Xanthosoma is a genus of about 50 species of tropical and sub-tropical arums in the
flowering plantThe flowering plants , also known as Angiospermae or Magnoliophyta, are the most diverse group of land plants. Angiosperms are seed-producing plants like the gymnosperms and can be distinguished from the gymnosperms by a series of synapomorphies...
family,
AraceaeAraceae are a family of monocotyledonous flowering plants in which flowers are borne on a type of inflorescence called a spadix. The spadix is usually accompanied by, and sometimes partially enclosed in, a spathe or leaf-like bract. Also known as the Arum family, members are often colloquially...
, all native to tropical
AmericaThe Americas, or America , are lands in the Western hemisphere, also known as the New World. In English, the plural form the Americas is often used to refer to the landmasses of North America and South America with their associated islands and regions, while the singular form America is primarily...
. Several species are grown for their
starchStarch or amylum is a carbohydrate consisting of a large number of glucose units joined together by glycosidic bonds. This polysaccharide is produced by all green plants as an energy store...
y
cormA corm is a short, vertical, swollen underground plant stem that serves as a storage organ used by some plants to survive winter or other adverse conditions such as summer drought and heat ....
s, an important
food stapleRoot vegetables are plant roots used as vegetables. Here "root" means any underground part of a plant.Root vegetables are generally storage organs, enlarged to store energy in the form of carbohydrates. They differ in the concentration and the balance between sugars, starches, and other types of...
of tropical regions, known variously as
malanga,
otoy,
otoe,
new cocoyam,
tannia,
tannier,
yautía,
macabo,
taioba,
dasheen,
quequisque,
‘ape and (in
Papua New GuineaPapua New Guinea , officially the Independent State of Papua New Guinea, is a country in Oceania, occupying the eastern half of the island of New Guinea and numerous offshore islands...
) as
Singapore taro (taro kongkong). Many other species (including especially
X. roseum) are utilized as
ornamental plantOrnamental plants are plants that are grown for decorative purposes in gardens and landscape design projects, as house plants, for cut flowers and specimen display...
s, and in popular horticultural literature are known as ‘ape or
elephant ear (from the purported resemblance of the leaf to an
elephantElephants are large land mammals in two extant genera of the family Elephantidae: Elephas and Loxodonta, with the third genus Mammuthus extinct...
's
earThe ear is the organ that detects sound. It not only receives sound, but also aids in balance and body position. The ear is part of the auditory system....
), although the latter name is sometimes also applied to members with similar appearance and uses in the closely related genera of
CaladiumCaladium is a genus of flowering plants in the family Araceae. They are often known by the common name elephant ear , Heart of Jesus, and Angel Wings...
,
ColocasiaColocasia is a genus of 25 or more species of flowering plants in the family Araceae, native to tropical Polynesia and southeastern Asia. Common names include Elephant-ear, Taro, Cocoyam, Dasheen,Chembu, and Eddoe...
(i.e.,
taroTaro is a common name for the corms and tubers of several plants in the family Araceae . Of these, Colocasia esculenta is the most widely cultivated, and is the subject of this article. More specifically, this article describes the 'dasheen' form of taro; another variety is called eddoe.Taro is...
), and
AlocasiaAlocasia is a genus of broad-leaved rhizomatous or tuberous perennials from the Family Araceae. There are 78 species of Alocasia occurring in Tropical & Subtropical Asia to Eastern Australia and widely cultivated in Oceania and South America. The large cordate or sagittate leaves grow to a length...
.
The
leavesA leaf is an organ of a vascular plant, as defined in botanical terms, and in particular in plant morphology. Foliage is a mass noun that refers to leaves as a feature of plants....
of most
Xanthosoma species are 40-200 cm long, sagittate (arrowhead-shaped) or subdivided into 3 or as many as 18 segments. Unlike the leaves of
Colocasia, those of
Xanthosoma are usually not peltate- the upper v-notch extends in to the point of attachment of the leaf petiole to the blade.
Pollination biology
The inflorescence in
Xanthosoma is composed of a spadix with pistillate flowers
at the base, a belt of sterile flowers offered as a reward for
pollinators in the middle and staminate flowers on the upper part.
Prior to opening, the inflorescence is enclosed within a leaf-like
spathe. When the inflorescence is ready to open, the upper part of
the spathe opens and exposes the staminate area of the spadix; the
basal area of the spathe remains closed, forming a spacious chamber
(i.e., the spathe tube) that encloses the pistillate and sterile flowers .
