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Wars of Alexander the Great



 
 
The Wars of Alexander the Great were fought by King Alexander III ("The Great") of Macedon
Macedon

Macedon or Macedonia was the name of a monarchy centred in the northernmost part of ancient Greece. The homeland of the ancient Macedonians, it was bordered by the kingdom of Epirus to the west and the region of Thrace to the east....
, first against the Achaemenid Persian Empire
Achaemenid Empire

The Achaemenid Empire or Achaemenid Persian Empire was amongst the first Persian Empires that ruled over significant portions of Greater Iran, and followed the Ancient Iranian peoples Median Empire....
, under its "King of Kings" Darius III
Darius III of Persia

Darius III was the last king of the Achaemenid Empire of Persia from 336 BC to 330 BC. It was under his rule that the Persian Empire was conquered during the Wars of Alexander the Great....
, and then against local chieftains and warlords as far east as Punjab
Punjab region

Punjab , also Panjab , is a region straddling the border between India and Pakistan. The "Five Rivers" are Beas River, Ravi River, Sutlej, Chenab and Jhelum River; all these are tributaries of the Indus river, Jhelum being the biggest one....
, India
India

India, officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and outlying territories by total area country by geographical area, the List of countries by population country, and the most populous liberal democracy in the world....
. Alexander the Great was one of the most successful military commanders of all time and is presumed undefeated in battle. By the time of his death, he had conquered most of the world known to the ancient Greeks
Ancient Greece

The term Ancient Greece refers to the period of History of Greece lasting from the Greek Dark Ages ca. 1100 BC and the Dorian invasion, to 146 BC and the Roman Republic conquest of Greece after the Battle of Corinth ....
.

Alexander assumed the kingship of Macedon following the death of his father Philip II
Philip II of Macedon

Philip II of Macedon,...
, who had unified most of the city-states
Polis

A polis -- plural: poleis --is a city, a city-state and also citizenship and body of citizens. When used to describe Classical Athens and its contemporaries, polis is often translated as "city-state."...
 of mainland Greece under Macedonian hegemony
Hegemony

Hegemony first denoted the dominance of a Greek city-state over other city-states, then denoted the dominance of one nation over others. The political scientist Antonio Gramsci developed the former conceptions to identify the dominance of one social class over the other social classes in a society by means of cultural hegemony....
 in a federation called the League of Corinth
League of Corinth

The League of Corinth, also sometimes referred to as Hellenic League was a federation of Greek states created by Philip II of Macedon during the winter of 338 BC/337 BC to facilitate his use of military forces in his war against Persia....
.






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The Wars of Alexander the Great were fought by King Alexander III ("The Great") of Macedon
Macedon

Macedon or Macedonia was the name of a monarchy centred in the northernmost part of ancient Greece. The homeland of the ancient Macedonians, it was bordered by the kingdom of Epirus to the west and the region of Thrace to the east....
, first against the Achaemenid Persian Empire
Achaemenid Empire

The Achaemenid Empire or Achaemenid Persian Empire was amongst the first Persian Empires that ruled over significant portions of Greater Iran, and followed the Ancient Iranian peoples Median Empire....
, under its "King of Kings" Darius III
Darius III of Persia

Darius III was the last king of the Achaemenid Empire of Persia from 336 BC to 330 BC. It was under his rule that the Persian Empire was conquered during the Wars of Alexander the Great....
, and then against local chieftains and warlords as far east as Punjab
Punjab region

Punjab , also Panjab , is a region straddling the border between India and Pakistan. The "Five Rivers" are Beas River, Ravi River, Sutlej, Chenab and Jhelum River; all these are tributaries of the Indus river, Jhelum being the biggest one....
, India
India

India, officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and outlying territories by total area country by geographical area, the List of countries by population country, and the most populous liberal democracy in the world....
. Alexander the Great was one of the most successful military commanders of all time and is presumed undefeated in battle. By the time of his death, he had conquered most of the world known to the ancient Greeks
Ancient Greece

The term Ancient Greece refers to the period of History of Greece lasting from the Greek Dark Ages ca. 1100 BC and the Dorian invasion, to 146 BC and the Roman Republic conquest of Greece after the Battle of Corinth ....
.

Alexander assumed the kingship of Macedon following the death of his father Philip II
Philip II of Macedon

Philip II of Macedon,...
, who had unified most of the city-states
Polis

A polis -- plural: poleis --is a city, a city-state and also citizenship and body of citizens. When used to describe Classical Athens and its contemporaries, polis is often translated as "city-state."...
 of mainland Greece under Macedonian hegemony
Hegemony

Hegemony first denoted the dominance of a Greek city-state over other city-states, then denoted the dominance of one nation over others. The political scientist Antonio Gramsci developed the former conceptions to identify the dominance of one social class over the other social classes in a society by means of cultural hegemony....
 in a federation called the League of Corinth
League of Corinth

The League of Corinth, also sometimes referred to as Hellenic League was a federation of Greek states created by Philip II of Macedon during the winter of 338 BC/337 BC to facilitate his use of military forces in his war against Persia....
. After reconfirming Macedonian rule by quashing a rebellion of southern Greek city-states and staging a short but bloody excursion against Macedon's northern neighbors, Alexander set out east against the Achaemenid Persian Empire
Achaemenid Empire

The Achaemenid Empire or Achaemenid Persian Empire was amongst the first Persian Empires that ruled over significant portions of Greater Iran, and followed the Ancient Iranian peoples Median Empire....
, under its "King of Kings" (the title all Achaemenid kings went by), Darius III
Darius III of Persia

Darius III was the last king of the Achaemenid Empire of Persia from 336 BC to 330 BC. It was under his rule that the Persian Empire was conquered during the Wars of Alexander the Great....
, which he defeated and overthrew. His conquests included Anatolia
Anatolia

Anatolia or Asia Minor is a region of Western Asia, comprising most of the modern Republic of Turkey. It is a geographic region bounded by the Black Sea to the north, the Caucasus to the northeast, the Aegean Sea to the west, the Mediterranean Sea to the south, and the Iranian plateau to the east and southeast....
, Syria
Syria

Syria , officially the Syrian Arab Republic , is an Arab-majority country in Southwest Asia, bordering Lebanon and the Mediterranean Sea to the west, Israel to the southwest, Jordan to the south, Iraq to the east, and Turkey to the north....
, Phoenicia
Phoenicia

Phoenicia was an ancient civilization centered in the north of ancient Canaan, with its heartland along the coastal regions of modern day Lebanon, extending to parts of Israel, Syria and the Palestinian territories....
, Judea
Judea

Judea or Jud?a is the name given to the mountainous southern part of the historic Land of Israel , an area now divided between Israel and the West Bank ....
, Gaza
Gaza

Gaza is a Palestinian people city in the Gaza Strip, approximately southwest of Jerusalem, with a population of 410,000, making it the largest city under the control of the Palestinian National Authority....
, Egypt
Egypt

Egypt is a country mainly in North Africa, with the Sinai Peninsula forming a land bridge in Western Asia. Covering an area of about , Egypt borders the Mediterranean Sea to the north, the Gaza Strip and Israel to the northeast, the Red Sea to the east, Sudan to the south and Libya to the west....
, Bactria
Bactria

Bactria is a historical region of Greater Iran. Known by the ancient Greeks as "Bactriana" the region is located between the range of the Hindu Kush and the Amu Darya ; in later times, the region became known as Tokharistan. The name of the region has survived to present time in the name of Afghan province "Balkh"....
 and Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia

Mesopotamia is the area of the Tigris-Euphrates river system, along the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, largely corresponding to modern Iraq, as well as some parts of northeastern Syria, some parts of southeastern Turkey, and some parts of the Khuzestan Province of southwestern Iran....
, and he extended the boundaries of his own empire
Empire

Empire derives from the Latin word imperium, denoting ?military command? in Roman. Politically, an empire is a geographically extensive group of states and peoples united and ruled either by a monarch or an oligarchy....
 as far as Punjab
Punjab region

Punjab , also Panjab , is a region straddling the border between India and Pakistan. The "Five Rivers" are Beas River, Ravi River, Sutlej, Chenab and Jhelum River; all these are tributaries of the Indus river, Jhelum being the biggest one....
, India
India

India, officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and outlying territories by total area country by geographical area, the List of countries by population country, and the most populous liberal democracy in the world....
.

Alexander had already made plans prior to his death for military and mercantile expansions into the Arabian peninsula
Arabian Peninsula

The Arabian Peninsula , Arabia, Arabistan, and the Arabian subcontinent is a peninsula in Southwest Asia at the junction of Africa and Asia. The area is an important part of the Middle East and plays a critically important geopolitics role because of its vast reserves of petroleum and natural gas....
, after which he was to turn his armies to the west (Carthage
Carthage

Carthage refers both to an ancient city in present-day Tunisia, and a modern-day suburb of Tunis. The civilization that developed within the city's sphere of influence is referred to as Punic or Carthaginian....
, Rome
Ancient Rome

Ancient Rome was a civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC....
 and the Iberian Peninsula
Iberian Peninsula

The Iberian Peninsula, or Iberia, is located in the extreme southwest of Europe and includes modern-day Spain, Portugal, Andorra and Gibraltar and a very small area of France....
). His original vision, however, had been to the east, to the ends of the world and the Great Outer Sea
Pacific Ocean

The Pacific Ocean is the largest of the Earth's oceanic divisions. Its name is derived from the Latin name Mare Pacificum, "peaceful sea", bestowed upon it by the Portugal explorer Ferdinand Magellan....
, as is described by his boyhood tutor and mentor Aristotle
Aristotle

Aristotle was a Greeks philosopher, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. He wrote on many subjects, including physics, metaphysics, Poetics , theater, music, logic, rhetoric, politics, government, ethics, biology and zoology....
. Alexander died after twelve years of constant military campaigning, possibly a result of malaria
Malaria

