The
Wujing Zongyao was a Chinese military compendium written in 1044 AD, during the Northern Song Dynasty. Its authors were the prominent scholars
Zeng GongliangZeng Gongliang was a Chinese scholar of the Song Dynasty who helped write the Wujing Zongyao....
(曾公亮), Ding Du (丁度), and Yang Weide (楊惟德), whose writing influenced many later Chinese military writers. The book covered a wide range of subjects, everything from naval
warshipA warship is a ship that is built and primarily intended for combat. Warships are usually built in a completely different way than merchant ships. As well as being armed, warships are designed to withstand damage and are usually faster and more maneuverable than merchant ships...
s to different types of
catapultA catapult is any one of a number of non-handheld mechanical devices used to throw or hurl a projectile a great distance without the aid of explosive substances—particularly various types of ancient and medieval siege engines. Although the catapult has been used since ancient times, it is proven...
s. Although the English philosopher and friar
Roger BaconRoger Bacon, O.F.M. , also known as Doctor Mirabilis , was an English philosopher and Franciscan friar who placed considerable emphasis on empiricism...
was the first to mention the sole ingredients of
gunpowderGunpowder, also called black powder, is a mixture of sulfur, charcoal, and potassium nitrate. It burns rapidly, producing volumes of hot solids and gases which can be used as a propellant in firearms and as a pyrotechnic composition in fireworks. The term gunpowder also refers broadly to any...
in 1267 (i.e. strictly saltpetre, sulphur, and
charcoalCharcoal is the blackish residue consisting of impure carbon obtained by removing water and other volatile constituents from animal and vegetation substances. Charcoal is usually produced by slow pyrolysis, the heating of wood, sugar, bone char, or other substances in the absence of oxygen...
) when referring to firecrackers in "various parts of the world", the
Wujing Zongyao was the first book in history to record the written formulas for gunpowder solutions containing saltpetre, sulphur, and charcoal, along with many added ingredients. It also described an early form of the
compassA compass is a navigational instrument for determining direction relative to the Earth's magnetic poles. It consists of a magnetized pointer free to align itself with Earth's magnetic field. The compass greatly improved the safety and efficiency of travel, especially ocean travel...
(using thermoremanence), and had the oldest illustration of a Chinese
Greek FireGreek fire was an incendiary weapon used by the Byzantine Empire. The Byzantines typically used it in naval battles to great effect as it could continue burning even on water. It provided a technological advantage, and was responsible for many key Byzantine military victories, most notably the...
flamethrowerA flamethrower is a mechanical device designed to project a long controllable stream of fire.Some flamethrowers project a stream of ignited flammable liquid; some project a long gas flame. Most military flamethrowers use liquids, but commercial flamethrowers tend to use high-pressure propane and...
with a double-acting two-
pistonA piston is a component of reciprocating engines, pumps and gas compressors. It is located in a cylinder and is made gas-tight by piston rings. In an engine, its purpose is to transfer force from expanding gas in the cylinder to the crankshaft via a piston rod and/or connecting rod...
cylinder-pump that shot a continuous blast of flame.
History
Under the imperial order of
Emperor Renzong of SongEmperor Renzong was the fourth emperor of the Song Dynasty of China. His personal name was Zhao Zhen . He reigned from 1022 to 1063. Renzong was the son of Emperor Zhenzong of Song China. Despite his long reign of over 40 years, Renzong is not widely known...
(r. 1022-1063 AD), a team of Chinese scholars compiled the treatise of the
Wujing Zongyao from 1040 to 1044, in order to improve the knowledge of all the known martial techniques used in warfare. Its chief editor was Zeng Gongliang, while he was assisted by the prominent
astronomerAn astronomer is a scientist who studies celestial bodies such as planets, stars, and galaxies.Historically, astronomy was more concerned with the classification and description of phenomena in the sky, while astrophysics attempted to explain these phenomena and the differences between them using...