The inflorescences last for two nights and are protogynous in some species (though not others ,
changing from the pistillate phase that attracts pollinators on the
night it opens, to a staminate phase on the second night, when pollen
is shed. When the inflorescence opens it produces heat and releases a sweet scent attracting its pollinators, Dynastine beetles (
Cyclocephala spp.). Dinastines arrive covered with pollen from another inflorescence and remain in the spathe
tube for 24 hours, pollinating the pistillate flowers as they feed on the
sterile area of the spadix. On the second night, they come out of
the tube and walk over the staminate flowers, getting covered with
pollen and then flying to a recently opened inflorescence nearby. .
Fruit maturation takes several months. Fruits start to develop
within the shelter of the spathe tube. When the infructescence
is mature, in some species it arches back and downwards. In other species it stays erect. Then, the tissue of the spathe tube rolls
outwards, exhibiting the bright orange fruits and the
velvety pink inner spathe surface .
Crop uses
Top Yautía (Cocoyam) Producers - 2006 and 2007
(metric tonnes)
| 2006 | 2007 |
| |
175000 |
176000 |
| |
85954 |
86000 |
| |
32000 |
32500 |
| |
32068 |
32100 |
| World Total |
349152 |
350700 |
| Data from The UN Food & Agriculture Organisation |
Domestication of
Xanthosoma species (especially
X. sagittifoliumXanthosoma sagittifolium, the arrowleaf elephant ear or arrowleaf elephant's ear, is a species of tropical flowering plant in the genus Xanthosoma, which produces an edible, starchy tuber.-Cuisine and reforestation:...
but also
X. atrovirens,
X. violaceum,
X. maffaffa, and others) is thought to have originated in northern lowland
South AmericaSouth America is a continent situated in the Western Hemisphere, mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a relatively small portion in the Northern Hemisphere. The continent is also considered a subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered on the west by the Pacific Ocean and on the north and east...
then spread to the
AntillesThe Antilles islands form the greater part of the West Indies in the Caribbean Sea. The Antilles are divided into two major groups: the "Greater Antilles" to the north and west, including the larger islands of Cuba, Jamaica, Hispaniola , and Puerto Rico; and the smaller "Lesser Antilles" on the...
and
MesoamericaMesoamerica is a region and culture area in the Americas, extending approximately from central Mexico to Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica, within which a number of pre-Columbian societies flourished before the Spanish colonization of the Americas in the 15th and...
. Today
Xanthosoma is still grown in all those regions but is especially popular in
CubaThe Republic of Cuba is an island nation in the Caribbean. The nation of Cuba consists of the main island of Cuba, the Isla de la Juventud, and several archipelagos. Havana is the largest city in Cuba and the country's capital. Santiago de Cuba is the second largest city...
and
Puerto RicoPuerto Rico , officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico , is an unincorporated territory of the United States, located in the northeastern Caribbean, east of the Dominican Republic and west of both the United States Virgin Islands and the British Virgin Islands.Puerto Rico comprises an...
, where it is used in
AlcapurriaAlcapurria is a fritter dish from Puerto Rico, a culinary dish that found its way to the Dominican Republic and Cuba.- Preparation :An alcapurria is made from a doughy mixture of mashed up tubers and root vegetables that grow on the island surrounding a center of heavily seasoned meat...
s. It is grown in
Trinidad and TobagoTrinidad and Tobago officially the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago is an archipelagic state in the southern Caribbean, lying just off the coast of northeastern Venezuela and south of Grenada in the Lesser Antilles...
,
GuyanaGuyana , officially the Co-operative Republic of Guyana, previously the colony of British Guiana, is a sovereign state on the northern coast of South America that is culturally part of the Anglophone Caribbean. Guyana was a former colony of the Dutch and of the British...
and
JamaicaJamaica is an island nation of the Greater Antilles, in length, up to in width and 10,990 square kilometres in area. It is situated in the Caribbean Sea, about south of Cuba, and west of Hispaniola, the island harbouring the nation-states Haiti and the Dominican Republic...
to make the popular
callalooCallaloo is a popular Caribbean dish served in different variants in across the Caribbean. The main ingredient is a leaf vegetable, traditionally either amaranth , taro or Xanthosoma. Both are known by many names including callaloo, coco, tannia, bhaaji, or dasheen bush...
dish. It is also grown in
West AfricaWest Africa or Western Africa is the westernmost region of the African continent. Geopolitically, the UN definition of Western Africa includes the following 16 countries and an area of approximately 5 million square km:-Flags of West Africa:...
, now a major producer, where it can be used as a replacement for
yamsYam is the common name for some species in the genus Dioscorea . These are perennial herbaceous vines cultivated for the consumption of their starchy tubers in Africa, Asia, Latin America and Oceania...
in a popular regional dish called
fufuFufu, , is a staple snack of West and Central Africa. It is a thick paste usually made by boiling starchy root vegetables in water and pounding with a mortar and pestle until the desired consistency is reached...
