Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania
Encyclopedia
The Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania is a non-stock, not-for-profit organization headquartered in the New York City
borough of Brooklyn
, United States
. It is the main legal entity used worldwide by Jehovah's Witnesses
to direct, administer and develop doctrines for the religion and is often referred to by members of the religion simply as "the Society". It is the parent organization of a number of Watch Tower subsidiaries, including the Watchtower Society of New York and International Bible Students Association. Membership of the society is limited to between 300 and 500 "mature, active and faithful" male Jehovah's Witnesses. Nearly 20,000 Jehovah's Witnesses are employed at branch facilities, with about 5800 employed in the United States.
The organization was formed in 1881, as Zion's Watch Tower Tract Society, for the purpose of distributing religious tracts. The society was incorporated
in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
on December 15, 1884. In 1896, the society was renamed Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society. Following a leadership dispute in the Bible Student movement, the Watch Tower Society remained associated with the branch of the movement that became known as Jehovah's Witnesses
. In 1955, the corporation was renamed Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania. In 1976, all activities of the Watch Tower Society were brought under the supervision of the Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses
.
, Pennsylvania
, United States
, for the purpose of organizing the printing and distribution of religious tracts. William Henry Conley
, a Pittsburgh industrialist and philanthropist, served as president, with Charles Taze Russell
serving as secretary-treasurer. The society's primary journal was Zion's Watch Tower and Herald of Christs Presence, first published in 1879 by Russell, founder of the Bible Student movement
. Other early writers for the Watch Tower Society included J. H Paton and W. I. Mann. Formation of the society was announced in the April 1881 issue of Zion's Watch Tower. That year, the society received donations of $35,391.18.
as Zion's Watch Tower Tract Society in Pennsylvania
as a non-profit, non-stock corporation with Russell as president. The corporation was located in Allegheny, Pennsylvania
. In its charter, written by Russell, the society's purpose was stated as "the mental, moral and religious improvement of men and women, by teaching the Bible by means of the publication and distribution of Bibles, books, papers, pamphlets and other Bible literature, and by providing oral lectures free for the people". The charter provided for a board of seven directors, three of who served as officers—a president, vice-president (initially William I. Mann) and secretary-treasurer (initially Maria Russell). The charter stipulated that the officers be chosen from the directors and be elected annually by ballot. Board members would hold office for life unless removed by a two-thirds vote by shareholders. Vacancies on the board resulting from death, resignation or removal would be filled by a majority vote of the remaining board members within 20 days; if such vacancies were not filled within 30 days an appointment could be made by the president, with the appointments lasting only until the next annual corporation meeting, when vacancies would be filled by election.
Anyone subscribing to $10 or more of the society's Old Testament Tracts or donating $10 or more to the society was deemed a voting member and entitled to one vote per $10 donated. Russell indicated that despite having a board and shareholders, the society would be directed by only two people—him and his wife Maria. Russell said that as at December 1893 he and his wife owned 3705, or 58 percent, of the 6383 voting shares, "and thus control the Society; and this was fully understood by the directors from the first. Their usefulness, it was understood, would come to the front in the event of our death ... For this reason, also, formal elections were not held; because it would be a mere farce, a deception, to call together voting shareholders from all over the world, at great expense, to find upon arrival that their coming was useless, Sister Russell and myself having more than a majority over all that could gather. However, no one was hindered from attending such elections." The influx of donations gradually diluted the proportion of the Russells' shares and in 1908 their voting shares constituted less than half the total. Russell emphasized the limitations of the corporation, explaining: "Zion's Watch Tower Tract Society is not a 'religious society' in the ordinary meaning of this term" He also stated, "This is a business association merely ... It has no creed or confession. It is merely a business convenience in disseminating the truth." Incorporation of the society meant that it would outlive Russell, so individuals who wished to bequeath
their money or property to him would not have to alter their will if he died before they did. On September 19, 1896 the name of the corporation was changed to Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society.
From 1908 Russell required the directors to write out resignations when they were appointed so Russell could dismiss them by simply filling in the date. In 1909 Russell instructed legal counsel Joseph Franklin Rutherford
to determine whether the society's headquarters could be moved to Brooklyn, New York. Rutherford reported that because it had been established under Pennsylvania law, the corporation could not be registered in New York
state, but suggested that a new corporation be registered there to do the society's work. Rutherford subsequently organized the formation of the People's Pulpit Association, which was incorporated on February 23, 1909, and wrote the charter, which gave the president—who would be elected for life at the first meeting—"absolute power and control" of its activities in New York. The society sold its buildings in Pittsburgh and moved staff to its new base in Brooklyn. Although all New York property was bought in the name of the New York corporation and all legal affairs of the society done in its name, Russell insisted on the continued use of the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society name on all correspondence and publications.
The move from Pennsylvania to New York occurred during court proceedings over the breakdown of Russells' marriage. His wife Maria had been granted a "limited divorce" on March 4, 1908, but in 1909 returned to court in Pittsburgh to request an increase in alimony, which her former husband refused. Authors Barbara Grizzuti Harrison
and Edmond C. Gruss have claimed Russell's move to Brooklyn was motivated by his desire to transfer from the jurisdiction of the Pennsylvania courts. They claim he transferred all his assets to the Watch Tower Society so he could declare himself bankrupt and avoid being jailed for failure to pay alimony.
In 1914 the International Bible Students Association was incorporated in Britain to administer affairs in that country. Like the People's Pulpit Association, it was subsidiary to the Pennsylvania parent organization and all work done through both subsidiaries was described as the work of the Watch Tower Society. The Watchtower noted: "The editor of The Watchtower is the President of all three of these Societies. All financial responsibility connected with the work proceeds from (the Pennsylvania corporation). From it the other Societies and all the branches of the
work receive their financial support ... we use sometimes the one name and sometimes the other in various parts of our work – yet they all in the end mean the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society, to which all donations should be made."
during a cross-country preaching trip. On January 6, 1917, board member and society legal counsel Joseph Franklin Rutherford
, aged 47, was elected president of the Watch Tower Society, unopposed, at the Pittsburgh convention. Under his presidency, the role of the society underwent a major change. By-laws passed by both the Pittsburgh convention and the board of directors stated that the president would be the executive officer and general manager of the society, giving him full charge of its affairs worldwide.
By June, four of the seven Watch Tower Society directors—Robert H. Hirsh, Alfred I. Ritchie, Isaac F. Hoskins and James D. Wright— had decided they had erred in endorsing Rutherford's expanded powers of management, claiming Rutherford had become autocratic. In June Hirsch attempted to rescind the new by-laws and reclaim the powers of management from the president, but Rutherford later claimed he had by then detected a conspiracy among the directors to seize control of the society. In July Rutherford gained a legal opinion from a Philadelphia corporation lawyer that none of his opposers were legally directors of the society. On July 12, Rutherford filled what he claimed were four vacancies on the board, appointing A. H. Macmillan and Pennsylvania Bible Students W. E. Spill, J. A. Bohnet and George H. Fisher as directors. Between August and November the society and the four ousted directors published a series of pamphlets, with each side accusing the other of ambitious and reckless behavior. The former directors also claimed Rutherford had required all headquarters workers to sign a petition supporting him and threatened dismissal for any who refused to sign. The former directors left the Brooklyn headquarters on August 8. On January 5, 1918, Rutherford was returned to office.