Yang Weide and the scholar Ding Du. The Wujing Zongyao was one of 347 military treatises listed in the biographical chapters of the
Song Shi (1345 AD), the historical work that embodied part of the
Twenty-Four HistoriesThe Twenty-Four Histories is a collection of Chinese historical books covering a period of protohistory and history from 3000 BC to the Ming Dynasty in the 17th century. The whole set contains 3213 volumes and about 40 million words...
. Of these 347 different military treatises from the Song Dynasty period, only the
Wujing Zongyao, the
Huqianjing (Tiger Seal Manual) of Xu Dong in 1004 AD, and fragments of similar works found in the later
Yonglo Datian have survived. The original text of the Wujing Zongyao was kept in the Imperial Library, while a number of hand-written copies were distributed elsewhere, including a copy given to Wang Shao by
Emperor Shenzong of SongEmperor Shenzong was the sixth emperor of the Chinese Song Dynasty. His personal name was Zhao Xu. He reigned from 1067 to 1085.The periods within his reign are Xining 1068-1077 and...
in 1069 AD. However, with the sacking of the capital
KaifengKaifeng , formerly known as Bianliang , Bianjing , Daliang , or simply Liang , is a prefecture-level city in eastern Henan province, People's Republic of China...
by the invading Jurchens in 1126 AD, the enormous amount of prized literature found in the Imperial Library was lost, including the original copy of the
Wujing Zongyao. After the original was lost, there was only a scarce amount of surviving copies rewritten by hand. There was a scarcity because the book was meant to be kept a secret amongst a few trustees of the government, as publishing and printing many copies using
woodblock printingWoodblock printing is a technique for printing text, images or patterns used widely throughout East Asia and originating in China in antiquity as a method of printing on textiles and later paper. As a method of printing on cloth, the earliest surviving examples from China date to before 220, and...
would have allowed the possibility of it falling into enemy hands. Nevertheless, from a remaining copy of the
Wujing Zongyao, it was remade into a newly published edition in 1231 AD during the Southern Song Dynasty era. Then, during the
Ming DynastyThe Ming Dynasty , or Empire of the Great Ming , was the ruling dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644, following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty. The Ming, "one of the greatest eras of orderly government and social stability in human history," was the last dynasty in China ruled by ethnic...
(1368-1644 AD), a book published in 1439 AD featured fragments of the original
Wujing Zongyao edition of 1231 while omitting some material and combining it with two other books, the preface of this book written by Li Jin. Then there was a reprinted edition of the entire
Wujing Zongyao in 1510 AD, this complete version being the oldest extant copy available. Furthermore, the historian
Joseph NeedhamNoel Joseph Terence Montgomery Needham, CH, FRS, FBA , also known as Li Yuese , was a British academic and sinologist known for his research and writing on the history of Chinese science. He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1941; and he was elected a fellow of the British Academy in 1971...
asserts that this edition of 1510 AD is the most reliable in its faithfulnes to the original version, since it was printed from blocks that were re-carved directly from tracings of the edition made in 1231 AD.
After the edition of 1510 was printed, other Ming Dynasty copies were made. This included the
JiajingThe Jiajing Emperor was Emperor of China from 1521 to 1567, the 11th emperor of the Ming dynasty. Born Zhu Houcong, he was the Zhengde Emperor's cousin. His era name means "Admirable tranquility".-Early years:As the nephew of the Hongzhi Emperor, Jiaqing was not brought up to succeed to the throne...
edition (1522-1566 AD), the
WanliThe Wanli Emperor was emperor of China between 1572 and 1620. His era name means "Ten thousand calendars". Born Zhu Yijun, he was the Longqing Emperor's son. His rule of forty eight years would be the longest in the Ming dynasty and it witnessed the steady decline of the dynasty...
edition (1573-1619 AD) of
QuanzhouQuanzhou is a prefecture-level city in southeastern Fujian province, People's Republic of China. It borders all other prefecture-level cities in Fujian but two and faces the Taiwan Strait...