Malaria is a Vector -borne infectious disease caused by protozoan parasites. It is widespread in Tropics and subtropical regions, including parts of the Americas, Asia, and Africa....
, poisoning
Poison

In the context of biology, poisons are Chemical substance that can cause disturbances to organisms, usually by chemical reaction or other activity on the molecular scale, when a sufficient quantity is absorbed by an organism....
, typhoid fever
Typhoid fever

Typhoid fever, also known as enteric fever, or commonly just typhoid, is an illness caused by the bacterium Salmonella typhi. Common worldwide, it is transmitted by the ingestion of food or water contaminated with feces from an infected person....
, viral encephalitis
Encephalitis

Not to be confused with syphilis, although that can cause encephalitis as well.Encephalitis is an Acute inflammation of the brain.Encephalitis with meningitis is known as meningoencephalitis....
 or the consequences of alcoholism. The legacy of his wars lived on long after him and ushered in centuries of Greek settlement and cultural influence over distant areas. This period is known as the Hellenistic period
Hellenistic period

The Hellenistic period describes the era which followed the conquests of Alexander the Great. During this time, Greek cultural influence and power was at its zenith in Europe and Asia....
, which featured a combination of Greek
Culture of Greece

The Culture of Greece has evolved over thousands of years, beginning in Mycenaean Greece, continuing most notably into Classical Greece, through the influence of the Roman Empire and its Greek Eastern successor the Byzantine Empire....
, Middle East
Middle East

File:GreaterMiddleEast1.pngThe Middle East is a region that spans southwestern Asia, western Asia, and northeastern Africa. It has no clear boundaries, often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East....
ern and Indian culture
Culture of India

File:Kathakali of kerala.jpgFile:Cultural regional areas of India.pngThe culture of India has been shaped by the long history of India, its unique Geography of India and the absorption of customs, traditions and ideas from some of its neighbors as well as by preserving its ancient heritages, which were formed during the Indus Valley Civili...
. His wars inspired a literary tradition in which he appeared as a legendary hero
Hero

A hero , in Greek mythology and folklore, was originally a demigod, the offspring of a mortal and a deity,their Greek hero cult being one of the most distinctive features of Religion in ancient Greece....
 in the tradition of Achilles
Achilles

In Greek mythology, Achilles was a Greeks hero of the Trojan War, the central character and the greatest warrior of Homer's Iliad, which takes for its theme ; the Wrath of Achilles....
. The historical impact of his wars are beyond calculation, and include everything from the spread of Greek democracy, to the spread of the Greek language, which was used as the one universal language by early Christian
Christian

A Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, a Monotheism#Christian view religion centered on the life and teachings of Jesus and interpreted by Christians to have been prophesied in the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament....
s.

Early life of Alexander

Born in Pella
Pella

Pella was the Capital of the Ancient Greece Monarchy of Macedon. A common folk etymology is traditionally given for the name Pella, ascribing it to a form akin to the Doric Greek Apella, originally meaning a ceremonial location where decisions were made....
, the capital of Macedon
Macedon

Macedon or Macedonia was the name of a monarchy centred in the northernmost part of ancient Greece. The homeland of the ancient Macedonians, it was bordered by the kingdom of Epirus to the west and the region of Thrace to the east....
, Alexander was the son of King Philip II of Macedon
Philip II of Macedon

Philip II of Macedon,...
 and his fourth wife Olympias
Olympias

Olympias , ca. 376–316 BC, was an Epirote princess, the fourth wife of King Philip II of Macedon of Macedon and mother of Alexander the Great....
, an Epirote
Epirus (region)

Epirus is a region in south-eastern Europe, currently divided between the Peripheries of Greece Epirus in Greece and the prefectures of Gjirokast?r, Vlor?, Kor??, and Berat in southern Albania....
 princess. Although Philip had either seven or eight wives, Olympias was his principal wife for a time. According to Plutarch, Alexander's father was descended from Heracles
Heracles

In Greek mythology, Heracles or Herakles meaning "glory of Hera", or "Glorious through Hera" Alcides or Alcaeus " was a hero, the son of Zeus and Alcmene, foster son of Amphitryon and great-grandson of Perseus....
 through Caranus of Macedon and his mother from Aeacus
Aeacus

Aeacus was a Greek mythology king of the island of Aegina in the Saronic Gulf.He was son of Zeus and Aegina , a daughter of the river-god Asopus....
 through Neoptolemus
Neoptolemus

In Greek mythology, Neoptolemus was the son of the warrior Achilles and the princess Deidamia . Achilles' mother foretold many years before Achilles birth that there would be a great war....
 and Achilles. Philip was away in Potidaea (which he had just seized) when Alexander was born. The king was thus brought three pleasant messages on the very same day the first of Parmenion
Parmenion

Parmenion was a Macedonian general in the service of Philip II of Macedon and Alexander the Great.Parmenion was the father of a Macedonian nobleman Philotas of Macedonia....
's great triumph over the Illyrians, the second of his racehorse
Horse racing

Horse racing is an equestrianism sport that has been practiced over the centuries; the chariot racing of Ancient Rome are an early example, as is the contest of the steeds of the god Odin and the giant Hrungnir in Norse mythology....
's win at the Olympics
Ancient Olympic Games

The Ancient Olympic Games, originally referred to as simply the Olympic Games were a series of athletic competitions held for representatives of various city-states of Ancient Greece....
 and the third of the birth of his son. He was naturally overcome, especially after the prophets' assurance that a man whose birth coincided with three victories would prove himself invincible.

In 340 BC, Philip led an attack on Byzantium
Byzantium

Byzantium was an Ancient Greece city, which was founded by Greeks colonists from Megara in 667 BC and named after their king Byzas or Byzantas ....
, leaving Alexander, now sixteen, to act as regent of Macedon. In 338 BC, Alexander fought under his father at the decisive Battle of Chaeronea
Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC)

The Battle of Chaeronea 338 BC, fought near Chaeronea, in Boeotia, was the greatest victory of Philip II of Macedon. There, Philip defeated the combined forces of Classical Athens and Ancient Thebes and initiated Macedonian hegemony in Greece....
 against the mainland city-states of Athens
Classical Athens

The city of Athens during classical antiquity was a notable polis of Attica, Ancient Greece, leading the Delian League in the Peloponnesian War against Sparta and the Peloponnesian League....
 and Thebes
Thebes, Greece

Thebes is a city in Greece, situated to the north of the Cithaeron range, which divides Boeotia from Attica, Greece, and on the southern edge of the Boeotian plain....
. Phillip entrusted Alexander with the left wing of his army, which entailed facing the Sacred Band of Thebes
Sacred Band of Thebes

The Sacred Band of Ancient Thebes was a troop of picked soldiers, numbering 150 age-structured pairs, which formed the elite force of the Theban army in the 4th century BC....
, an elite hoplite
Hoplite

The word hoplite derives from hoplon , meaning an item of armour or equipment, thus 'hoplite' may approximate to 'armoured man'. Hoplites were the citizen-soldiers of the Ancient Greece City-states....
 corps thitherto thought invincible. Although few details of the battle survive, what is known is that Alexander annihilated the Band; according to legend, indeed, he was the first to charge it. He went on to draw up and present a peace plan, which the assembled Athenian army voted on and approved. Philip was content to deprive Thebes of its dominion over Boeotia
Boeotia

Boeotia, Beotia, or B?otia , formerly Cadmeis, was a region of ancient Greece, north of the eastern part of the Gulf of Corinth. It was bounded on the south by Megaris and the Kithairon mountain range that forms a natural barrier with Attica, on the north by Opuntian Locris and the Euripus Strait at the Gulf of Euboea, and on the...
 and leave a Macedonian garrison in the citadel. A few months later, the League of Corinth
League of Corinth

The League of Corinth, also sometimes referred to as Hellenic League was a federation of Greek states created by Philip II of Macedon during the winter of 338 BC/337 BC to facilitate his use of military forces in his war against Persia....
 was formed and Philip acclaimed Hegemon of the Hellenes.

In 336 BC, Philip was assassinated at the wedding of his daughter Cleopatra to her uncle King Alexander of Epirus
Alexander I of Epirus

Alexander I of Epirotes , also known as Alexander Molossians , was a king of Epirus of the Aeacides of Epirus. He was the son of Neoptolemus I of Epirus and brother of Olympias, the mother of Alexander the Great....
. Theories abound regarding the motives for the killing, but a common story presents the assassin
Assassination

Assassination is the targeted killing of a public figure. Assassinations may be prompted by ideology, politics, or military reasons. Additionally, assassins may be motivated by contract killing, revenge, or celebrity or may be mental disorder....
 as a disgraced former lover of the king—the young nobleman Pausanias of Orestis, who held a grudge against Philip because the king had ignored his advisors regarding an outrage on his person. Others thought (and many still think) that Philip's murder was planned with the knowledge and involvement of Alexander, Olympias or both. Some have suggested that, as a result of Philip's authoritarian parenting style and successful military career, as well as Olympias' overbearing nature and reported beauty, that Alexander might have suffered from an Oedipus complex
Oedipus complex

The Oedipus complex , in psychoanalytic theory, is a group of largely unconscious ideas and feelings which centre around the desire to possess the parent of the opposite sex and eliminate the parent of the same sex....
, resulting in a subconscious desire to kill his father and marry his mother. Still more theories point to Darius III
Darius III of Persia

Darius III was the last king of the Achaemenid Empire of Persia from 336 BC to 330 BC. It was under his rule that the Persian Empire was conquered during the Wars of Alexander the Great....
, the recently crowned King of Persia. Regardless, the army proclaimed Alexander, then twenty-two, the new king of Macedon.