In May 1918, Rutherford and seven other Watch Tower directors and officers were arrested on charges of sedition
under the Espionage Act
. On June 21 they were sentenced to 20 years' imprisonment. Rutherford feared his opponents would gain control of the Society in his absence, but on January 2, 1919 he learned he had been re-elected president at the Pittsburgh convention the day before. However, by mid-1919 about one in seven Bible Students had chosen to leave rather than accept Rutherford's leadership, forming groups such as The Standfast Movement, Paul Johnson Movement, Dawn Bible Students Association, Pastoral Bible Institute of Brooklyn, Elijah Voice Movement and Eagle Society.
Although formed as a "business convenience" with the purpose of publishing and distributing Bible-based literature and managing the funds necessary for that task, the corporation from the 1920s began its transformation into the "religious society" Russell had insisted it was not, introducing centralized control and regulation of Bible Student
congregations worldwide. In 1938 Rutherford introduced the term "theocracy" to describe the hierarchical leadership of Jehovah's Witnesses, with Consolation explaining: "The Theocracy is at present administered by the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society, of which Judge Rutherford is the president and general manager." The society appointed "zone servants" to supervise congregations and in a Watchtower article Rutherford declared the need for congregations to "get in line" with the changed structure.
Following Rutherford's death in 1942, Nathan H. Knorr
became president of the Watch Tower Society, and subsequently introduced further changes to the role of the society. At a series of talks given in Pittsburgh on September 30, 1944, coinciding with the society's annual meeting, it was announced that changes would be made to the 1884 charter to bring it into "closer harmony with theocratic principles". The amendments, most of which were passed unanimously, significantly altered the terms of membership and stated for the first time that the society's purposes included preaching about God's kingdom
, acting as a servant and governing agency of Jehovah's Witnesses, and sending missionaries and teachers for the public worship of God and Jesus Christ. The new charter, which took effect from January 1, 1945 included the following changes:
Following the death of Knorr in 1977, subsequent presidents of the Watch Tower Society have been Frederick W. Franz
(June 1977 – December 1992); Milton G. Henschel
(December 1992–October 2000) and Don A. Adams (October 2000–).
and Awake!
as well as another 35,811,000 pieces of literature worldwide, which are offered door-to-door by Jehovah's Witnesses.
The society describes its headquarters and branch office staff as volunteers rather than employees, and identifies them as members of the Worldwide Order of Special Full-Time Servants of Jehovah's Witnesses. Workers receive a small monthly stipend
with meals and accommodation provided by the society. The "Bethel family" in the Brooklyn headquarters includes hairdressers, dentists, doctors, housekeepers and carpenters, as well as shops for repairing personal appliances, watches, shoes and clothing without charge for labor.
The society files no publicly accessible financial figures, but reported in 2008 that it had spent more than $141 million that year "in caring for special pioneers, missionaries and traveling overseers in their field service assignments". Donations obtained from the distribution of literature is a major source of income, most of which is used to promote its evangelical activities.
Author James Beckford has claimed the status of voting members of the society is purely symbolic. He said they cannot be considered to be representatives of the mass of Jehovah's Witnesses and are in no position to challenge the actions or authority of the society's directors.
(the city was annexed by Pittsburgh in 1907), but in 1889 moved to "Bible House", newly-built premises at 56-60 Arch St, Allegheny, owned by Russell's privately-owned Tower Publishing Company. The new building contained an assembly hall seating about 200, as well as editorial, printing and shipping facilities and living quarters for some staff. The title for the building was transferred in April 1898 to the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society.
In 1909 the society moved its base to Brooklyn. A four-story brownstone parsonage formerly owned by Congregationalist
clergyman and social reformer Henry Ward Beecher
at 124 Columbia Heights was converted to a residence for a headquarters staff of 30, as well as an office for Russell. A former Plymouth church building at 13-17 Hicks St was also purchased and converted into Watch Tower headquarters, with room for 350 staff. It contained an 800-seat assembly hall, shipping department and printing facilities. The Watch Tower announced: "The new home we shall call 'Bethel,' and the new office and auditorium, 'The Brooklyn Tabernacle'; these names will supplant the term 'Bible House.'" In October 1909 an adjoining building at 122 Columbia Heights was bought. In 1911 a new nine-story residential block was built at the rear of Bethel, fronting on Furman St and overlooking the Brooklyn waterfront. The Brooklyn Tabernacle was sold in 1918 or 1919.
Printing facilities were established in Myrtle St, Brooklyn in 1920 and from the February 1, 1920 issue The Watch Tower was printed by the society at the plant. Two months later the plant began printing The Golden Age. In 1922 the printing factory was moved to a six-story building at 18 Concord St, Brooklyn; four years later it moved again to larger premises, a new eight-story building at 117 Adams St, Brooklyn, at which time the Bethel home was rebuilt and enlarged. In December 1926 a building at 126 Columbia Heights was bought and a month later the three buildings from 122-126 Columbia Heights were demolished and rebuilt for accommodation and executive offices, using the official address of 124 Columbia Heights.
In 1946, property surrounding the Adams St factory was bought to expand printing operations (when completed in 1949 the factory occupied an entire block bounded by Adams, Sands Pearl and Prospect Streets) and five more properties adjoining 124 Columbia Heights were purchased for a 10-story building. In the late 1950s a property at 107 Columbia Heights, across the road from 124 Columbia Heights, was bought and by 1960 a residential building for staff was constructed there. More residences were built at 119 Columbia Heights in 1969.
The Watchtower detailed further expansion in the 1950s and 1960s: "In 1956 a 13-story building was constructed at 77 Sands St. Then just across the street another (10-story building) was purchased in 1958. In 1968 an adjoining 11-story new printing factory was completed. Along with the factory at 117 Adams Street, these fill out four city blocks of factories that are all tied together by overhead bridges. Then, in November 1969, the Squibb complex, located a few blocks away, was purchased."
The society bought the Towers Hotel at 79-99 Willow St in 1974 for accommodation and the site of the former Margaret Hotel at 97 Columbia Heights about 1980 to erect an 11-story residential building. In 1978 a property at 25 Columbia Heights underwent renovation for use as offices and in the early 1980s properties were bought at 175 Pearl St and 360 Furman St for factory and office use. A building at 360 Furman St was bought in March 1983 and renovated, providing almost 9 hectares of floor space for shipping, carpentry and construction. A property at 90 Sands St was bought in December 1986 and a 30-story residential building for 1000 workers was completed on the site in 1995. A 1996 publication listed other Watch Tower residential buildings in Brooklyn including the 12-story Bossert Hotel at 98 Montague St (dedicated 1983), 34 Orange St (1945), Standish Arms Hotel at 169 Columbia Heights (1981), 67 Livingston St (1989), and 108 Joralemon St (1988). A 1989 publication noted: "Altogether, the Brooklyn Bethel family now lives in about 20 residences in Brooklyn Heights, all within short walking distance of one another. In fact, the Towers, 124 Columbia Heights, 107 Columbia Heights, and 119 Columbia Heights, which accommodate nearly 2000 of the family, are connected by underground tunnels."