, and the Wanli edition (1573-1619) of Jinling by Tang Xinyün (preserved by Cunjingge). During the
Qing DynastyThe Qing Dynasty , also known as the Manchu Dynasty, was the last ruling dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 to 1912...
(1644-1911 AD) it was also reprinted in two different editions during the 18th century, and again in 1934 with the
ShanghaiShanghai is the largest city in China, and one of the largest metropolitan areas in the world, with over 20 million people. Located on China's central eastern coast at the mouth of the Yangtze River, the city is administered as a municipality of the People's Republic of China with province-level...
edition.
Compass and navigation
In the 3rd century, the Chinese engineer
Ma JunMa Jun , styled Deheng , was a Chinese mechanical engineer and government official during the Three Kingdoms era of China...
invented the
South Pointing ChariotThe South Pointing Chariot is widely regarded as one of the most complex geared mechanisms of the ancient Chinese civilization, and was continually used throughout the medieval period as well. It was supposedly invented sometime around 2600 BC in China by the Yellow Emperor Huang Di, yet the first...
. This was a wheeled vehicle that employed differential gearing in order to lock a figurine of an
immortalXian is a Chinese word for an enlightened person, translatable in English as:*"spiritually immortal; transcendent; super-human; celestial being"...
in place on the end of a long wooden staff, the figure having its arm stretched out and always pointing to the southern
cardinal directionThe four cardinal directions or cardinal points are north, south, east, and west, commonly denoted by their initials - N, S, E, W. They are mostly used for geographic orientation on Earth but may be calculated anywhere on a rotating astronomical body...
. Although the authors of the
Wujing Zongyao were mistaken in believing that the design of the South Pointing Chariot was not handed down (as it was reinvented during the Song period and combined with an
odometerAn odometer indicates distance traveled by a car or other vehicle. The device may be electronic, mechanical, or a combination of the two. The word derives from the Greek words ""hodós", meaning "path" or "way", and "métron", "measure".-Description:In the early autos a top reading of 99,999 was...
), they described a new device which allowed one to navigate. This was the 'south pointing fish' (a thermoremanence
compassA compass is a navigational instrument for determining direction relative to the Earth's magnetic poles. It consists of a magnetized pointer free to align itself with Earth's magnetic field. The compass greatly improved the safety and efficiency of travel, especially ocean travel...
), essentially a heated iron (or preferably steel) object cut in the shape of a fish and suspended in a bowl of water. The
Wujing Zongyao text stated:
When troops encountered gloomy weather or dark nights, and the directions of space could not be distinguished, they let an old horse go on before to lead them, or else they made use of the south-pointing carriage, or the south-pointing fish to identify the directions. Now the carriage method has not been handed down, but in the fish method a thin leaf of iron is cut into the shape of a fish two inches long and half an inch broad, having a pointed head and tail. This is then heated in a charcoal fire, and when it has become thoroughly red-hot, it is taken out by the head with iron tongs and placed so that its tail points due north. In this position it is quenched with water in a basin, so that its tail is submerged for several tenths of an inch. It is then kept in a tightly closed box. To use it, a small bowl filled with water is set up in a windless place, and the fish is laid as flat as possible upon the water-surface so that it floats, whereupon its head will point south.
Writing several decades after the
Wujing Zongyao was written, the scientist and statesman
Shen KuoShen Kuo or Shen Gua , style name Cunzhong and pseudonym Mengqi Weng , was a polymathic Chinese scientist and statesman of the Song Dynasty...
(1031-1095 AD) wrote of the first truly magnetized compass needle in his book
Dream Pool EssaysThe Dream Pool Essays was an extensive book written by the polymath Chinese scientist and statesman Shen Kuo by 1088 AD, during the Song Dynasty of China...