Alexander's pacification of Greece


Greek cities like Athens and Thebes, which had been forced to pledge allegiance to Philip, saw in the relatively untested new king an opportunity to regain full independence. Demosthenes
Demosthenes

Demosthenes was a prominent Greeks statesman and orator of History of Athens. His oratorys constitute a significant expression of contemporary Athenian intellectual prowess and provide an insight into the politics and culture of ancient Greece during the 4th century BC....
, who had opposed Philip, began plotting against him. Meanwhile, King Darius of Persia was convinced that Alexander was preparing for a war against Persia, and so he sent envoys to the various cities in Greece and Asia Minor with large bags of gold for the purpose of bribing any and all who could be bribed. Alexander moved swiftly, however, and Thebes, which was most active against him, submitted immediately as he appeared at its gates. The assembled Greeks at the Isthmus of Corinth
Isthmus of Corinth

The Isthmus of Corinth is the narrow land bridge which connects the Peloponnese peninsula with the mainland of Greece, near the city of Corinth....
, with the exception of the Sparta
Sparta

Sparta was a city-state in ancient Greece, situated on the Eurotas River in the southern part of the Peloponnese. From circa 650 BC it rose to become the dominant military power in the region and as such was recognized as the overall leader of the combined Greek forces during the Greco-Persian Wars....
ns, elected him Capitan-General of the Hellenes against Persia, a title previously bestowed upon his father. After the meeting, he paid a visit to the famous cynic
Cynic

The Cynics were an influential group of philosophers from the ancient School of Cynicism. Their philosophy was that the purpose of Personal life was to live a life of Virtue in agreement with Nature....
, Diogenes of Sinope
Diogenes of Sinope

Diogenes "the Cynic", Ancient Greece philosopher, was born in Sinope about 412 BC , and died in 323 BC, at Corinth. Details of his life come in the form of anecdotes , especially from Diogenes La?rtius, in his book Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers....
, who lived in a large clay tub. Alexander found Diogenes sunning himself in his tub, naked except for a loin cloth. The philosopher stared, silent. Alexander, unsure of what to say, asked Diogenes if there was anything he could do for him. Diogenes responded, "Yes, stand aside. You're keeping the sun off me". Afterwards, Alexander's troops tried to make a joke of the incident, only to have Alexander respond that if he were not Alexander, he would be Diogenes. Alexander, who wanted to conquer the world, died (at 32) on the same day as did Diogenes (at 90), who wanted nothing to do with it. (Green)

The following year (335 BC), Alexander felt free to engage the Thracians
Thracians

The ancient Thracians were a group of Indo-European peoples who spoke the Thracian language - a scarcely attested branch of the Indo-European language family....
 and Illyrians
Illyrians

Illyrians has come to refer to a broad, ill-defined "Indo-European languages" group of peoples who inhabited the western Balkans and even possibly Messapia in Southern Italy ....
 in order to secure the Danube
Danube

The Danube is the longest river in the European Union and Europe's second longest river after the Volga.The river originates in the Black Forest in Germany as the much smaller Brigach and Breg River rivers which join at the eponymously named German town Donaueschingen, after which it is known as the Danube and flows eastwards for a distance...
 as the northern boundary of the Macedonian kingdom. He needed the financial support of Greece until he could secure the huge Persian treasury, so he needed to ensure peace at home. Against the Thracians, Alexander lulled them into a false sense of safety by sending out his slingers and archers, apparently alone. The Thracians, who thought they faced nothing besides rocks and arrows, came out, only to be cut down when Alexander sent out his regular infantry. The remaining Thracians capitulated to Alexander.(Green) Against the Illyrians (Dio Cassius
Dio Cassius

Lucius Cassius Dio Cocceianus , known in English language as Cassius Dio, Dio Cassius, or Dio was a noted Roman Empire historian and public servant....
, once governor of that country in the 3rd century AD, described it as especially barbarous) Alexander miscalculated, and found himself cut off from the rest of his army. In response, Alexander paraded his troops in front of the enemy, apparently oblivious to them, and in total silence. Like a giant metal porcupine
Porcupine

Porcupines are rodents with a coat of sharp Spine , or quills, that defend them from predators. They are endemic in both the Old World and the New World....
, they moved their long spears in a synchronized formation, up and down, left and right, all while marching in perfect formation, executing a series of intricate maneuvers as though on the parade ground. The Illyrians, who had never seen such a weird ritual, could not believe what they were watching. Alexander, at a precise moment, ordered his cavalry to charge the Illyrians, while the infantry broke out into a deafening noise, hitting their swords against their shields and chanting the Macedonian war cry. This sudden shattering explosion of sound, especially after what had been dead silence, shocked the Illyrians. The fled back to their fortress in complete chaos, as Alexander brought in his siege catapults. They were quickly routed by Alexander. Then, in an echo of the Trojan War
Trojan War

In Greek mythology, the Trojan War was waged against the city of Troy by the Achaeans after Paris of Troy stole Helen from her husband Menelaus, the king of Sparta....
, Alexander's troops marched away. The Illyrians thought Alexander would not return, and so when Alexander's scouts came back, they found that the Illyrians had left their camp unguarded. Alexander's army came back, under cover of darkness, and massacred the Illyrians to a man.(Green)

While he was triumphantly campaigning north, the Thebans and Athenians rebelled once more. Darius had been channeling bribes into Greece, while the Thebans were planning an uprising with the backing of Demosthenes. The Athenians were unsure whether to maintain support for Alexander, while the Spartans never liked Alexander in the first place. Greece was ready to explode in open warfare at any moment. Alexander realized that he needed to make an abject lesson of someone. Alexander decided that he should make Thebes that lesson. Alexander did not want to waste his time fighting Greeks, so he probably would have met the Thebans half way if they had wished. He asked them to hand over the leaders of the resistance, but they refused, declared that they would fight for their freedom from Macedon, and called Alexander a tyrant for good measure. According to Diodorus
Diodorus Siculus

Diodorus Siculus , was a Roman Greece historian who flourished in the 1st century BC. According to Diodorus' own work, he was born at Agira in Sicily ....
, Alexander reacted by destroying the city utterly. The end of Thebes cowed Athens into submission. Though bribes continued to pour in from Darius, Alexander decided that with Greece pacified, the time to attack Persia was now.

Alexander Enters Persia


In 334 BC, Alexander crossed the Hellespont
Hellespont

Hellespont was the ancient name of the narrow strait, now known by the modern European term 'Dardanelles'. It was so called from Helle , the daughter of Athamas, who was drowned here in the mythology of the Golden Fleece....
 into Asia. Even though it took over one hundred triremes (boats with oars) to transport the entire Macedonian army, the Persians decided to ignore the movement. Had Darius attempted to contest the crossing, he may well have been able to end the war before it even began. The Persians, who were never known for strategy but instead usually relied on sheer numbers, appeared to take the Macedonian threat too lightly early in the war. Alexander believed Darius, who was known to surround himself with eunuchs and concubines, to be a weak man. As such, he repeatedly counted on Darius to miscalculate and never use the full potential of his army against him. If Darius had ever decided to use his entire army to put down Alexander, he may well have been able to stop Alexander. As Alexander advanced through Asia Minor (modern Turkey
Turkey

Turkey , known officially as the Republic of Turkey , is a Eurasian country that stretches across the Anatolian peninsula in southwest Asia and Thrace in the Balkans region of Southern Europe....
), he liberated several Greek towns that had been placed under the Persian yoke. They capitulated, one by one, with little or no resistance.

In these early months, Darius still refused to take Alexander seriously or mount a serious challenge to Alexander's movements. Memnon of Rhodes
Memnon of Rhodes

Memnon of Rhodes was the commander of the Greece mercenaries working for the Persian Empire king Darius III when Alexander the Great of Macedon invaded Persia in 334 BC and won the Battle of the Granicus River....
, the Greek mercenary who aligned himself with the Persians, advocated a scorched Earth strategy. He wanted the Persians to destroy the land in front of Alexander, which he hoped would force Alexander's army to starve, and then to turn back. According to Green, the reason the Persians did not listen to Memnon was likely because they had vast estates with hoards of slaves, and they wanted to continue their easy living. Eventually, however, with Alexander advancing deeper into Persian territory, Darius put Memnon in control of an army, and told him to finally confront Alexander.

Battle of the Granicus River

Macedonempire
The Battle of the Granicus River in May 334 BC was fought in Northwestern Asia Minor (modern-day Turkey), near the site of Troy
Troy

Troy is a legendary city and center of the Trojan War, as described in the Epic Cycle, and especially in the Iliad, one of the two epic poems attributed to Homer....
. After crossing the Hellespont
Hellespont

Hellespont was the ancient name of the narrow strait, now known by the modern European term 'Dardanelles'. It was so called from Helle , the daughter of Athamas, who was drowned here in the mythology of the Golden Fleece....
, Alexander advanced up the road to the capital of the Satrap
Satrap

Satrap was the name given to the governors of the provinces of ancient Medes and Persian Empire empires, including the Achaemenid Empire and in several of their heirs, such as the Sassanid Empire and the Hellenistic civilization empires....
y of Phrygia
Phrygia

In antiquity, Phrygia was a kingdom in the west central part of Anatolia, in what is now modern-day Turkey. The Phrygians initially lived in the Southern Balkans; according to Herodotus, under the name of Bryges, changing it to Phruges after their final migration to Anatolia, via the Hellespont....
. The various satraps of the Persian empire gathered with their forces at the town of Zelea and offered battle on the banks of the Granicus River. Alexander ultimately fought many of his battles on a river bank. By doing so, he was able to minimize the advantage the Persians had in numbers. In addition, the deadly Persian chariots were useless on a cramped, muddy river bank.

Arrian
Arrian

File:Flavius_Arrianus.jpgLucius Flavius Arrianus 'Xenophon , known in English as Arrian , and Arrian of Nicomedia, was a Ancient Rome historian , a public servant, a military commander and a philosopher of the Roman and Byzantine Greece period....
, Diodorus, and Plutarch
Plutarch

Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus , c. AD 46 ? 120 ? commonly known in English as Plutarch ? was a Ancient Rome historian , biographer, essayist, and Middle Platonism....
 all mention the battle, with Arrian providing the most detail. The Persians placed their cavalry in front of their infantry, and drew up on the right (east) bank of the river. The Macedonian line was arrayed with the heavy Phalanxes in the middle, and cavalry on either side. The Persians expected the main assault to come from Alexander's position and moved units from their center to that flank.