Two properties known as Watchtower Farms, at Wallkill
, 160 km north of Brooklyn and totalling 1200 hectares, were bought in 1963 and 1967 and factories erected in 1973 and 1975. In 1984 the society paid $2.1 million for a 270 hectare farm at Patterson, New York
for a development that would include 624 apartments, garages for 800 cars and a 149-room hotel. Other rural purchases included a 220 hectare farm near South Lansing, New York and a 60 hectare farm near Port Murray, New Jersey
.
In February 2009 the society paid $11.5 million for 100 hectares of land in Ramapo
, Rockland County, New York for an administration and residential complex. The site was reported to be planned as a base for about 850 Watch Tower workers, creating a compound combining residential and publishing facilities currently located in Brooklyn. A Witness spokesman said the land was currently zoned for residential uses, but an application would be made to rezone it, adding that "Construction is several years in the future."
A year later, the Society announced it planned to move its world headquarters from Brooklyn to a proposed eight-building complex, in addition to the current four-building complex on a 100-hectare Watch Tower property in Warwick, New York
, 1.5 km from its Ramapo site. A Watch Tower presentation to Warwick planning authorities said the complex would house up to 850 people. In August 2011, a 50-acre property was bought in Tuxedo, NY, six miles from the Warwick site.
In 2011 the Watch Tower Society was reported to still own 34 properties in Brooklyn; a 2009 report calculated "a dozen or more" properties in the Brooklyn area, including two large parking lots with a residential zoning. In a 2010 news report the Watch Tower Society said it was "not actively promoting" the sale of eight Brooklyn properties still on the market. In September 2011, the Watch Tower Society put five more of its Brooklyn properties on the market through a brokerage.
, Edmond C. Gruss and James Penton
have accused the society of being authoritarian, controlling and coercive in its dealings with Witnesses. Franz, a former Governing Body member, has claimed the Watch Tower Society's emphasis of the term "theocratic organization" to describe the authority structure of Jehovah's Witnesses, which places God at the apex of its organization, is designed to exercise control over every aspect of the lives of Jehovah's Witnesses and condition them to think it is wrong for them to question anything the society publishes as truth. The Watch Tower Society has been accused of employing techniques of mind control
on Witnesses including the direction to avoid reading criticism of the organization, frequent and tightly-controlled "indoctrination" meetings, regimentation, social alienation and elaborate promises of future rewards. Apart from life stories, the authors of all Watch Tower Society magazine articles and other publications are anonymous and correspondence from the society does not typically indicate a specific author or personal signature.
New York City
New York is the most populous city in the United States and the center of the New York Metropolitan Area, one of the most populous metropolitan areas in the world. New York exerts a significant impact upon global commerce, finance, media, art, fashion, research, technology, education, and...
borough of Brooklyn
Brooklyn
Brooklyn is the most populous of New York City's five boroughs, with nearly 2.6 million residents, and the second-largest in area. Since 1896, Brooklyn has had the same boundaries as Kings County, which is now the most populous county in New York State and the second-most densely populated...
, United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
. It is the main legal entity used worldwide by Jehovah's Witnesses
Jehovah's Witnesses
Jehovah's Witnesses is a millenarian restorationist Christian denomination with nontrinitarian beliefs distinct from mainstream Christianity. The religion reports worldwide membership of over 7 million adherents involved in evangelism, convention attendance of over 12 million, and annual...
to direct, administer and develop doctrines for the religion and is often referred to by members of the religion simply as "the Society". It is the parent organization of a number of Watch Tower subsidiaries, including the Watchtower Society of New York and International Bible Students Association. Membership of the society is limited to between 300 and 500 "mature, active and faithful" male Jehovah's Witnesses. Nearly 20,000 Jehovah's Witnesses are employed at branch facilities, with about 5800 employed in the United States.
The organization was formed in 1881, as Zion's Watch Tower Tract Society, for the purpose of distributing religious tracts. The society was incorporated
Incorporation (business)
Incorporation is the forming of a new corporation . The corporation may be a business, a non-profit organisation, sports club, or a government of a new city or town...
in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania
The Commonwealth of Pennsylvania is a U.S. state that is located in the Northeastern and Mid-Atlantic regions of the United States. The state borders Delaware and Maryland to the south, West Virginia to the southwest, Ohio to the west, New York and Ontario, Canada, to the north, and New Jersey to...
on December 15, 1884. In 1896, the society was renamed Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society. Following a leadership dispute in the Bible Student movement, the Watch Tower Society remained associated with the branch of the movement that became known as Jehovah's Witnesses
Jehovah's Witnesses
Jehovah's Witnesses is a millenarian restorationist Christian denomination with nontrinitarian beliefs distinct from mainstream Christianity. The religion reports worldwide membership of over 7 million adherents involved in evangelism, convention attendance of over 12 million, and annual...
. In 1955, the corporation was renamed Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania. In 1976, all activities of the Watch Tower Society were brought under the supervision of the Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses
Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses
The Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses is the ruling council of Jehovah's Witnesses based in Brooklyn, New York. The body assumes responsibility for formulating policy and doctrines, producing material for publications and conventions, and administering its worldwide branch office staff...
.
History
On February 16, 1881 Zion's Watch Tower Tract Society was formed in PittsburghPittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Pittsburgh is the second-largest city in the US Commonwealth of Pennsylvania and the county seat of Allegheny County. Regionally, it anchors the largest urban area of Appalachia and the Ohio River Valley, and nationally, it is the 22nd-largest urban area in the United States...
, Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania
The Commonwealth of Pennsylvania is a U.S. state that is located in the Northeastern and Mid-Atlantic regions of the United States. The state borders Delaware and Maryland to the south, West Virginia to the southwest, Ohio to the west, New York and Ontario, Canada, to the north, and New Jersey to...
, United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
, for the purpose of organizing the printing and distribution of religious tracts. William Henry Conley
William Henry Conley
William Henry Conley , was a Pittsburgh philanthropist and industrialist. He was married to Sarah Shaffer . Together, they provided organizational and financial support to religious institutions in the United States. William Conley was trained by his uncle in the printing business for ten years...