(1088 AD). With a more efficient compass magnetized by
lodestoneA lodestone or loadstone is a naturally magnetized piece of the mineral magnetite. They are naturally occurring magnets, and attract pieces of iron. Ancient people first discovered the property of magnetism in lodestone...
, the thermoremanence compass fell out of use. The later maritime author
Zhu YuZhu Yu was an author of the Chinese Song Dynasty . He retired in Huang Gang of Hubei province, bought a country house and named it "Pingzhou"; he called himself "Expert Vegetable Grower of Pingzhou ".Between 1111 and 1117 AD, Zhu Yu wrote the book Pingzhou Ketan , and had it published in 1119 AD...
soon wrote of the magnetic needle compass as a means to navigate at sea, in his book
Pingzhou Table Talks of 1119 AD.
Gunpowder formulas and weapons
Gunpowder warfare began in China during the early 10th century, with the advent of the blackpowder-impregnated
fuseThe word fuse has several meanings:* Fuse , a device used in electrical systems to protect against excessive current.* Fuse , a device used in hydraulic systems to protect against sudden loss of fluid pressure...
that was used to light the burst of the Chinese two-piston
flamethrowerA flamethrower is a mechanical device designed to project a long controllable stream of fire.Some flamethrowers project a stream of ignited flammable liquid; some project a long gas flame. Most military flamethrowers use liquids, but commercial flamethrowers tend to use high-pressure propane and...
. However, despite circumstantial evidence to the invention of gunpowder as early as the 3rd-4th century BC by the alchemist Ge Hong, it was not until the
Wujing Zongyao that the exact formulas for early Chinese blackpowder was revealed. In the
Wujing Zongyao there are three formulas for blackpowder provided, including one for an explosive bomb launched from a
trebuchetA trebuchet or trebucket is a siege engine that was employed in the Middle Ages either to smash masonry walls or to throw projectiles over them...
catapult, another for a similar bomb with hooks attached so that it could latch on to any wooden structure and set it on fire, and another formula specified for a poison-smoke bomb used for
chemical warfareChemical warfare involves using the toxic properties of chemical substances as weapons to kill, injure, or incapacitate an enemy....
. The
Wujing Zongyao stated that simple incendiary weapons were launched from catapults, thrown down from city walls at besiegers, or let down by iron chains from a swape lever set up on the top of the wall. There was also description of the 'igniter ball' used in warfare and in finding firing range. The
Wujing Zongyao stated the following:
The 'igniter ball' (yin huo qiu) is made of paper round like a ball, inside which is put between three and five pounds of powdered bricks. Melt yellow wax and let it stand until clear, then add powdered charcoal and make it into a paste permeating the ball; bind it up with hempen string. When you want to find the range of anything, shoot off this fire-ball first, then other incendiary balls can follow.
As Joseph Needham states, the Wujing Zongyaos first recorded blackpowder formula used in these bombs held a
potassium nitratePotassium nitrate is a chemical compound with the chemical formula KNO3. A naturally occurring mineral source of nitrogen, KNO3 constitutes a critical oxidizing component of black powder/gunpowder. In the past it was also used for several kinds of burning fuses, including slow...
level of 55.4% to 55.5%, sulfur content of 19.4% to 26.5%, and
carbonCarbon is the chemical element with symbol C and atomic number 6. As a member of group 14 on the periodic table, it is nonmetallic and tetravalent—making four electrons available to form covalent chemical bonds...