Alexander's second-in-command, Parmenion
Parmenion

Parmenion was a Macedonian general in the service of Philip II of Macedon and Alexander the Great.Parmenion was the father of a Macedonian nobleman Philotas of Macedonia....
, suggested crossing the river upstream and attacking at dawn the next day, but Alexander attacked immediately. This tactic caught the Persians off guard. The battle started with a cavalry and light infantry attack from the Macedonian left, so the Persians heavily reinforced that side. However, by this point, Alexander led the horse companions in their classic wedge-shaped charge, and smashed into the center of the Persian line. Several high-ranking Persian nobles were killed by Alexander himself or his bodyguards, although Alexander was stunned by an axe-blow from a Persian nobleman named Spithridates. Before the noble could deal a death-blow, however, he was himself killed by Black Cleitus. Alexander's horse was killed, although he was not at the time riding his beloved Bucephalus
Bucephalus

Bucephalus or Buchephalas was Alexander the Great's horse and the most famous actual horse of Classical antiquity. Ancient accounts state that Bucephalus died after the Battle of the Hydaspes in 326 BC, in what is now modern Pakistan, and is buried in Jalalpur Sharif outside of Jhelum , Pakistan....
, either because Bucephalus was lame or because Alexander believed this battle to be too dangerous for Bucephalus. The Macedonian cavalry opened a hole in the Persian line, and the Macedonian infantry charged through to engage the poor quality Persian infantry in the rear. At this, and with many of their leaders already dead, both flanks of the Persian cavalry retreated, and the infantry was cut down as it fled. Alexander came close to dying in the battle.

Alexander consolidates his support in Asia Minor


After the battle, Alexander buried the dead (both Greeks and Persians), and sent the captured Greek mercenaries back to Greece to work in the mines, as an abject lesson for any Greek who decided to fight for the Persians. He sent some of the spoils back to Greece, including three hundred panoplies
Panoply

A panoply is a complete suit of armour. The word represents the Ancient Greek Language pa??p??a. The word pa? means "all", and ?p???, "arms"....
 (complete Persian suits of armor) back to Athens to be dedicated in the Parthenon with the inscription “Alexander, son of Philip and the Greeks, Lacedaemonians (Spartans) excepted, these spoils from the barbarians who dwell in Asia”.

Antipater
Antipater

Antipater was a Macedonian general and a supporter of kings Philip II of Macedon and Alexander the Great. In 320 BC, he became regent of all of Alexander's empire....
, whom Alexander had left in charge of Macedon in his absence, had been given a free hand to install dictators and tyrants wherever he saw fit in order to minimize the risk of a rebellion. As he moved deeper into Persia, however, the threat of trouble seemed to grow. Many of these towns had been ruled for generations by heavy handed tyrants, so in these Persian towns, he did the opposite of what he did in Greece. Wanting to appear to be a liberator, he freed the population and allowed self government. As he continued marching into Persia, he saw that the his victory at Granicus had been lost on no one. Town after town seemed to surrender to him. The satrap
Satrap

Satrap was the name given to the governors of the provinces of ancient Medes and Persian Empire empires, including the Achaemenid Empire and in several of their heirs, such as the Sassanid Empire and the Hellenistic civilization empires....
 at Sardis
Sardis

Sardis, also Sardes , modern Sart in the Manisa province of Turkey, was the capital of the ancient kingdom of Lydia, one of the important cities of the Persian Empire, the seat of a proconsul under the Roman Empire, and the metropolis of the province Lydia in later Roman and Byzantine Empire times....
, as well as his garrison, was among the first of many satraps to capitulate.

As these satraps gave up, Alexander appointed new ones to replace them, and claimed to distrust the accumulation of absolute power into anyone’s hands. There appeared to be little change from the old system. Alexander, however, appointed independent boards to collect tribute and taxes from the satrapies, which appeared to do nothing more than improve the efficiency of government. The true effect, however, was to separate the civil from the financial function of these satrapies, thus ensuring that these governments, while technically independent of him, never truly were. Otherwise, he allowed the inhabitants of these towns to continue as they always had, and made no attempt to impose Greek customs on them. Meanwhile, ambassadors from other Greek cities in Asia Minor came to Alexander, offering submission if he allowed their 'democracies' to continue. Alexander granted their wish, and allowed them to stop paying taxes to Persia, but only if they joined League of Corinth. By doing so, they promised to provide monetary support to Alexander.

Siege of Halicarnassus

The Siege of Halicarnassus
Siege of Halicarnassus

The Siege of Halicarnassus was fought between Alexander the Great and the Achaemenid Empire in 334 BC. Alexander, who had no navy, was constantly being threatened by the Persian navy....
 was fought in 334 BC. Alexander, who had no navy, was constantly being threatened by the Persian navy. It continuously attempted to provoke an engagement with Alexander, who would have none of it. Eventually, the Persian fleet sailed to Halicarnassus
Halicarnassus

Halicarnassus was an ancient Greek city on the southwest coast of Caria, Anatolia , on a picturesque, advantageous site on the Ceramic Gulf . It was the site of the Siege of Halicarnassus, between Alexander the Great and the Persian Empire....
, in order to establish a new defense. Ada of Caria
Ada of Caria

Ada of Caria was satrap of Caria in the 4th century BC.Ada was the daughter of Hecatomnus, satrap of Caria, and sister of Mausolus, Artemisia II of Caria, Idrieus, and Pixodarus of Caria....
, the former queen of Halicarnassus, had been driven from her throne by a usurping relative. When that relative died, Darius had appointed Orontobates
Orontobates

Orontobates was a Persians, who married the daughter of Pixodarus of Caria, the usurping satrap of Caria, and was sent by the king of Persian Empire to succeed him....
 satrap of Caria, which included Halicarnassus in its jurisdiction. On the approach of Alexander in 334 BC, Ada, who was in possession of the fortress of Alinda
Alinda

Alinda was an ancient inland city of Caria in Anatolia.Alinda may also refer to:* 887 Alinda, an asteroid* Alinda , a genus of land gastropods...
, surrendered the fortress to him. Alexander and Ada appear to have formed an emotional connection. He called her "mother", finding her more amicable than his megalomania
Megalomania

Megalomania is a historical term for behavior characterized by delusional fantasies of wealth, power , genius, or omnipotence — often generally termed as delusions of grandeur or grandiose delusions....
cal snake-worshiping mother Olympias
Olympias

Olympias , ca. 376–316 BC, was an Epirote princess, the fourth wife of King Philip II of Macedon of Macedon and mother of Alexander the Great....
. In return for his support, Ada gave Alexander gifts, and even sent him some of the best cooks in Asia Minor, realizing that Alexander had a sweet tooth. In the past, Alexander had referred to his biological father, Philip, as his "so-called" father, and preferred to think of the deity Amon Zeus
Zeus

Zeus in Greek mythology is the king of the gods, the ruler of Mount Olympus and the god of the sky father and List of thunder gods. His symbols are the thunderbolt, eagle, bull , and oak....
 as his actual father. Thus, he had finally managed to divorce himself from both of his biological parents.

Orontobates and Memnon
Memnon of Rhodes

Memnon of Rhodes was the commander of the Greece mercenaries working for the Persian Empire king Darius III when Alexander the Great of Macedon invaded Persia in 334 BC and won the Battle of the Granicus River....
 of Rhodes
Rhodes

Rhodes is a Greece List of islands of Greece approximately southwest of Turkey in eastern Aegean Sea. It is the largest of the Dodecanese islands in terms of both land area and population, with a population of 117,007 of which 53,709 resided in the Rhodes capital city of the island....
 entrenched themselves in Halicarnassus. Alexander had sent spies to meet with dissidents inside the city, who had promised to open the gates and allow Alexander to enter. When his spies arrived, however, the dissidents were nowhere to be found. A small battle resulted, and Alexander's army managed to break through the city walls. Memnon, however, now deployed his catapults, and Alexander's army fell back. Memnon then deployed his infantry, and shortly before Alexander would have received his first (and only) defeat, his infantry managed to break through the city walls, surprising the Persian forces and killing Orontobates. Memnon, realizing the city was lost, set fire to it and withdrew with his army. A strong wind caused the fire to destroy much of the city. Alexander then committed the government of Caria to Ada; and she, in turn, formally adopted Alexander as her son, ensuring that the rule of Caria passed unconditionally to him upon her eventual death.

Alexander marches deeper into Persia


Shortly after the battle, Memnon died. His replacement was an Athenian named Karademas. Darius' generals wanted Darius to personally command the army during a major battle against Alexander. Karademas, who thought that this would be too reckless, got into an argument with Darius' generals. He implied that he should lead the army because, as a Greek, he was a better general than any of the Persians. An argument resulted, Karademas made some uncomplimentary comments about Persian culture, and Darius ordered Karademas executed. Shortly thereafter, Darius realized that he had made a mistake, because he had just executed the only competent general he had left. He decided to take his army, and leave Babylon in order to intercept Alexander.

Alexander marched his army east through Cappadocia
Cappadocia

Cappadocia, Wikipedia:IPA for English /k?p?'do???/ , was an extensive inland district of Asia Minor . The name continued to be used in western sources and in the Christianity tradition throughout history and is still widely used as an international Tourism in Turkey concept to define a region of exceptional natural wonders characterized by...
, where, for a stretch of nearly 100 miles, there was no water. As his army approached Mount Taurus, they found only one route through which to pass, which was a narrow defile
Defile

Defile has several meanings:*...
 called "The Gates". The defile was very narrow, and could have been easily defended. However, the Persian satrap of Cappadocia had an inflated view of his own abilities. He had been at the Battle of the Granicus River, and had believed that Memnon's scorched Earth strategy would work here. He didn't realize that the different circumstances of the terrain made that strategy useless. Had he mounted a credible defense of the defile, Alexander would have been easily repulsed. He left only a small contingent to guard the defile, and took his entire army to destroy the plain that lay ahead of Alexander's army. The Persian contingent that was supposed to guard the defile soon abandoned it, and Alexander passed through without any problems. Alexander supposedly said after this incident that he had never been so lucky in his entire career.