, a Pittsburgh industrialist and philanthropist, served as president, with Charles Taze Russell
Charles Taze Russell
Charles Taze Russell , or Pastor Russell, was a prominent early 20th century Christian restorationist minister from Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA, and founder of what is now known as the Bible Student movement, from which Jehovah's Witnesses and numerous independent Bible Student groups emerged...
serving as secretary-treasurer. The society's primary journal was Zion's Watch Tower and Herald of Christs Presence, first published in 1879 by Russell, founder of the Bible Student movement
Bible Student movement
The Bible Student movement is the name adopted by a Millennialist Restorationist Christian movement that emerged from the teachings and ministry of Charles Taze Russell, also known as Pastor Russell...
. Other early writers for the Watch Tower Society included J. H Paton and W. I. Mann. Formation of the society was announced in the April 1881 issue of Zion's Watch Tower. That year, the society received donations of $35,391.18.
Incorporation
On December 15, 1884, the society was incorporatedIncorporation (business)
Incorporation is the forming of a new corporation . The corporation may be a business, a non-profit organisation, sports club, or a government of a new city or town...
as Zion's Watch Tower Tract Society in Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania
The Commonwealth of Pennsylvania is a U.S. state that is located in the Northeastern and Mid-Atlantic regions of the United States. The state borders Delaware and Maryland to the south, West Virginia to the southwest, Ohio to the west, New York and Ontario, Canada, to the north, and New Jersey to...
as a non-profit, non-stock corporation with Russell as president. The corporation was located in Allegheny, Pennsylvania
Allegheny, Pennsylvania
Allegheny City was a Pennsylvania municipality located on the north side of the junction of the Allegheny and Ohio rivers, across from downtown Pittsburgh. It was annexed by Pittsburgh in 1907...
. In its charter, written by Russell, the society's purpose was stated as "the mental, moral and religious improvement of men and women, by teaching the Bible by means of the publication and distribution of Bibles, books, papers, pamphlets and other Bible literature, and by providing oral lectures free for the people". The charter provided for a board of seven directors, three of who served as officers—a president, vice-president (initially William I. Mann) and secretary-treasurer (initially Maria Russell). The charter stipulated that the officers be chosen from the directors and be elected annually by ballot. Board members would hold office for life unless removed by a two-thirds vote by shareholders. Vacancies on the board resulting from death, resignation or removal would be filled by a majority vote of the remaining board members within 20 days; if such vacancies were not filled within 30 days an appointment could be made by the president, with the appointments lasting only until the next annual corporation meeting, when vacancies would be filled by election.
Anyone subscribing to $10 or more of the society's Old Testament Tracts or donating $10 or more to the society was deemed a voting member and entitled to one vote per $10 donated. Russell indicated that despite having a board and shareholders, the society would be directed by only two people—him and his wife Maria. Russell said that as at December 1893 he and his wife owned 3705, or 58 percent, of the 6383 voting shares, "and thus control the Society; and this was fully understood by the directors from the first. Their usefulness, it was understood, would come to the front in the event of our death ... For this reason, also, formal elections were not held; because it would be a mere farce, a deception, to call together voting shareholders from all over the world, at great expense, to find upon arrival that their coming was useless, Sister Russell and myself having more than a majority over all that could gather. However, no one was hindered from attending such elections." The influx of donations gradually diluted the proportion of the Russells' shares and in 1908 their voting shares constituted less than half the total. Russell emphasized the limitations of the corporation, explaining: "Zion's Watch Tower Tract Society is not a 'religious society' in the ordinary meaning of this term" He also stated, "This is a business association merely ... It has no creed or confession. It is merely a business convenience in disseminating the truth." Incorporation of the society meant that it would outlive Russell, so individuals who wished to bequeath
Bequest
A bequest is the act of giving property by will. Strictly, "bequest" is used of personal property, and "devise" of real property. In legal terminology, "bequeath" is a verb form meaning "to make a bequest."...
their money or property to him would not have to alter their will if he died before they did. On September 19, 1896 the name of the corporation was changed to Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society.
Joseph Franklin Rutherford
Joseph Franklin Rutherford , also known as "Judge" Rutherford, was the second president of the incorporated Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society, and played a primary role in the organization and doctrinal development of Jehovah's Witnesses, which emerged from the Bible Student movement established...
to determine whether the society's headquarters could be moved to Brooklyn, New York. Rutherford reported that because it had been established under Pennsylvania law, the corporation could not be registered in New York
New York
New York is a state in the Northeastern region of the United States. It is the nation's third most populous state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south, and by Connecticut, Massachusetts and Vermont to the east...
state, but suggested that a new corporation be registered there to do the society's work. Rutherford subsequently organized the formation of the People's Pulpit Association, which was incorporated on February 23, 1909, and wrote the charter, which gave the president—who would be elected for life at the first meeting—"absolute power and control" of its activities in New York. The society sold its buildings in Pittsburgh and moved staff to its new base in Brooklyn. Although all New York property was bought in the name of the New York corporation and all legal affairs of the society done in its name, Russell insisted on the continued use of the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society name on all correspondence and publications.
The move from Pennsylvania to New York occurred during court proceedings over the breakdown of Russells' marriage. His wife Maria had been granted a "limited divorce" on March 4, 1908, but in 1909 returned to court in Pittsburgh to request an increase in alimony, which her former husband refused. Authors Barbara Grizzuti Harrison
Barbara Grizzuti Harrison
Barbara Grizzuti Harrison was an American journalist, essayist and memoirist. She is best known for her autobiographical work, particularly her account of growing up as one of Jehovah's Witnesses, and for her travel writing.- Early life :Barbara Grizzuti was born in Queens, New York City, on 14...
and Edmond C. Gruss have claimed Russell's move to Brooklyn was motivated by his desire to transfer from the jurisdiction of the Pennsylvania courts. They claim he transferred all his assets to the Watch Tower Society so he could declare himself bankrupt and avoid being jailed for failure to pay alimony.
In 1914 the International Bible Students Association was incorporated in Britain to administer affairs in that country. Like the People's Pulpit Association, it was subsidiary to the Pennsylvania parent organization and all work done through both subsidiaries was described as the work of the Watch Tower Society. The Watchtower noted: "The editor of The Watchtower is the President of all three of these Societies. All financial responsibility connected with the work proceeds from (the Pennsylvania corporation). From it the other Societies and all the branches of the
work receive their financial support ... we use sometimes the one name and sometimes the other in various parts of our work – yet they all in the end mean the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society, to which all donations should be made."
Leadership dispute
Russell died on October 31, 1916, in Pampa, TexasPampa, Texas
Pampa is a city in Gray County, Texas, United States. The population was 17,887 at the 2000 census. It is the county seat of Gray County.Pampa is the principal city of the Pampa Micropolitan Statistical Area, which includes all of Gray and Roberts counties....
during a cross-country preaching trip. On January 6, 1917, board member and society legal counsel Joseph Franklin Rutherford
Joseph Franklin Rutherford
Joseph Franklin Rutherford , also known as "Judge" Rutherford, was the second president of the incorporated Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society, and played a primary role in the organization and doctrinal development of Jehovah's Witnesses, which emerged from the Bible Student movement established...
