea. They waited for clothes, crops and cattle but nothing happened.The return of the ancestors was predicted to occur on 18 February, 1857. The
amaXhosaThe Xhosa ) people are speakers of Bantu languages living in south-east South Africa, and in the last two centuries throughout the southern and central-southern parts of the country....
, mainly chief Kreli of the Gcalekas, heeded the demand and enforced it on others, only to be disappointed on the destined day. The cattle killings continued into 1858, leading to the starvation of thousands. Disease was also spread from the cattle killings. This gave the settlers power over the remainder of the Xhosa nation.
http://africanhistory.about.com/od/glossaryc/g/def_CattleKill.htm
The 9th Xhosa War, 1877-1879
This 9th War started after the harassing of the
MfenguMfengu are an African ethnic group of South Africa who were forced off their land in 1877 and 1878.The word "Mfengu" means "foreigners" as their ancestors moved to the Eastern Cape as one of many Nguni groups fleeing Shaka Zulu....
by Kreli's Gcalekas and when summoned to meet
FrereFrere is a surname shared by several notable people, among them being:born in the United Kingdom* Ellenor Fenn nee Frere , English writer* Sir Henry Bartle Frere , British colonial administrator...
at
King William's TownKing William's Town, a town in the Eastern Cape province of South Africa along the banks of the Buffalo River. The town is about 40 minutes' motorway drive WNW of the Indian Ocean port of East London. It forms part of a Transitional Local Council area incorporating Bisho, Zwlitsha, Dimbaza,...
, the Gcaleka chief refused.
The last war was a feeble attempt by the
amaXhosaThe Xhosa ) people are speakers of Bantu languages living in south-east South Africa, and in the last two centuries throughout the southern and central-southern parts of the country....
returning from diamond fields to regain control of their land. All
amaXhosaThe Xhosa ) people are speakers of Bantu languages living in south-east South Africa, and in the last two centuries throughout the southern and central-southern parts of the country....
territory then became part of the Cape Colony.
See also
- Albany, South Africa
Albany, South Africa was a district in the Eastern Cape, South Africa. The area was known as the 'Zuurveld' by migrating Boer farmers in the late 18th century...
- Hintsa ka Khawuta
Hintsa ka Khawuta , also known as Hintsa the Great, was the 4th paramount Chief of the Gcaleka sub-group of the Xhosa nation from 1820 until his death in 1835....
- History of Cape Colony from 1806 to 1870
The history of Cape Colony from 1806 to 1870 spans the period of the history of Cape Colony during the Cape Frontier Wars, also called the Kaffir Wars, which lasted from 1811 to 1858. The wars were fought between the European colonists and the native Xhosa who rebelled against continuing European...
- Kaffir (Historical usage in southern Africa)
|
Kaffraria Kaffraria was the descriptive name given to the southeast part of what is today the Eastern Cape of South Africa. Kaffraria, i.e. the land of the Kaffirs, is no longer an official designation...
, and British KaffrariaBritish Kaffraria was a former colony / subordinate administrative entity in present-day South Africa, consisting of the districts now known as King Williams Town and East London....
Military history of South AfricaThe history of South Africa chronicles a vast time period and complex events from the dawn of history until the present time. It covers civil wars and wars of aggression and of self-defense both within South Africa and against it...
amaXhosaThe Xhosa ) people are speakers of Bantu languages living in south-east South Africa, and in the last two centuries throughout the southern and central-southern parts of the country....
Zulu War |