After reaching Mount Taurus, Alexander's army found a stream that flowed from the mountain with water that was ice cold. Not thinking, Alexander jumped into the stream, suffered a cramp and then a convulsion, and was pulled out nearly dead. He quickly developed pneumonia
Pneumonia

Pneumonia is an Inflammation illness of the lung. Frequently, it is described as lung parenchyma/alveolus inflammation and abnormal alveolar filling with fluid ....
, but none of his physicians would treat him, because they feared that, if he died, they would be held responsible. One physician named Philip, who had treated Alexander since he was a child, agreed to treat him. Although he soon fell into a coma, he eventually recovered.

Battle of Issus

Battle Issus Decisive
After Alexander's forces successfully defeated the Persians at the Battle of the Granicus
Battle of the Granicus

The Battle of the Granicus River in May 334 BC was the first of three major battles fought between Alexander the Great and the Persian Empire. Fought in Northwestern Asia Minor, near the site of Troy, it was here where Alexander defeated the forces of the Persian satraps of Asia Minor, including a large force of Greek mercenaries led by Memno...
, Darius took personal charge of his army, gathered a large army from the depths of the empire, and maneuvered to cut the Greek line of supply, requiring Alexander to countermarch his forces, setting the stage for the battle near the mouth of the Pinarus River
Pinarus River

The Pinarus River is a small mountain spring fed stream famous in antiquity as the site of the First Battle of Issus, near a small coastal village or town which was reported to straddle the stream which by similar sources, was said to run red with blood after Alexander the Great leading his elite Companion cavalry turned the right flank of th...
 and south of the village of Issus
Issus (town)

Issus is an ancient settlement on the strategic coastal plain straddling the small Pinarus river below the navigationally difficult inland mountains towering above to the east in the Turkey of Hatay, near the border with Syria....
. Darius was apparently unaware that, by deciding to stage the battle on a river bank, he was minimizing the numerical advantage his army had over Alexander's.

Initially, Alexander chose what was apparently unfavorable ground. This surprised Darius who mistakenly elected to hold the wrong position while Alexander instructed his infantry
Infantry

Infantry are soldiers who are primarily trained for the role of fighting on foot. A soldier in the infantry is known as an infantryman. Infantry units have more physically demanding training than other branches of armies, and place a greater emphasis on fitness, physical strength and aggression....
 to take up a defensive posture. Alexander personally led the more elite Greek Companion cavalry
Companion cavalry

The Companions were the elite cavalry of the Ancient Macedonian army from the time of king Philip II of Macedon, and have been regarded as the best cavalry in the ancient world....
 against the Persian left up against the hills, and cut up the enemy on the less encumbering terrain generating a quick rout. After achieving a breakthrough, Alexander demonstrated he could do the difficult and held the cavalry successfully in check after it broke the Persian right. Alexander then mounted his beloved horse Bucephalus
Bucephalus

Bucephalus or Buchephalas was Alexander the Great's horse and the most famous actual horse of Classical antiquity. Ancient accounts state that Bucephalus died after the Battle of the Hydaspes in 326 BC, in what is now modern Pakistan, and is buried in Jalalpur Sharif outside of Jhelum , Pakistan....
 at the head of his Companion cavalry
Companion cavalry

The Companions were the elite cavalry of the Ancient Macedonian army from the time of king Philip II of Macedon, and have been regarded as the best cavalry in the ancient world....
 and led a direct assault against Darius. The horses that were pulling Darius' chariot were injured, and began tossing at the yoke. Darius, about to fall off his chariot, instead jumped off. He tossed off his royal diadem, mounted a horse, and fled the scene. The Persian troops, realizing they had lost, either surrendered or fled with their hapless king. The Macedonian cavalry pursued the fleeing Persians for as long as there was light. As with most ancient battles, significant carnage occurred after the battle as pursuing Macedonians slaughtered their crowded, disorganized foe.

The Battle of Issus
Battle of Issus

The Battle of Issus occurred in southern Anatolia, in November 333 BC. The invading troops led by the young Alexander the Great of Macedonia, outnumbered more than 2:1, defeated the army personally led by Darius III of Persia of Achaemenid Empire Persian Empire in the second great battle for primacy in Asia....
 occurred in southern Anatolia
Anatolia

Anatolia or Asia Minor is a region of Western Asia, comprising most of the modern Republic of Turkey. It is a geographic region bounded by the Black Sea to the north, the Caucasus to the northeast, the Aegean Sea to the west, the Mediterranean Sea to the south, and the Iranian plateau to the east and southeast....
, in November 333 BC. The invading troops led by Alexander, were outnumbered more than 2:1, defeated the army personally led by Darius III
Darius III of Persia

Darius III was the last king of the Achaemenid Empire of Persia from 336 BC to 330 BC. It was under his rule that the Persian Empire was conquered during the Wars of Alexander the Great....
 of Achaemenid
Achaemenid Empire

The Achaemenid Empire or Achaemenid Persian Empire was amongst the first Persian Empires that ruled over significant portions of Greater Iran, and followed the Ancient Iranian peoples Median Empire....
 Persia
Persian Empire

The 'Persian Empire' was a series of successive Iranian or Persianization empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland, and beyond in Southwest Asia, South Asia, Central Asia and the Caucasus....
.The battle was a decisive Macedonian victory and it marked the beginning of the end of Persian power. It was the first time the Persian army had been defeated with the King (Darius III at the time) present. Darius left his wife and an enormous amount of treasure behind as his army fled. The greed of the Macedonians helped to persuade them to keep going, as did the large number of Persian concubines and prostitutes they picked up in the battle. Darius, by now fearing for both his throne and his life, sent a letter to Alexander where he promised to pay him a substantial ransom in exchange for his prisoners of war, agreed to sign a treaty of alliance with Alexander, and agreed to give to Alexander half of his empire. Darius received a response from Alexander, which began "King Alexander to Darius". In the letter, Alexander blamed Darius for his father's death and claimed Darius to be a vulgar usurper who planned to take Macedonia. He agreed to return the prisoners without ransom, but told Darius that he and Alexander were not equals, and that Darius was to address Alexander as "King of all Asia". He also told Darius that, if he wanted to dispute Alexander's claim to the Achaemenid throne, that he would have to stand and fight Alexander, but if he fled, Alexander would pursue and kill him. By this, Alexander revealed for the first time that his plan was to conquer the entire Persian Empire.

Siege of Tyre

The Siege of Tyre
Siege of Tyre

The Siege of Tyre was orchestrated in 333 BC by Alexander the Great who set out to conquer Tyre, Lebanon, a strategic coastal base in the war between the History of Greece and the Persian Empire....
 occurred in 332 BC when Alexander set out to conquer Tyre, a strategic coastal base. Tyre was the site of the only remaining Persian port that did not capitulate to Alexander. Even by this point in the war, the Persian navy still posed a major threat to Alexander. Tyre, the largest and most important city-state of Phoenicia
Phoenicia

Phoenicia was an ancient civilization centered in the north of ancient Canaan, with its heartland along the coastal regions of modern day Lebanon, extending to parts of Israel, Syria and the Palestinian territories....
, was located both on the Mediterranean coast as well as a nearby Island with two natural harbors on the landward side. At the time of the siege, the city held approximately 40,000 people, though the women and children were evacuated to Carthage
Carthage

Carthage refers both to an ancient city in present-day Tunisia, and a modern-day suburb of Tunis. The civilization that developed within the city's sphere of influence is referred to as Punic or Carthaginian....
, an ancient Phoenician colony.

Alexander sent an envoy to Tyre, proposing a peace treaty, and asked to visit their city and offer sacrifices to their God Melqart
Melqart

Melqart, properly Phoenician language Milk-Qart "King of the City", less accurately Melkart, Melkarth or Melgart , Akkadian language Milqartu, was tutelary god of the Phoenician city of Tyre as Eshmun protected Sidon....
. The Tyrians politely told Alexander that their town was neutral in the war, and that allowing him to offer sacrifices to Melqart would be tantamount to recognizing him as their king. Alexander considered building a causeway that would allow his army to take the town by force. His engineers didn't believe it would be possible to successfully build such a massive structure, and so Alexander sent peace envoys once more to propose an alliance. The Tyrians believed this to be a sign of weakness, and so they killed the envoys and threw their bodies over the city wall. The dissent against Alexander's plans to take the city by force disappeared, and his engineers began to design the structure. Alexander began with an engineering feat that shows the true extent of his brilliance; as he could not attack the city from sea, he built a kilometer-long causeway
Causeway

In modern usage, a causeway is a road or railway elevated on a sandbank, usually across a broad body of water or wetland. A transport corridor that is carried instead on a series of arches, perhaps approaching a bridge, is a viaduct....
 stretching out to the island on a natural land bridge
Land bridge

A land bridge, in biogeography, is an isthmus or wider land connection between otherwise separate areas, which allows terrestrial animals and plants to cross over and colonise new lands....
 no more than two meters deep. Alexander then constructed two towers 150 feet high and moved them to the end of the causeway. The Tyrians, however, quickly devised a counterattack. They used an old horse transport ship, filling it with dried branches, pitch, sulfur, and various other combustibles. They then lit it on fire, creating what we might call a primitive form of napalm
Napalm

Napalm is the name given to any of a number of flammable liquids used in warfare, often jellied gasoline. Napalm is actually the thickener in such liquids, which when mixed with gasoline makes a sticky incendiary gel....
, and ran it up onto the causeway. The fire spread quickly, engulfing both towers and other siege equipment that had been brought up.