, aged 47, was elected president of the Watch Tower Society, unopposed, at the Pittsburgh convention. Under his presidency, the role of the society underwent a major change. By-laws passed by both the Pittsburgh convention and the board of directors stated that the president would be the executive officer and general manager of the society, giving him full charge of its affairs worldwide.
By June, four of the seven Watch Tower Society directors—Robert H. Hirsh, Alfred I. Ritchie, Isaac F. Hoskins and James D. Wright— had decided they had erred in endorsing Rutherford's expanded powers of management, claiming Rutherford had become autocratic. In June Hirsch attempted to rescind the new by-laws and reclaim the powers of management from the president, but Rutherford later claimed he had by then detected a conspiracy among the directors to seize control of the society. In July Rutherford gained a legal opinion from a Philadelphia corporation lawyer that none of his opposers were legally directors of the society. On July 12, Rutherford filled what he claimed were four vacancies on the board, appointing A. H. Macmillan and Pennsylvania Bible Students W. E. Spill, J. A. Bohnet and George H. Fisher as directors. Between August and November the society and the four ousted directors published a series of pamphlets, with each side accusing the other of ambitious and reckless behavior. The former directors also claimed Rutherford had required all headquarters workers to sign a petition supporting him and threatened dismissal for any who refused to sign. The former directors left the Brooklyn headquarters on August 8. On January 5, 1918, Rutherford was returned to office.
In May 1918, Rutherford and seven other Watch Tower directors and officers were arrested on charges of sedition
Sedition
In law, sedition is overt conduct, such as speech and organization, that is deemed by the legal authority to tend toward insurrection against the established order. Sedition often includes subversion of a constitution and incitement of discontent to lawful authority. Sedition may include any...
under the Espionage Act
Espionage Act of 1917
The Espionage Act of 1917 is a United States federal law passed on June 15, 1917, shortly after the U.S. entry into World War I. It has been amended numerous times over the years. It was originally found in Title 50 of the U.S. Code but is now found under Title 18, Crime...
. On June 21 they were sentenced to 20 years' imprisonment. Rutherford feared his opponents would gain control of the Society in his absence, but on January 2, 1919 he learned he had been re-elected president at the Pittsburgh convention the day before. However, by mid-1919 about one in seven Bible Students had chosen to leave rather than accept Rutherford's leadership, forming groups such as The Standfast Movement, Paul Johnson Movement, Dawn Bible Students Association, Pastoral Bible Institute of Brooklyn, Elijah Voice Movement and Eagle Society.
Although formed as a "business convenience" with the purpose of publishing and distributing Bible-based literature and managing the funds necessary for that task, the corporation from the 1920s began its transformation into the "religious society" Russell had insisted it was not, introducing centralized control and regulation of Bible Student
Bible Student movement
The Bible Student movement is the name adopted by a Millennialist Restorationist Christian movement that emerged from the teachings and ministry of Charles Taze Russell, also known as Pastor Russell...
congregations worldwide. In 1938 Rutherford introduced the term "theocracy" to describe the hierarchical leadership of Jehovah's Witnesses, with Consolation explaining: "The Theocracy is at present administered by the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society, of which Judge Rutherford is the president and general manager." The society appointed "zone servants" to supervise congregations and in a Watchtower article Rutherford declared the need for congregations to "get in line" with the changed structure.
Amendments to Charter
Nathan Homer Knorr
Nathan Homer Knorr was the third president of the incorporated Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society, becoming so on January 13, 1942, replacing Joseph Franklin Rutherford, who had served in the position since 1916.-Life:...
became president of the Watch Tower Society, and subsequently introduced further changes to the role of the society. At a series of talks given in Pittsburgh on September 30, 1944, coinciding with the society's annual meeting, it was announced that changes would be made to the 1884 charter to bring it into "closer harmony with theocratic principles". The amendments, most of which were passed unanimously, significantly altered the terms of membership and stated for the first time that the society's purposes included preaching about God's kingdom
Kingdom of God
The Kingdom of God or Kingdom of Heaven is a foundational concept in the Abrahamic religions: Judaism, Christianity and Islam.The term "Kingdom of God" is found in all four canonical gospels and in the Pauline epistles...
, acting as a servant and governing agency of Jehovah's Witnesses, and sending missionaries and teachers for the public worship of God and Jesus Christ. The new charter, which took effect from January 1, 1945 included the following changes:
- An altered and expanded explanation of article II, detailing the purpose of the society. This included the preaching of the gospel of God's kingdom to all nations; to print and distribute Bibles and disseminate Bible truths with literature explaining Bible truths and prophecy concerning the establishment of God's kingdom; to authorise and appoint agents, servants, employees, teachers evangelists, missionaries, ministers and others "to go all the world publicly and from house to house to preach Bible truths to persons willing to listen by leaving with such persons said literature and by conducting Bible studies thereon"; to improve people mentally and morally by instruction "on the Bible and incidental scientific, historical and literary subjects"; to establish and maintain Bible schools and classes; to "teach, train, prepare and equip men and women as ministers, missionaries, evangelists, preachers, teachers and instructors in the Bible and Bible literature, and for public Christian worship of Almighty God and Jesus Christ" and "to arrange for and hold local and worldwide assemblies for such worship".
- An amendment to article V, detailing the qualifications for membership of the society. Each donation of $10 to the society funds had formerly entitled the contributor to one voting share; the amendment limited membership to "only men who are mature, active and faithful witnesses of Jehovah devoting full time to performance of one or more of its chartered purposes ... or such men who are devoting part time as active presiding ministers or servants of congregations of Jehovah's witnesses". The amended article stipulated that "a man who is found to be in harmony with the purposes of the Society and who possesses the above qualifications may be elected as a member upon being nominated by a member, director or officer, or upon written application to the President or Secretary. Such members shall be elected upon a finding by the Board of Directors that he possesses the necessary qualifications and by receiving a majority vote of the members ... " The amendment limited membership at any one time to between 300 and 500, including approximately seven residents of each of the 48 states of the US. It also introduced a clause providing for the suspension or expulsion of a member for wilfully violating the society's rules, or "becoming out of harmony with any of the Society's purposes or any of its work or for wilful conduct prejudicial to the best interests of the Society and contrary to his duties as a member, or upon ceasing to be a full-time servant of the Society or a part-time servant of a congregation of Jehovah's witnesses".
- An amendment to article VII, dealing with the governance of the society by its board of directors. The amendment deleted reference to adherence to the constitution and laws of Pennsylvania of the US. It also specified powers of the board including matters of finance and property.
- An amendment to article VIII, detailing the office holders of the society and the terms of office and method of appointment of officers and directors. A clause stating that board members would hold office for life was deleted. The new clause provided for board membership for a maximum of three years, with directors qualifying for re-election at the expiration of their term.