aceous content of 23% to 25.2%. For the second labeled formula, the inner ball alone had a nitrate percentage of 61.5% to 50.2%, a sulfur content of 30.8% to 25.1%, and if all carbonaceous matter was taken, 24.7%, if just taking the charcoal content alone, the carbon level was 7.7%. If the outer coating and inner ball are both included with the second blackpowder formula, that would yield a nitrate level of 34.7% to 54.8%, a sulfur content of 17.4% to 27.4%, and if all carbonaceous material is used, 47.9% carbon, if only charcoal is used, 17.8%. If the inner ball of the third blackpowder formula is only considered, it held nitrate levels of 39.6% if all carbonaceous matter was taken, 49.4% nitrate if excluding the poisons, and 60% if charcoal is specified alone. The sulfur content was 19.8% if all carbonaceous matter was considered, 24.7% if this excluded poisons, and 30% if charcoal is specified alone. The carbon content was 40.5% if all carbonaceous matter was considered, 25.9% if this excluded poisons, and 10% if charcoal alone was specified. If both the inner ball and outer coating are considered for the third formula, that would yield a nitrate level of 27% if all carbonaceous matter was taken, 31.2% if this excluded poisons, and 51.7% if charcoal alone was used. The sulfur content would be 13.5% if all carbonaceous matter was taken, 15.6% if this excluded the poisons, and 25.9% if only charcoal alone was specified. The carbon content was 59.5% if all carbonaceous matter was taken into account, 53.2% if this excluded poisons, and 22.4% if charcoal alone was specified.
The first blackpowder concoction was simply labeled as the "method for making the fire-chemical", with its ingredients and measured weight (in
ounceThe ounce is a unit of mass with several definitions, the most commonly used of which are equal to approximately 30 grams. The ounce is used in a number of different systems, including various systems of mass that form part of the imperial and United States customary systems...
s) of each ingredient listed in the section below with the others listed in similar fashion.
Formulas
1st Formula
- Sulfur
Sulfur or sulphur is the chemical element that has the atomic number 16. It is denoted with the symbol S. It is an abundant, multivalent non-metal. Sulfur, in its native form, is a yellow crystalline solid. In nature, it can be found as the pure element and as sulfide and sulfate minerals...
(14 oz.)
- Wo huang ('nest yellow', perhaps nodular sulfur) (7 oz.)
- Saltpetre (40 oz.)
- Hemp
Hemp is the name of the soft, durable fiber that is cultivated from plants of the Cannabis genus, cultivated only for industrial use....
roots (1 oz.)
- Dried lacquer
In a general sense, lacquer is a clear or coloured varnish that dries by solvent evaporation and often a curing process as well that produces a hard, durable finish, in any sheen level from ultra matte to high gloss and that can be further polished as required.The term lacquer originates from the...
(1 oz.)
- Arsenic
Arsenic is the chemical element that has the symbol As, atomic number 33 and atomic mass 74.92. Arsenic was first documented by Albertus Magnus in 1250. Arsenic is a notoriously poisonous metalloid with many allotropic forms, including a yellow and several black and grey forms...
(1 oz.)
- White lead
Lead is a main-group element with symbol Pb and atomic number 82. Lead is a soft, malleable poor metal, also considered to be one of the heavy metals. Lead has a bluish-white color when freshly cut, but tarnishes to a dull grayish color when exposed to air...
(lead carbonateLead carbonate, is the chemical compound PbCO3. It is prepared industrially from lead acetate and carbon dioxide.It occurs naturally as the mineral cerussite -Basic lead carbonates:...
) (1 oz.)
- Bamboo
The bamboos are a group of woody perennial evergreen plants in the true grass family Poaceae, subfamily Bambusoideae, tribe Bambuseae. Some are giant bamboos, the largest members of the grass family. Bamboos are the fastest growing woody plants in the world...
roots (1 oz.)
- Minium
Minium is a genus of thalloid alga comprising approximately 1 species. The thalli take a crustose form....
(lead tetroxide) (1 oz.)
- Yellow wax
Wax refers to beeswax or another substance with similar properties. The traditional meaning, beeswax, refers to a substance secreted by bees and used by them in constructing their honeycombs...
(0.5 oz.)
- Clear oil
An oil is any substance that is liquid at ambient temperatures and is hydrophobic but soluble in organic solvents. Oils have a high carbon and hydrogen content and are nonpolar substances. The general definition above includes compound classes with otherwise unrelated chemical structures,...
(0.1 oz.)