This convinced Alexander that he would be unable to take Tyre without a navy. Fate would soon provide him with one. Presently, the Persian navy returned to find their home cities under Alexander’s control. Since their allegiance was to their city, they were therefore Alexander’s. He now had eighty ships. This coincided with the arrival of another hundred and twenty from Cyprus
Cyprus

Cyprus , officially the Republic of Cyprus , is an island country situated in the eastern Mediterranean Sea, east of Greece, west of Lebanon, Syria, and Israel, south of Turkey and north of Egypt....
, which had heard of his victories and wished to join him. Alexander then sailed on Tyre and quickly blockaded both ports with his superior numbers. He had several of the slower galleys, and a few barges, refit with battering rams, the only known case of battering rams being used on ships. Alexander started testing the wall at various points with his rams, until he made a small breach in the south end of the island. He then coordinated an attack across the breach with a bombardment from all sides by his navy. Once his troops forced their way into the city, they easily overtook the garrison, and quickly captured the city. Those citizens that took shelter in the temple of Heracles
Heracles

In Greek mythology, Heracles or Herakles meaning "glory of Hera", or "Glorious through Hera" Alcides or Alcaeus " was a hero, the son of Zeus and Alcmene, foster son of Amphitryon and great-grandson of Perseus....
 were pardoned by Alexander. It is said that Alexander was so enraged at the Tyrians' defense and the loss of his men that he destroyed half the city. Alexander granted pardon to the king and his family, whilst 30,000 residents and foreigners taken were sold into slavery.

Siege of Gaza

When Alexander destroyed Tyre, most of the towns on the way to Egypt quickly capitulated to Alexander. The one exception was Gaza. At the beginning of the Siege of Gaza
Siege of Gaza

During the Siege of Gaza, Alexander the Great, by utilizing the engines he had employed Siege of Tyre, succeeded in reaching the walls. After three unsuccessful assaults, the stronghold was taken by storm....
, Alexander utilized the engines he had employed against Tyre. The stronghold at Gaza
Gaza

Gaza is a Palestinian people city in the Gaza Strip, approximately southwest of Jerusalem, with a population of 410,000, making it the largest city under the control of the Palestinian National Authority....
 was built on a hill and was heavily fortified. The inhabitants of Gaza and their Nabataean allies did not want to lose the lucrative trade which was controlled by Gaza.
Battle of Issus
Batis
Batis (commander)

Batis was a commander of the city of Gaza in the Achaemenid Empire during the 4th Century BC and an antagonist of Alexander the Great during his eastern campaigns....
, the commander of the fortress of Gaza, refused to surrender to Alexander. Though an eunuch, Batis was physically imposing and ruthless. After three unsuccessful assaults, the stronghold was finally taken by force , but not before Alexander received a serious shoulder wound. When Gaza was taken, the male population was put to the sword and the women and children were sold into slavery. According to the Roman historian Quintus Curtius Rufus
Quintus Curtius Rufus

Quintus Curtius Rufus was a Ancient Rome historian. It is generally thought that he has written his works during the reign of the Emperor Claudius or Vespasian....
, Batis was killed by Alexander in imitation of Achilles'
Achilles

In Greek mythology, Achilles was a Greeks hero of the Trojan War, the central character and the greatest warrior of Homer's Iliad, which takes for its theme ; the Wrath of Achilles....
 treatment of the fallen Hector
Hector

In Greek mythology, Hector , or Hektor, is a Troy prince and one of the greatest fighters in the Trojan War. He is the son of Priam and Hecuba, descendant of Dardanus, who lived under Mount Ida, and of Tros, the founder of Troy....
. A rope was forced through Batis's ankles, probably between the ankle bone and the Achilles tendon
Achilles tendon

The Achilles tendon , also known as the calcaneal tendon or the tendo calcaneus, is a tendon of the posterior leg. It serves to attach the gastrocnemius and soleus muscles to the calcaneus bone....
, and Batis was dragged alive by chariot beneath the walls of the city. Alexander, who admired courage in his enemies and might have been inclined to show mercy to the brave Persian general, was infuriated at Batis's refusal to kneel and by the enemy commander's haughty silence and contemptuous manner.

With Gaza taken, Alexander marched into Egypt. The Egyptians hated the Persians, in part because Persia considered Egypt as nothing more than one big bread basket. They welcomed Alexander as their king, placed him on the throne of the Pharaoh
Pharaoh

Pharaoh is a title used in many modern discussions of the ancient Egyptian rulers of all periods. In antiquity this title began to be used for the ruler who was the religious and political leader of united ancient Egypt, only during the New Kingdom, specifically, during the middle of the Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt....
s, giving him the crown of Upper
Upper Egypt

File:Ancient Egypt map-en.svgUpper Egypt is a narrow strip of land that extends from the Cataracts of the Nile section of Upper Egypt, between El-Ayait and Asyut is sometimes known as Middle Egypt....
 and Lower Egypt
Lower Egypt

Lower Egypt is the northern-most section of Egypt. It refers to the Fertile Crescent Nile Delta region, which stretches from the area between El-Aiyat and Zawyet Dahshur, south of modern-day Cairo, and the Mediterranean Sea....
, and named him the incarnation of Ra
Ra

Ra is an ancient Egyptian Solar deity . By the Fifth dynasty of Egypt he became a major deity in ancient Egyptian religion, identified primarily with the noon, with other deities representing other positions of the sun....
 and Osiris
Osiris

Osiris was an Egyptian mythology, usually called the god of the Afterlife.Osiris is one of the oldest gods for whom records have been found; one of the oldest known attestations of his name is on the Palermo Stone of around 2500 BC....
. He set in motion plans to build Alexandria
Alexandria

Alexandria , with a population of 4.1 million, is the second-largest city in Egypt, and is the country's largest seaport, serving about 80% of Egypt's imports and exports....
, and, though future tax revenues would be channeled to him, he left Egypt under the management of Egyptians, which helped to win him their support.

Battle of Gaugamela


The Battle of Gaugamela
Battle of Gaugamela

The Battle of Gaugamela took place in 331 BC between Alexander the Great of Macedonia and Darius III of Persia of Achaemenid Empire Persian Empire....
 took place in 331 BC in what is now northern Iraq
Iraq

Iraq , officially the Republic of Iraq , is a country in Western Asia spanning most of the northwestern end of the Zagros Mountains, the eastern part of the Syrian Desert and the northern part of the Arabian Desert....
, possibly near Mosul
Mosul

Mosul is a city in northern Iraq and the capital of the Ninawa Governorate, some 400 km northwest of Baghdad. The original city stands on the west bank of the Tigris River, opposite the ancient city of Nineveh on the east bank, but the metropolitan area has now grown to encompass substantial areas on both banks, with five bridges linkin...
, and resulted in a decisive victory for the Macedonians. After the Siege of Gaza, Alexander advanced from Syria
Syria

Syria , officially the Syrian Arab Republic , is an Arab-majority country in Southwest Asia, bordering Lebanon and the Mediterranean Sea to the west, Israel to the southwest, Jordan to the south, Iraq to the east, and Turkey to the north....
 towards the heart of the Persian empire, crossing both the Euphrates
Euphrates

The Euphrates is the western of the two great rivers that define Mesopotamia which flows from Anatolia....
 and the Tigris
Tigris

The Tigris is the eastern member of the two great rivers that define Mesopotamia, along with the Euphrates, which flows from the mountains of southeastern Turkey through Iraq....
 rivers without any opposition. Darius was building up a massive army, drawing men from the far reaches of his empire, and planned to use sheer numbers to crush Alexander. While Darius had a significant advantage in numbers, most of his troops were of a lower quality than Alexander's.
Battle Gaugamela Decisive
The battle began with the Persians already present at the battlefield. Darius had recruited the finest cavalry from his eastern satrap
Satrap

Satrap was the name given to the governors of the provinces of ancient Medes and Persian Empire empires, including the Achaemenid Empire and in several of their heirs, such as the Sassanid Empire and the Hellenistic civilization empires....
ies. Darius placed himself in the center with his best infantry as was the tradition among Persian kings. The Macedonians were divided into two, with the right side of the army falling under the direct command of Alexander, and the left to Parmenion
Parmenion

Parmenion was a Macedonian general in the service of Philip II of Macedon and Alexander the Great.Parmenion was the father of a Macedonian nobleman Philotas of Macedonia....
. Alexander began by ordering his infantry to march in phalanx formation towards the center of the enemy line. Darius now launched his chariots, which were intercepted by the Agrianians
Agrianes

The Agrianians a Paionian tribe, who chiefly inhabited the area of north of the Thracian Maedi tribe in Macedonia and Thrace. They were crack Javelin_%28weapon%29#Ancient_Greece throwers and the elite unit of Alexander the Great light infantry, who fought under the command of Attalus ....
, and quickly rendered useless. Alexander, while leading the charge, formed his units into a giant wedge, which quickly smashed right into the weakened Persian center. Darius' charioteer was killed by a spear, and chaos rang out as everyone (incorrectly) thought it was Darius who had been killed. The Persian line then collapsed, and Darius fled. Darius escaped with a small core of his forces remaining intact, although the Bactrian cavalry and Bessus
Bessus

File:The punishment of Bessus by Andre Castaigne .jpgBessus was a Persian Empire nobleman and satrap of Bactria, and later contender king of Persia....
 soon caught up with him. The remaining Persian resistance was quickly put down. In all, the Battle of Gaugamela was a disastrous defeat for the Persians, and possibly one of Alexander's finest victories.

The end of the Achaemenid Persian Empire


After the battle, Parmenion rounded up the Persian baggage train while Alexander and his own bodyguard chased after Darius in hopes of catching up. Substantial amounts of loot were gained following the battle, with 4,000 talents captured, as well as the King's personal chariot and bow. Darius planned to head further east, and raise another army to face Alexander while he and the Macedonians headed to one of the Persian capitals, Babylon
Babylon

Babylon was a city-state of ancient Mesopotamia, sometimes considered an empire, the remains of which can be found in present-day Al Hillah, Babil Governorate, Iraq, about 85 kilometers south of Baghdad....
, and then to another, Susa
Susa

Susa was an ancient city of the Elamite, Persian Empire and Parthian empires of Iran, located about 250 km east of the Tigris River.The modern town of Shush, Iran is located at the site of ancient Susa....
. There, Alexander found wealth that even he had never imagined possible. He paid his troops, and sent a sum of money six times the annual income of Athens to Greece, in order to put down a Spartan rebellion. Darius, meanwhile, dispatched letters to his eastern satrapies asking them to remain loyal. The satrapies, however, had other intentions, and quickly capitulated to Alexander.