Governing Body
In 1976, direction of the Watch Tower Society and of the congregations of Jehovah's Witnesses worldwide came under the control of the Governing Body, reducing the power of the society's president. The society has described the change as "one of the most significant organizational readjustments in the modern-day history of Jehovah's Witnesses."Following the death of Knorr in 1977, subsequent presidents of the Watch Tower Society have been Frederick W. Franz
Frederick William Franz
Frederick William Franz served as President of the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania, the legal entity used to direct the work of Jehovah's Witnesses. He had previously served as Vice President of the same corporation from 1945 until 1977 and as a member of the Governing Body of...
(June 1977 – December 1992); Milton G. Henschel
Milton George Henschel
Milton George Henschel was a member of the Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses and succeeded Frederick W. Franz as president of the Watch Tower Society in 1992.-Personal life:...
(December 1992–October 2000) and Don A. Adams (October 2000–).
Presidents
| Name | Date of birth | Date of death | Started | Ended |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| William Henry Conley William Henry Conley William Henry Conley , was a Pittsburgh philanthropist and industrialist. He was married to Sarah Shaffer . Together, they provided organizational and financial support to religious institutions in the United States. William Conley was trained by his uncle in the printing business for ten years... |
June 11, 1840 | July 25, 1897 | February 16, 1881 | December, 1884 |
| Incorporated | ||||
| Charles Taze Russell Charles Taze Russell Charles Taze Russell , or Pastor Russell, was a prominent early 20th century Christian restorationist minister from Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA, and founder of what is now known as the Bible Student movement, from which Jehovah's Witnesses and numerous independent Bible Student groups emerged... |
February 16, 1852 | October 31, 1916 | December 15, 1884 | October 31, 1916 |
| Joseph Franklin Rutherford Joseph Franklin Rutherford Joseph Franklin Rutherford , also known as "Judge" Rutherford, was the second president of the incorporated Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society, and played a primary role in the organization and doctrinal development of Jehovah's Witnesses, which emerged from the Bible Student movement established... |
November 8, 1869 | January 8, 1942 | January 6, 1917 | January 8, 1942 |
| Nathan Homer Knorr Nathan Homer Knorr Nathan Homer Knorr was the third president of the incorporated Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society, becoming so on January 13, 1942, replacing Joseph Franklin Rutherford, who had served in the position since 1916.-Life:... |
April 23, 1905 | June 8, 1977 | January 13, 1942 | June 8, 1977 |
| Frederick William Franz Frederick William Franz Frederick William Franz served as President of the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania, the legal entity used to direct the work of Jehovah's Witnesses. He had previously served as Vice President of the same corporation from 1945 until 1977 and as a member of the Governing Body of... |
September 12, 1893 | December 22, 1992 | June 22, 1977 | December 22, 1992 |
| Milton George Henschel Milton George Henschel Milton George Henschel was a member of the Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses and succeeded Frederick W. Franz as president of the Watch Tower Society in 1992.-Personal life:... |
August 9, 1920 | March 22, 2003 | December 30, 1992 | October 7, 2000 |
| Don Alden Adams Don A. Adams Don Alden Adams is the current president of the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania, the principal corporation of Jehovah's Witnesses.- Biography :... |
1925 | — | October 7, 2000 | incumbent |
Operations
The corporation is a major publisher of religious publications, including books, tracts, magazines and Bibles. By 1979, the society had 39 printing branches worldwide. In 1990 it was reported that in one year the society printed 696 million copies of its magazines, The WatchtowerThe Watchtower
The Watchtower Announcing Jehovah's Kingdom is an illustrated religious magazine, published semi-monthly in 194 languages by Jehovah's Witnesses via the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania and printed in various branch offices around the world...
and Awake!
Awake!
Awake! is a monthly illustrated magazine published by Jehovah's Witnesses via the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania and printed in various branch offices around the world. It is considered to be a companion magazine of The Watchtower, and is distributed by Jehovah's Witnesses in...
as well as another 35,811,000 pieces of literature worldwide, which are offered door-to-door by Jehovah's Witnesses.
The society describes its headquarters and branch office staff as volunteers rather than employees, and identifies them as members of the Worldwide Order of Special Full-Time Servants of Jehovah's Witnesses. Workers receive a small monthly stipend
Stipend
A stipend is a form of salary, such as for an internship or apprenticeship. It is often distinct from a wage or a salary because it does not necessarily represent payment for work performed, instead it represents a payment that enables somebody to be exempt partly or wholly from waged or salaried...
with meals and accommodation provided by the society. The "Bethel family" in the Brooklyn headquarters includes hairdressers, dentists, doctors, housekeepers and carpenters, as well as shops for repairing personal appliances, watches, shoes and clothing without charge for labor.
The society files no publicly accessible financial figures, but reported in 2008 that it had spent more than $141 million that year "in caring for special pioneers, missionaries and traveling overseers in their field service assignments". Donations obtained from the distribution of literature is a major source of income, most of which is used to promote its evangelical activities.
Author James Beckford has claimed the status of voting members of the society is purely symbolic. He said they cannot be considered to be representatives of the mass of Jehovah's Witnesses and are in no position to challenge the actions or authority of the society's directors.
United States
The corporation was first located at 44 Federal St, Allegheny, PennsylvaniaAllegheny, Pennsylvania
Allegheny City was a Pennsylvania municipality located on the north side of the junction of the Allegheny and Ohio rivers, across from downtown Pittsburgh. It was annexed by Pittsburgh in 1907...
(the city was annexed by Pittsburgh in 1907), but in 1889 moved to "Bible House", newly-built premises at 56-60 Arch St, Allegheny, owned by Russell's privately-owned Tower Publishing Company. The new building contained an assembly hall seating about 200, as well as editorial, printing and shipping facilities and living quarters for some staff. The title for the building was transferred in April 1898 to the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society.
In 1909 the society moved its base to Brooklyn. A four-story brownstone parsonage formerly owned by Congregationalist
Congregational church
Congregational churches are Protestant Christian churches practicing Congregationalist church governance, in which each congregation independently and autonomously runs its own affairs....
clergyman and social reformer Henry Ward Beecher
Henry Ward Beecher
Henry Ward Beecher was a prominent Congregationalist clergyman, social reformer, abolitionist, and speaker in the mid to late 19th century...
at 124 Columbia Heights was converted to a residence for a headquarters staff of 30, as well as an office for Russell. A former Plymouth church building at 13-17 Hicks St was also purchased and converted into Watch Tower headquarters, with room for 350 staff. It contained an 800-seat assembly hall, shipping department and printing facilities. The Watch Tower announced: "The new home we shall call 'Bethel,' and the new office and auditorium, 'The Brooklyn Tabernacle'; these names will supplant the term 'Bible House.'" In October 1909 an adjoining building at 122 Columbia Heights was bought. In 1911 a new nine-story residential block was built at the rear of Bethel, fronting on Furman St and overlooking the Brooklyn waterfront. The Brooklyn Tabernacle was sold in 1918 or 1919.