- Tung oil
Tung oil is used as a wood finishing product. It has two distinct meanings, pure tung oil and tung oil finishes, which are often confused.- Pure tung oil :...
(0.5 oz.)
- Pine resin (14 oz.)
- Thick oil (0.1 oz.)
Total weight = 82.2 oz.
2nd Formula
Inner ball
- Sulphur (20 oz.)
- Saltpetre (40 oz.)
- Coarse charcoal
Charcoal is the blackish residue consisting of impure carbon obtained by removing water and other volatile constituents from animal and vegetation substances. Charcoal is usually produced by slow pyrolysis, the heating of wood, sugar, bone char, or other substances in the absence of oxygen...
powder (5 oz.)
- Pitch
Pitch is the name for any of a number of viscoelastic, solid polymers. Pitch can be made from petroleum products or plants. Petroleum-derived pitch is also called bitumen. Pitch produced from plants is also known as resin. Products made from plant resin are also known as rosin.Pitch was...
(2.5 oz.)
- Dried lacquer
In a general sense, lacquer is a clear or coloured varnish that dries by solvent evaporation and often a curing process as well that produces a hard, durable finish, in any sheen level from ultra matte to high gloss and that can be further polished as required.The term lacquer originates from the...
(pounded to powder) (2.5 oz.)
- Bamboo
The bamboos are a group of woody perennial evergreen plants in the true grass family Poaceae, subfamily Bambusoideae, tribe Bambuseae. Some are giant bamboos, the largest members of the grass family. Bamboos are the fastest growing woody plants in the world...
roots (1.1 oz.)
- Hemp
Hemp is the name of the soft, durable fiber that is cultivated from plants of the Cannabis genus, cultivated only for industrial use....
roots, cut into shreds (1.1 oz.)
- Tung oil
Tung oil is used as a wood finishing product. It has two distinct meanings, pure tung oil and tung oil finishes, which are often confused.- Pure tung oil :...
(2.5 oz.)
- Lesser oil (possibly an edible oil) (2.5 oz.)
- Wax
Wax refers to beeswax or another substance with similar properties. The traditional meaning, beeswax, refers to a substance secreted by bees and used by them in constructing their honeycombs...
(2.5 oz.)
Total weight of inner ball = 79.7 oz.
Outer coating
- Paper
Paper is thin material mainly used for writing upon, printing upon or for packaging. It is produced by pressing together moist fibers, typically cellulose pulp derived from wood, rags or grasses, and drying them into flexible sheets....
(12.5 oz.)
- Hemp
Hemp is the name of the soft, durable fiber that is cultivated from plants of the Cannabis genus, cultivated only for industrial use....
(fibre) (10 oz.)
- Minium
Minium is a genus of thalloid alga comprising approximately 1 species. The thalli take a crustose form....
(1.1 oz)
- Charcoal
Charcoal is the blackish residue consisting of impure carbon obtained by removing water and other volatile constituents from animal and vegetation substances. Charcoal is usually produced by slow pyrolysis, the heating of wood, sugar, bone char, or other substances in the absence of oxygen...
powder (8 oz.)
- Pitch (2.5 oz)
- Yellow wax (2.5 oz)
Total weight of outer coating = 36.6 oz.
Total weight = 116.3 oz.
3rd Formula
Inner ball
- Sulphur (15 oz.)
- Saltpetre (30 oz.)
- Aconite
Aconite may refer to:*Aconitum, a plant genus containing the monkshoods*Aconitine, a toxin derived from some of the Aconitum genus plants*Winter aconite, a plant in the genus Eranthis...
(aconitum fischeriAconitum fischeri is a blue colored flowering plant species of the genus Aconitum in the family Ranunculaceae. Plants bloom early-late summer, native from From Korea and Siberia and cultivated in gardens in temperate zones for its showy flowers....
) (5 oz.)