Darius' end was pathetic. Bessus fatally stabbed Darius, before fleeing eastwards. Darius was found by one of Alexander's scouts, moaning in pain. Darius, dying and chained to a baggage train being pulled by an Ox, was laying next to a lone dog and royal robes covered in blood. He asked for water, and then, clutching the Macedonian soldier's hand, said that he was thankful that he would not die utterly alone and abandoned. Alexander, who may have felt genuinely saddened at Darius' death, buried Darius next to his Achaemenid predecessors in a full military funeral. Alexander claimed that, while dying, Darius had named Alexander as his successor to the Achaemenid throne and had asked Alexander to avenge his death, a striking irony since it was Alexander who had pursued him to his death. The Achaemenid Persian Empire is considered to have fallen with the death of Darius.

Alexander, viewing himself as the legitimate Achaemenid successor to Darius, viewed Bessus as a usurper to the Achaemenid throne, and eventually found and executed this 'usurper'. The majority of the existing satraps were to give their loyalty to Alexander, and be allowed to keep their positions. Alexander’s troops now thought the war was over. Alexander was unsure how to deal with this, so he decided to scare them into submission. He gave a speech, arguing that their conquests were not secure, that the Persians did not want the Greeks to remain in their country, and that only the strength of Macedon could secure the country. The speech worked, and Alexander's troops agreed to remain with him. Alexander, now the Persian "King of Kings", adopted Persian dress and mannerisms, which, in time, the Greeks began to view as decadent and autocratic. They began to fear that Alexander, the king they had hero-worshiped, was turning into an eastern despot, although a young eunuch was eventually introduced to Alexander, and helped to keep his decadence in check.

Battle of the Persian Gate


In the winter of 330 BC, at the Battle of the Persian Gate
Battle of the Persian Gate

The Battle of the Persian Gate was fought at the Persian Gates northeast of today's Yasuj in Iran between a Achaemenid Empire army led by Ariobarzanes and the invading Ancient Macedonian army of Alexander the Great....
 northeast of today's Yasuj
Yasuj

Yasuj is an industrial city in the Zagros of southwestern Iran, and is the capital of Kohgiluyeh and Boyer-Ahmad Province province. It is located in the township of Boyer-Ahmad....
 in Iran
Iran

Iran , officially the Islamic Republic of Iran and formerly known internationally as Persian Empire until 1935, is a country in Central Eurasia, located on the northeastern shore of the Persian Gulf and the southern shore of the Caspian Sea....
, the Persian satrap Ariobarzan
Ariobarzan

Ariobarzan also spelled as Ario Barzan or Aryo Barzan, perhaps signifying "exalting the Aryans" was a Persian people satrap and military commander....
es led a last stand
Last stand

Last stand is a loose military term used to describe a body of troops holding a defensive position in the face of overwhelming odds. The defensive force usually takes very heavy casualties or is completely destroyed, while also inflicting high casualties on the opponent....
 of the Persian forces. After the Battle of Gaugamela
Battle of Gaugamela

The Battle of Gaugamela took place in 331 BC between Alexander the Great of Macedonia and Darius III of Persia of Achaemenid Empire Persian Empire....
, Alexander had advanced to Babylon
Babylon

Babylon was a city-state of ancient Mesopotamia, sometimes considered an empire, the remains of which can be found in present-day Al Hillah, Babil Governorate, Iraq, about 85 kilometers south of Baghdad....
 and Susa
Susa

Susa was an ancient city of the Elamite, Persian Empire and Parthian empires of Iran, located about 250 km east of the Tigris River.The modern town of Shush, Iran is located at the site of ancient Susa....
. A Royal Road
Royal Road

The Persian Royal Road was an ancient highway reorganized and rebuilt by the Persian Empire king Darius I of the Achaemenid Empire in the 5th century BC....
 connected Susa
Susa

Susa was an ancient city of the Elamite, Persian Empire and Parthian empires of Iran, located about 250 km east of the Tigris River.The modern town of Shush, Iran is located at the site of ancient Susa....
 with the more eastern capitals of Persepolis
Persepolis

Persepolis was the ceremonial capital of the Persian Empire during the Achaemenid dynasty. Persepolis is situated northeast of the modern city of Shiraz, Iran in the Fars Province of modern Iran....
 and Pasargadae
Pasargadae

'Pasargadae' was a city in ancient Iran, and is today an archaeological site and one of Iran's five UNESCO World Heritage Sites. According to the Elamite cuneiform of the Persepolis fortification tablets the name was rendered as Batrakata?, and the name in current usage derives from a Greek Language transliteration of an Old Persian P?th...
 in Persis (the Persian Empire had several "capitals"), and was the natural venue for Alexander's continued campaign. After the conquest of Susa, Alexander split the Macedonian army into two parts. Alexander's general, Parmenion
Parmenion

Parmenion was a Macedonian general in the service of Philip II of Macedon and Alexander the Great.Parmenion was the father of a Macedonian nobleman Philotas of Macedonia....
, took one half along the Royal Road, and Alexander himself took the route towards Persis. Passing into Persis required traversing the Persian Gates, a narrow mountain pass that lent itself easily to ambush.

Believing that, after his victory over the Uxians, he would not encounter any more enemy forces during his march, Alexander neglected to send scouts ahead of his vanguard, and thus walked into Ariobarzanes
Ariobarzanes

Ariobarzanes is name of the Persian Empire satrap who fought Alexander the Great at the Battle of the Persian Gate on his way to Persepolis .Ariobarzanes is the name of a number of ancient kings or satraps members of the Mithridatic dynasty that ruled Pontus....
' ambush. Once the Macedonian army had advanced sufficiently into the narrow pass, the Persians rained down boulders on them from the northern slopes. From the southern slope, Persian archers and catapult
Catapult

A catapult is any one of a number of non-handheld mechanical devices used to throw a projectile a great distance without the aid of an explosive substance?particularly various types of ancient and medieval siege engines....
s launched their projectiles. Alexander's army initially suffered heavy casualties, losing entire platoons at a time. Ariobarzanes had hoped that defeating Alexander at the Persian Gates would allow the Persians more time to field another army, and possibly stop the Macedonian invasion altogether.

Ariobarzanes held the pass for a month, but Alexander succeeded in encircling the Persian army and broke through the Persian defenses. The defeat of Ariobarzanes's forces at the Persian Gate removed the last military obstacle between Alexander and Persepolis. Upon his arrival at the city of Persepolis
Persepolis

Persepolis was the ceremonial capital of the Persian Empire during the Achaemenid dynasty. Persepolis is situated northeast of the modern city of Shiraz, Iran in the Fars Province of modern Iran....
, Alexander appointed a general named Phrasaortes as successor of Ariobarzanes. Four months later, Alexander allowed the troops to loot Persepolis. A fire broke out and spread to the rest of the city. It is not clear if it had been a drunken accident, or a deliberate act of revenge for the burning of the Acropolis of Athens
Acropolis of Athens

The Acropolis of Athens is the best known acropolis in the world. Although there are many other acropolises in Greece, the significance of the Acropolis of Athens is such that it is commonly known as The Acropolis without qualification....
 during the Second Greco-Persian War
Greco-Persian Wars

For other Persian wars, see Roman-Persian Wars, Islamic conquest of Persia, Iraq war , and Military history of Iran.The Greco-Persian Wars were a series of conflicts between several ancient Greece city-states and the Achaemenid Empire that started in 499 BC and lasted until 448 BC....
.

Siege of the Sogdian Rock

After Alexander defeated the last of the Achaemenid Empire
Achaemenid Empire

The Achaemenid Empire or Achaemenid Persian Empire was amongst the first Persian Empires that ruled over significant portions of Greater Iran, and followed the Ancient Iranian peoples Median Empire....
's forces 328 BC, he began a new campaign against the various India
India

India, officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and outlying territories by total area country by geographical area, the List of countries by population country, and the most populous liberal democracy in the world....
n kings in 327 BC. He wanted to conquer the entire known world, which in Alexander's day, ended on the eastern end of India. Greeks of Alexander's day knew nothing of China, or any other lands east of India. The Siege of the Sogdian Rock, a fortress located north of Bactria
Bactria

Bactria is a historical region of Greater Iran. Known by the ancient Greeks as "Bactriana" the region is located between the range of the Hindu Kush and the Amu Darya ; in later times, the region became known as Tokharistan. The name of the region has survived to present time in the name of Afghan province "Balkh"....
 in Sogdiana
Sogdiana

Sogdiana or Sogdia was the ancient civilization of an Iranian peoples and a province of the Achaemenid Empire Persian Empire, the eighteenth in the list in the Behistun Inscription of Darius I of Persia ....
, occurred in 327 BC. Oxyartes
Oxyartes

Oxyartes was a Bactrian, father of Roxana, the wife of Alexander of Macedon. He is first mentioned as one of the chiefs who accompanied Bessus on his retreat across the Amu Darya into Sogdiana ....
 of Bactria
Bactria

Bactria is a historical region of Greater Iran. Known by the ancient Greeks as "Bactriana" the region is located between the range of the Hindu Kush and the Amu Darya ; in later times, the region became known as Tokharistan. The name of the region has survived to present time in the name of Afghan province "Balkh"....
 had sent his wife and daughters, one of whom was Roxana
Roxana

Roxana , was a Bactrian noble and a wife of Alexander the Great. She was born earlier than the year 341 BC, though the precise date remains uncertain....
, to take refuge in the fortress, as it was thought to be impregnable, and was provisioned for a long siege
Siege