Printing facilities were established in Myrtle St, Brooklyn in 1920 and from the February 1, 1920 issue The Watch Tower was printed by the society at the plant. Two months later the plant began printing The Golden Age. In 1922 the printing factory was moved to a six-story building at 18 Concord St, Brooklyn; four years later it moved again to larger premises, a new eight-story building at 117 Adams St, Brooklyn, at which time the Bethel home was rebuilt and enlarged. In December 1926 a building at 126 Columbia Heights was bought and a month later the three buildings from 122-126 Columbia Heights were demolished and rebuilt for accommodation and executive offices, using the official address of 124 Columbia Heights.
In 1946, property surrounding the Adams St factory was bought to expand printing operations (when completed in 1949 the factory occupied an entire block bounded by Adams, Sands Pearl and Prospect Streets) and five more properties adjoining 124 Columbia Heights were purchased for a 10-story building. In the late 1950s a property at 107 Columbia Heights, across the road from 124 Columbia Heights, was bought and by 1960 a residential building for staff was constructed there. More residences were built at 119 Columbia Heights in 1969.
The Watchtower detailed further expansion in the 1950s and 1960s: "In 1956 a 13-story building was constructed at 77 Sands St. Then just across the street another (10-story building) was purchased in 1958. In 1968 an adjoining 11-story new printing factory was completed. Along with the factory at 117 Adams Street, these fill out four city blocks of factories that are all tied together by overhead bridges. Then, in November 1969, the Squibb complex, located a few blocks away, was purchased."
The society bought the Towers Hotel at 79-99 Willow St in 1974 for accommodation and the site of the former Margaret Hotel at 97 Columbia Heights about 1980 to erect an 11-story residential building. In 1978 a property at 25 Columbia Heights underwent renovation for use as offices and in the early 1980s properties were bought at 175 Pearl St and 360 Furman St for factory and office use. A building at 360 Furman St was bought in March 1983 and renovated, providing almost 9 hectares of floor space for shipping, carpentry and construction. A property at 90 Sands St was bought in December 1986 and a 30-story residential building for 1000 workers was completed on the site in 1995. A 1996 publication listed other Watch Tower residential buildings in Brooklyn including the 12-story Bossert Hotel at 98 Montague St (dedicated 1983), 34 Orange St (1945), Standish Arms Hotel at 169 Columbia Heights (1981), 67 Livingston St (1989), and 108 Joralemon St (1988). A 1989 publication noted: "Altogether, the Brooklyn Bethel family now lives in about 20 residences in Brooklyn Heights, all within short walking distance of one another. In fact, the Towers, 124 Columbia Heights, 107 Columbia Heights, and 119 Columbia Heights, which accommodate nearly 2000 of the family, are connected by underground tunnels."
Two properties known as Watchtower Farms, at Wallkill
Wallkill, Ulster County, New York
Wallkill is a hamlet , generally identified as coterminous with ZIP code 12589, telephone exchange 895 in the 845 area code and most of the Wallkill Central School District located mostly in the eastern half of the Town of Shawangunk, Ulster County, New York but partly spilling over into adjacent...
, 160 km north of Brooklyn and totalling 1200 hectares, were bought in 1963 and 1967 and factories erected in 1973 and 1975. In 1984 the society paid $2.1 million for a 270 hectare farm at Patterson, New York
Patterson, New York
Patterson is a town in Putnam County, New York, United States. The town is in the northeast part of the county. Interstate 84 passes through the southwest part of the town. The population was 11,306 at the 2000 census. The town is named after early farmer Matthew Paterson...
for a development that would include 624 apartments, garages for 800 cars and a 149-room hotel. Other rural purchases included a 220 hectare farm near South Lansing, New York and a 60 hectare farm near Port Murray, New Jersey
Port Murray, New Jersey
Port Murray is an unincorporated area within Mansfield Township in Warren County, New Jersey, United States. The area is served as United States Postal Service ZIP code 07865...
.
In February 2009 the society paid $11.5 million for 100 hectares of land in Ramapo
Ramapo, New York
Ramapo , formerly known as New Hempstead and then Hampstead, is a town in Rockland County, New York, United States located north of New Jersey; southeast of Orange County, New York; south of the Town of Haverstraw and west of the Town of Clarkstown and the Town of Orangetown...
, Rockland County, New York for an administration and residential complex. The site was reported to be planned as a base for about 850 Watch Tower workers, creating a compound combining residential and publishing facilities currently located in Brooklyn. A Witness spokesman said the land was currently zoned for residential uses, but an application would be made to rezone it, adding that "Construction is several years in the future."
A year later, the Society announced it planned to move its world headquarters from Brooklyn to a proposed eight-building complex, in addition to the current four-building complex on a 100-hectare Watch Tower property in Warwick, New York
Warwick, New York
Warwick is a town in Orange County, New York, United States. The population was 30,764 at the 2000 census. The 2007 census population estimate is 32,669.The Town of Warwick is located in the southwest part of the county...
, 1.5 km from its Ramapo site. A Watch Tower presentation to Warwick planning authorities said the complex would house up to 850 people. In August 2011, a 50-acre property was bought in Tuxedo, NY, six miles from the Warwick site.
Brooklyn property sales
In 2004 the society began transferring its printing operations to its Wallkill factory complex. The move triggered the sale of a number of Brooklyn factory and residential properties including:- 360 Furman St, sold in 2004 for $205 million;
- 67 Livingston St, (nicknamed the Sliver) sold in 2006 for $18.6 million.
- 89 Hicks St, sold in 2006 for $14 million.
- Standish Arms Hotel, 169 Columbia Heights, sold in 2007 for $50 million.
- Bossert HotelHotel BossertHotel Bossert was once known as "the Waldorf-Astoria of Brooklyn". It was the site of the celebration of the Brooklyn Dodgers' only World Series championship.-Early history:...
, 98 Montague St, for sale since 2008. Media reports in 2008 claimed a deal had been struck for more than $100 million, although the deal later fell through. - 161 Columbia Heights, bought in 1988 and offered for sale in 2007.
- 165 Columbia Heights, offered for sale in 2007.
- 183 Columbia Heights, bought in 1986 and offered for sale in 2007.
- 105 Willow St, offered for sale in 2007.
- 34 Orange St, offered for sale in 2007.
In 2011 the Watch Tower Society was reported to still own 34 properties in Brooklyn; a 2009 report calculated "a dozen or more" properties in the Brooklyn area, including two large parking lots with a residential zoning. In a 2010 news report the Watch Tower Society said it was "not actively promoting" the sale of eight Brooklyn properties still on the market. In September 2011, the Watch Tower Society put five more of its Brooklyn properties on the market through a brokerage.