- Croton oil
Croton oil is an oil prepared from the seeds of Croton tiglium, a tree belonging to the natural order Euphorbiales and family Euphorbiaceae, and native or cultivated in India and the Malay Archipelago. Small doses taken internally cause diarrhea. Externally, the oil can cause irritation and swelling...
(croton tiglium) (5 oz.)
- Wolfsbane (aconitum ferox
Aconitum ferox also known as Aconitum virorum is a species of monkshood, in the family Ranunculaceae. It is also known as the Indian Aconite. Abundant at Sandakphu, which is the highest point of the Darjeeling Hillsin the Indian State of West Bengal....
or lycoctonum) (5 oz.)
- Tung oil
Tung oil is used as a wood finishing product. It has two distinct meanings, pure tung oil and tung oil finishes, which are often confused.- Pure tung oil :...
(5 oz.)
- Lesser oil (2.5 oz.)
- Charcoal
Charcoal is the blackish residue consisting of impure carbon obtained by removing water and other volatile constituents from animal and vegetation substances. Charcoal is usually produced by slow pyrolysis, the heating of wood, sugar, bone char, or other substances in the absence of oxygen...
powder (5 oz.)
- Pitch
Pitch is the name for any of a number of viscoelastic, solid polymers. Pitch can be made from petroleum products or plants. Petroleum-derived pitch is also called bitumen. Pitch produced from plants is also known as resin. Products made from plant resin are also known as rosin.Pitch was...
(5 oz.)
- Arsenic
Arsenic is the chemical element that has the symbol As, atomic number 33 and atomic mass 74.92. Arsenic was first documented by Albertus Magnus in 1250. Arsenic is a notoriously poisonous metalloid with many allotropic forms, including a yellow and several black and grey forms...
(2 oz.)
- Yellow wax
Wax refers to beeswax or another substance with similar properties. The traditional meaning, beeswax, refers to a substance secreted by bees and used by them in constructing their honeycombs...
(1 oz.)
- Bamboo
The bamboos are a group of woody perennial evergreen plants in the true grass family Poaceae, subfamily Bambusoideae, tribe Bambuseae. Some are giant bamboos, the largest members of the grass family. Bamboos are the fastest growing woody plants in the world...
roots (1.1 oz.)
- Hemp
Hemp is the name of the soft, durable fiber that is cultivated from plants of the Cannabis genus, cultivated only for industrial use....
roots (1.1 oz.)
Total weight of inner ball = 77.7 oz.
Outer coating
- Old paper
Paper is thin material mainly used for writing upon, printing upon or for packaging. It is produced by pressing together moist fibers, typically cellulose pulp derived from wood, rags or grasses, and drying them into flexible sheets....
(12.5 oz.)
- Hemp
Hemp is the name of the soft, durable fiber that is cultivated from plants of the Cannabis genus, cultivated only for industrial use....
(stalk) skin fibre (10 oz.)
- Pitch
Pitch is the name for any of a number of viscoelastic, solid polymers. Pitch can be made from petroleum products or plants. Petroleum-derived pitch is also called bitumen. Pitch produced from plants is also known as resin. Products made from plant resin are also known as rosin.Pitch was...
(2.5 oz.)
- Yellow wax
Wax refers to beeswax or another substance with similar properties. The traditional meaning, beeswax, refers to a substance secreted by bees and used by them in constructing their honeycombs...
(2.5 oz.)
- Minium
Minium is a genus of thalloid alga comprising approximately 1 species. The thalli take a crustose form....
(1.1 oz.)
- Charcoal
Charcoal is the blackish residue consisting of impure carbon obtained by removing water and other volatile constituents from animal and vegetation substances. Charcoal is usually produced by slow pyrolysis, the heating of wood, sugar, bone char, or other substances in the absence of oxygen...
(8 oz.)
Total weight of outer coating = 36.6 oz.
Total weight = 114.3 oz.