.
Xanthosoma is also grown as a crop in the
PhilippinesThe Philippines , officially known as the Republic of the Philippines , is a country in Southeast Asia in the western Pacific Ocean. To its north across the Luzon Strait lies Taiwan. West across the South China Sea sits Vietnam...
.
Traditionally
Xanthosoma has been a subsistence crop with excess sold at local markets, but in the
United StatesThe United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
, large numbers of Latin American immigrants have created a market for commercial production. In general, production has yet to meet demand in some areas. In Polynesia,
Xanthosoma (‘ape) was considered a
famine foodA famine food or poverty food is any inexpensive or readily-available foodstuff used to nourish people in times of extreme poverty or starvation, as during a war or famine...
, utilized only in the event of failure of the much preferred
taroTaro is a common name for the corms and tubers of several plants in the family Araceae . Of these, Colocasia esculenta is the most widely cultivated, and is the subject of this article. More specifically, this article describes the 'dasheen' form of taro; another variety is called eddoe.Taro is...
(
kalo) crop.
The typical
Xanthosoma plant has a growing cycle of 9 to 11 months, during which time it produces a large stem called a
cormA corm is a short, vertical, swollen underground plant stem that serves as a storage organ used by some plants to survive winter or other adverse conditions such as summer drought and heat ....
, this surrounded by smaller edible
cormels about the size of
potatoThe potato is a starchy, tuberous crop from the perennial Solanum tuberosum of the Solanaceae family . The word potato may refer to the plant itself as well as the edible tuber. In the region of the Andes, there are some other closely related cultivated potato species...
es. These cormels (like the corm) are rich in starch. Their taste has been described as earthy and nutty and they are a common ingredient in soups and stews. They may also be eaten
grilledGrilling is a form of cooking that involves dry heat applied to the surface of food, commonly from above or below.Grilling usually involves a significant amount of direct, radiant heat, and tends to be used for cooking meat quickly and meat that has already been cut into slices...
,
friedFrying is the cooking of food in oil or another fat, a technique that originated in ancient Egypt around 2500 BC. Chemically, oils and fats are the same, differing only in melting point, but the distinction is only made when needed. In commerce, many fats are called oils by custom, e.g...
, or
puréePurée and mash are general terms for cooked food, usually vegetables or legumes, that have been ground, pressed, blended, and/or sieved to the consistency of a soft creamy paste or thick liquid. Purées of specific foods are often known by specific names, e.g., mashed potatoes or apple sauce...
d. The young, unfurled leaves of some varieties can be eaten as boiled leafy vegetables or used in
soupSoup is a generally warm food that is made by combining ingredients such as meat and vegetables with stock, juice, water, or another liquid. Hot soups are additionally characterized by boiling solid ingredients in liquids in a pot until the flavors are extracted, forming a broth.Traditionally,...
s and
stewA stew is a combination of solid food ingredients that have been cooked in liquid and served in the resultant gravy. Ingredients in a stew can include any combination of vegetables , meat, especially tougher meats suitable for slow-cooking, such as beef. Poultry, sausages, and seafood are also used...
s, such as the Caribbean
callalooCallaloo is a popular Caribbean dish served in different variants in across the Caribbean. The main ingredient is a leaf vegetable, traditionally either amaranth , taro or Xanthosoma. Both are known by many names including callaloo, coco, tannia, bhaaji, or dasheen bush...
.
People with food allergies sometimes find that malanga is a great hypoallergenic flour alternative, because the particles of starch are very small, reducing the risk of an allergic reaction.
Species include
- Xanthosoma eggersii
Xanthosoma eggersii is a species of plant in the Araceae family. It is endemic to Ecuador. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests. It is threatened by habitat loss.-References:...
- Xanthosoma sagittifolium
Xanthosoma sagittifolium, the arrowleaf elephant ear or arrowleaf elephant's ear, is a species of tropical flowering plant in the genus Xanthosoma, which produces an edible, starchy tuber.-Cuisine and reforestation:...
, called arrowleaf elephant ear, tiquizque, macal, nampi or malanga
- Xanthosoma violaceum
Xanthosoma violaceum, commonly known as Tiquisque, produces a starchy tuber. It and the white species Xanthosoma sagittifolium are sold commercially. These tubers and those of several related genera are important staple crops in many tropical regions....
, also called tiquisque
- Xanthosoma weeksii
Xanthosoma weeksii is a species of plant in the Araceae family. It is endemic to Ecuador. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist montanes. It is threatened by habitat loss.-Source:...
External links