Other countries
In 1900 the Watch Tower opened its first overseas branch office in Britain. Germany followed in 1903 and Australia in 1904. By 1979 the society had 39 printing branches throughout the world, with facilities transferred to farming properties in many countries including Brazil, Sweden, Denmark, Canada and Australia. In 2010, the Watch Tower Society had 116 branch offices worldwide.Current
- Richard E. Abrahamson, director since 2000, secretary-treasurer since 2000
- Don Alden Adams, director since 2000, president since 2000
- Danny L. Bland, director since 2000
- William F. Malenfant, director since 2000, vice-president since 2000
- Robert W. Wallen, director since 2000, vice-president since 2000
- Philip D. Wilcox, director since 2000
- John N. Wischuk, director since 2000
Former
Directors are listed generally from most to least recent. List may not be complete.- Milton George HenschelMilton George HenschelMilton George Henschel was a member of the Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses and succeeded Frederick W. Franz as president of the Watch Tower Society in 1992.-Personal life:...
(director 1947–2000, vice-president 1977–1992, president 1992–2000) - Lyman Alexander Swingle (director 1945–2000)
- W. Lloyd Barry (director ?–1999, vice-president ?–1999)
- Frederick William FranzFrederick William FranzFrederick William Franz served as President of the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania, the legal entity used to direct the work of Jehovah's Witnesses. He had previously served as Vice President of the same corporation from 1945 until 1977 and as a member of the Governing Body of...
(director 1945–1992, vice-president 1945–1977, president 1977–1992) - Grant Suiter (director 1941–1983, secretary-treasurer)
- William K. Jackson (director 1973–1981)
- Nathan Homer KnorrNathan Homer KnorrNathan Homer Knorr was the third president of the incorporated Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society, becoming so on January 13, 1942, replacing Joseph Franklin Rutherford, who had served in the position since 1916.-Life:...
(director 1940–1977, vice-president 1940–1942, president 1942–1977) - John O. Groh (director 1965–1975)
- Thomas J. Sullivan (director 1932–1973)
- Alexander Hugh MacmillanAlexander Hugh MacmillanAlexander Hugh Macmillan , also referred to as A. H. Macmillan, was an important member of the Bible Students, and later, of Jehovah’s Witnesses. He became a board member of the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society in 1918...
(director 1918–1966) - Hugo Henry Riemer (1943–1965)
- William Edwin Van Amburgh (director 1916–1947, secretary-treasurer)
- Hayden Cooper Covington (director 1940–1945, vice-president 1942–1945)
- Joseph Franklin RutherfordJoseph Franklin RutherfordJoseph Franklin Rutherford , also known as "Judge" Rutherford, was the second president of the incorporated Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society, and played a primary role in the organization and doctrinal development of Jehovah's Witnesses, which emerged from the Bible Student movement established...
(director 1916–1942, acting president 1916–1917, president 1917–1942) - Charles A. Wise (director 1919–1940, vice-president 1919–1940)
- J. A. Baeuerlcin (director 1923 flFloruitFloruit , abbreviated fl. , is a Latin verb meaning "flourished", denoting the period of time during which something was active...
) - R. H. Barber (director 1919–1919)
- Charles H. Anderson (director 1918–?, vice-president 1918–1919)
- J. A. Bohnet (director 1917–?)
- George H. Fisher (director 1917–?)
- W. E. Spill (director 1917–?)
- Andrew N. Pierson (director 1916–1918, vice-president)
- Robert H. Hirsh (director 1917–1917)
- J. D. Wright (director fl1916–1917)
- Isaac F. Hoskins (director fl1916–1917)
- Alfred I. Ritchie (director 1916–1917, vice-president)
- Henry Clay Rockwell (director fl1916–1917)
- Charles Taze RussellCharles Taze RussellCharles Taze Russell , or Pastor Russell, was a prominent early 20th century Christian restorationist minister from Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA, and founder of what is now known as the Bible Student movement, from which Jehovah's Witnesses and numerous independent Bible Student groups emerged...
(director 1884–1916, president 1884–1916) - William M. Wright (?–1906)
- Henry Weber (director 1884–1904, vice-president 1884–1904)
- Maria Russell (nee Ackley) (director 1884–1897, secretary-treasurer 1884–?, then-wife of Charles Taze Russell)
- J. B. Adamson (director 1884–?)
- Rose J. Ball (director 1884–?)
- Simon O. Blunden (director 1884–?)
- W. C. McMillan (director 1884–?)
- W. I. Mann (director 1884–1884, vice-president 1884–1884)
- J. F. Smith (director 1884–1884)
Criticism
Critics including Raymond FranzRaymond Franz
Raymond Victor Franz was a member of the Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses from 20 October 1971 until 22 May 1980, and served at the organization's world headquarters for fifteen years, from 1965 until 1980. Franz claimed the request for his resignation and his subsequent disfellowshipping...
, Edmond C. Gruss and James Penton
James Penton
James Penton is a professor emeritus of history at the University of Lethbridge in Lethbridge, Alberta, Canada.Born in April 1932, Penton was raised as a fourth-generation Jehovah's Witness. He gradually came to disagree with the teachings of the religion during the 1970s and was eventually...
have accused the society of being authoritarian, controlling and coercive in its dealings with Witnesses. Franz, a former Governing Body member, has claimed the Watch Tower Society's emphasis of the term "theocratic organization" to describe the authority structure of Jehovah's Witnesses, which places God at the apex of its organization, is designed to exercise control over every aspect of the lives of Jehovah's Witnesses and condition them to think it is wrong for them to question anything the society publishes as truth. The Watch Tower Society has been accused of employing techniques of mind control
Mind control
Mind control refers to a process in which a group or individual "systematically uses unethically manipulative methods to persuade others to conform to the wishes of the manipulator, often to the detriment of the person being manipulated"...
on Witnesses including the direction to avoid reading criticism of the organization, frequent and tightly-controlled "indoctrination" meetings, regimentation, social alienation and elaborate promises of future rewards. Apart from life stories, the authors of all Watch Tower Society magazine articles and other publications are anonymous and correspondence from the society does not typically indicate a specific author or personal signature.
See also
- Governing Body of Jehovah's WitnessesGoverning Body of Jehovah's WitnessesThe Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses is the ruling council of Jehovah's Witnesses based in Brooklyn, New York. The body assumes responsibility for formulating policy and doctrines, producing material for publications and conventions, and administering its worldwide branch office staff...
- Organizational Structure of Jehovah's WitnessesOrganizational structure of Jehovah's WitnessesJehovah's Witnesses are organized under a hierarchical arrangement their leadership calls a "theocratic government", under the belief that it is an extension of God's heavenly government on earth...
- Corporations of Jehovah's WitnessesCorporations of Jehovah's WitnessesA number of corporations are in use by Jehovah's Witnesses. They publish literature and perform other operational and administrative functions, representing the interests of the religious organization...
- History of Jehovah's WitnessesHistory of Jehovah's WitnessesJehovah's Witnesses had its origins in the Bible Student movement, which developed in the United States in the 1870s among followers of Christian Restorationist minister Charles Taze Russell. Bible Student missionaries were sent to England in 1881 and the first overseas branch was opened in London...
- Bible Student movementBible Student movementThe Bible Student movement is the name adopted by a Millennialist Restorationist Christian movement that emerged from the teachings and ministry of Charles Taze Russell, also known as Pastor Russell...
- Criticism of Jehovah's Witnesses