Flamethrower and Greek fire
The first Chinese battle to use the piston-pump
flamethrowerA flamethrower is a mechanical device designed to project a long controllable stream of fire.Some flamethrowers project a stream of ignited flammable liquid; some project a long gas flame. Most military flamethrowers use liquids, but commercial flamethrowers tend to use high-pressure propane and...
firing
Greek fireGreek fire was an incendiary weapon used by the Byzantine Empire. The Byzantines typically used it in naval battles to great effect as it could continue burning even on water. It provided a technological advantage, and was responsible for many key Byzantine military victories, most notably the...
was the battle between Wenmu Wang and Qian Yuanguan in 932 during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. The Chinese author Lin Yu explained in his book of 919 AD that Greek fire was acquired from their
ArabArab people or Arabs are an ethnic group whose members identify along linguistic, cultural or genealogical grounds...
maritime trade contacts in the
Indian OceanThe Indian Ocean is the third largest of the world's oceanic divisions, covering about 20% of the water on the Earth's surface. It is bounded on the north by South Asia ; on the west by Africa; on the east by Indochina, the Sunda Islands, and Australia; and on the south by the Southern Ocean...
. Furthermore, the Chinese had been using the
pistonA piston is a component of reciprocating engines, pumps and gas compressors. It is located in a cylinder and is made gas-tight by piston rings. In an engine, its purpose is to transfer force from expanding gas in the cylinder to the crankshaft via a piston rod and/or connecting rod...
syringeA syringe is a simple piston pump consisting of a plunger that fits tightly in a tube. The plunger can be pulled and pushed along inside a cylindrical tube , allowing the syringe to take in and expel a liquid or gas through an orifice at the open end of the tube...
since the
Han DynastyThe Han Dynasty was the second imperial dynasty of China, preceded by the Qin Dynasty and succeeded by the Three Kingdoms . It was founded by the peasant rebel leader Liu Bang, known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu of Han. It was briefly interrupted by the Xin Dynasty of the former regent Wang Mang...
(
202 BC-Carthage:* Accused of treason by the Carthaginians after being defeated by the Romans at the Battle of the Great Plains, Hasdrubal Gisco commits suicide to avoid being lynched by a Carthaginian mob....
-220 AD). However, it was the later Wujing Zongyao
that would provide the first illustrated drawing and greater textual explanation for how this flamethrower operated. In describing the drawn illustration of the flamethrower in the book, the Wujing Zongyao states:
Then the text goes on to provide further instructions about equipment, maintenance, and repair of flamethrowers:
See also
- History of the Song Dynasty
The Song Dynasty of China was a ruling dynasty that controlled China proper and southern China from the middle of the 10th century into the last quarter of the 13th century...
- Gunpowder warfare
Early Modern warfare is associated with the start of the widespread use of gunpowder and the development of suitable weapons to use the explosive. Gunpowder was first invented in China and then later spread to the Middle East...
- Huolongjing
The Huolongjing is a 14th century military treatise that was compiled and edited by Jiao Yu and Liu Ji of the early Ming Dynasty in China...
- Technology of the Song Dynasty
The Song Dynasty provided some of the most significant technological advances in Chinese history, many of which came from talented statesmen drafted by the government through imperial examinations....
- Jiao Yu
Jiao Yu was a Chinese military officer loyal to Zhu Yuanzhang , the founder of the Ming Dynasty . He was entrusted by Emperor Hongwu as a leading artillery officer for the rebel army that overthrew the Mongol Yuan Dynasty, and established the Ming Dynasty...
- Battle of Tangdao
The naval Battle of Tangdao took place in 1161 between the Jurchen Jin and the Southern Song Dynasty of China on the East China Sea. It was an attempt by the Jin to invade and conquer the Southern Song Dynasty, yet resulted in failure and defeat for the Jurchens. The Jin Dynasty navy was set on...
- Battle of Caishi
The naval Battle of Caishi took place in 1161 and was the result of an attempt by forces of the Jurchen Jin to cross the Yangtze River, thus beginning an invasion of Southern Song China...
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