A siege is a military blockade of a city or fortress with the intent of conquering by Battle of attrition and/or assault. The term derives from sedere, Latin for "to sit." A siege occurs when an attacker encounters a city or fortress that cannot be easily taken by a coup de main and refuses to surrender ....
. When Alexander asked the defenders to surrender, they refused, telling him that he would need "men with wings" to capture it. Alexander asked for volunteers, whom he would reward if they could climb the cliffs under the fortress. There were some 300 men who from previous sieges had gained experience in rock-climbing. Using tent-pegs and strong flaxen
Flax

Flax is a member of the genus Linum in the family Linaceae. It is native to the region extending from the eastern Mediterranean region to India and was probably first domesticated in the Fertile Crescent....
 lines, they climbed the cliff face at night, losing about 30 of their number during the ascent. In accordance with Alexander's orders, they signaled their success to the troops below by waving bits of linen
Linen

Linen is a textile made from the fibers of the flax plant, Linum usitatissimum. Linen is labor-intensive to manufacture, but when it is made into garments, it is valued for its exceptional coolness and freshness in hot weather....
, and Alexander sent a herald to shout the news to the enemy's advanced posts that they might now surrender without further delay. The defenders were so surprised and demoralized by this that they surrendered. Alexander fell in love with Roxana, whom ancient historians call the "most beautiful woman in the world" (not an uncommon claim for an ancient queen) on sight and eventually married her. The story of the siege is told by the Roman historian Arrian of Nicomedia, in Anabasis
Anabasis Alexandri

Anabasis Alexandri, the Campaigns of Alexander by Arrian is the most important source on Alexander the Great.The Greek term wiktionary:anabasis referred to an expedition from a coastline into the interior of a country....
 (section 4.18.4-19.6).

Siege of Aornos

The Siege of Aornos took place in the modern city of Swat, Pakistan, and was Alexander's last siege, "the climax to Alexander's career as the greatest besieger in history" according to Alexander's biographer Robin Lane Fox (Fox 1973 p343). The siege took place in the winter of 327–326 BC. It offered the last threat to Alexander's supply line, which stretched, dangerously vulnerable, over the Hindu Kush
Hindu Kush

The Hindu Kush is a mountain range located in eastern and central Afghanistan, northwestern Pakistan and northeastern India.The origin of the name Hindu Kush is disputed, despite its coinage apparently dating back no further than c.1330....
 back to Balkh
Balkh

Balkh , also known as Bactra, was once a major world city but was destroyed entirely by the Mongols. Today it is a small town in the Balkh Province, northern Afghanistan, about 20 kilometers northwest of the provincial capital, Mazar-e Sharif, and some 74 km south of the Amu Darya, the Oxus River of antiquity, of which a tributary form...
, though Arrian
Arrian

File:Flavius_Arrianus.jpgLucius Flavius Arrianus 'Xenophon , known in English as Arrian , and Arrian of Nicomedia, was a Ancient Rome historian , a public servant, a military commander and a philosopher of the Roman and Byzantine Greece period....
 credits Alexander's heroic desire to outdo his kinsman Heracles
Heracles

In Greek mythology, Heracles or Herakles meaning "glory of Hera", or "Glorious through Hera" Alcides or Alcaeus " was a hero, the son of Zeus and Alcmene, foster son of Amphitryon and great-grandson of Perseus....
, who allegedly had proved unable to take the place Pir-Sar, which the Greeks called Aornis. The site lies north of Attock
Attock

Attock , the headquarters of Attock District, is a city located in the northern border of the Punjab province of Pakistan, and also a border district on the river Indus....
 in Punjab
Punjab region

Punjab , also Panjab , is a region straddling the border between India and Pakistan. The "Five Rivers" are Beas River, Ravi River, Sutlej, Chenab and Jhelum River; all these are tributaries of the Indus river, Jhelum being the biggest one....
, on a strongly reinforced mountain spur above the narrow gorges in a bend of the upper Indus. Neighboring tribesmen who surrendered to Alexander offered to lead him to the best point of access.

At the vulnerable north side leading to the fort, Alexander and his catapults were stopped by a deep ravine. To bring the siege engines within reach, an earthwork mound was constructed to bridge the ravine. A low hill connected to the nearest tip of Pir-Sar was soon within reach and taken. Alexander's troops were at first repelled by boulders rolled down from above. Three days of drumbeats marked the defenders' celebration of the initial repulse, followed by a surprise retreat. Alexander hauled himself up the last rockface on a rope. Alexander cleared the summit, slaying some fugitives (Fox) —inflated by Arrian to a massacre—and erected altars to Athena Nike
Athena

In Greek mythology, Athena is the shrewd companion of Hero and the goddess of Hero endeavour. She is the virgin patron of Athens, which built the Parthenon to worship her....
, Athena of Victory, traces of which were identified by Stein (Fox 1973, Arrian).

Battle of the Hydaspes River

The Battle of the Hydaspes River
Battle of the Hydaspes River

The Battle of the Hydaspes River was fought by Alexander the Great in 325 BC against the Indian king Porus at Kshatriya on the Hydaspes River in the Punjab region of ancient India, near Bhera now in Pakistan....
 was fought by Alexander in May 325 BC against the India
India

India, officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and outlying territories by total area country by geographical area, the List of countries by population country, and the most populous liberal democracy in the world....
n king Porus
Porus

King Porus was the King of Pauravas. The state falls within the territory of Punjab region located between the Jhelum River and the Chenab rivers in the Punjab region and dominions extending to the Beas ....
 at Kshatriya on the Hydaspes River in the Punjab region
Punjab region

Punjab , also Panjab , is a region straddling the border between India and Pakistan. The "Five Rivers" are Beas River, Ravi River, Sutlej, Chenab and Jhelum River; all these are tributaries of the Indus river, Jhelum being the biggest one....
 of ancient India
Ancient India

Ancient India may refer to:*The ancient History of India, which generally includes the ancient history of the whole Indian subcontinent ...
, near Bhera
Bhera

Bhera is a town in the Punjab province of Pakistan. It is located on the Jhelum River river in Sargodha District, at latitude 32.48 N, longitude 72.92 E....
 now in Pakistan
Pakistan

Pakistan , officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country located in South Asia and borders Central Asia and the Middle East. It has a 1,046 kilometre coastline along the Arabian Sea and Gulf of Oman in the south, and is bordered by Afghanistan and Iran in the west, India in the east and People's Republic of China in th...
. The Hydaspes was the last major battle fought by Alexander. The main train went into modern day Pakistan through the Khyber Pass
Khyber Pass

The Khyber Pass, is the mountain pass that links Pakistan and Afghanistan.Throughout history it has been an important trade route between Central Asia and South Asia and a Military strategy military location....
, but a smaller force under the personal command of Alexander went through the northern route, resulting in the Siege of Aornos along the way. In early spring of the next year, he combined his forces and allied with Taxiles
Taxiles

Taxiles was the Greece chroniclers' name for a prince or king who reigned over the tract between the Indus River and the Hydaspes Rivers in the Punjab region at the period of the expedition of Alexander the Great, 327 BC....
 (also Ambhi), the King of Taxila
Taxila

Taxila is an important archaeological site in the Punjab province of Pakistan. It dates back to the Ancient Indian period and contains the ruins of the Gandhara city of Takshashila an important Vedanta/Hinduism and Buddhist centre of learning from the 6th century BCE...
, against his neighbor, the King of Hydaspes.
Le Brun, Alexander and Porus
Porus drew up on the south bank of the Jhelum River
Jhelum River

Jehlum River or Jhelum River is a river that flows in India and Pakistan. It is the largest and most western of the five rivers of Punjab region, and passes through Jhelum District....
, and was set to repel any crossings. The Jhelum River
Jhelum River

Jehlum River or Jhelum River is a river that flows in India and Pakistan. It is the largest and most western of the five rivers of Punjab region, and passes through Jhelum District....
 was deep and fast enough that any opposed crossing would probably doom the entire attacking force. Alexander knew that a direct crossing would fail, so he found a suitable crossing, about 17 miles upstream of his camp. Alexander left his general Craterus behind with most of the army while he crossed the river upstream with a strong part of his army. Porus sent a small cavalry and chariot force under his son to the crossing. The force was easily routed, and Porus' son was killed. Porus now saw that the crossing force was larger, and decided to face it with the bulk of his army. The Indians were poised with cavalry on both flanks, the war elephants in front, and infantry behind the elephants. These war elephants presented an especially difficult situation for Alexander, as they scared the Macedonian horses.

Alexander started the battle by sending horse archers to shower the Indian left cavalry wing, and then used his cavalry to destroy the Indian cavalry. Meanwhile, the Macedonian phalanxes had advanced to engage the charge of the war elephants. The Macedonians eventually surrounded the Indian force, which amounted to a mass surrender. Porus was one of many Indians who impressed Alexander. Wounded in his shoulder, standing at seven feet tall, but still on his feet, he was asked by Alexander how he wished to be treated. "Treat me, O Alexander, like a king" Porus responded. The bravery and war skills of Porus
Porus

King Porus was the King of Pauravas. The state falls within the territory of Punjab region located between the Jhelum River and the Chenab rivers in the Punjab region and dominions extending to the Beas ....
 impressed Alexander. Alexander spared the life of Porus, although he had been defeated, and let him rule Hydaspes in Alexander's name. Afterwards, Alexander founded Alexandria Nikaia (Victory), located at the battle site, to commemorate his triumph. He also founded Alexandria Bucephalus on the opposite bank of the river. Alexander did this in memory of his much cherished horse, Bucephalus
Bucephalus

Bucephalus or Buchephalas was Alexander the Great's horse and the most famous actual horse of Classical antiquity. Ancient accounts state that Bucephalus died after the Battle of the Hydaspes in 326 BC, in what is now modern Pakistan, and is buried in Jalalpur Sharif outside of Jhelum , Pakistan....
, who died during this battle, reportedly due to old age.

The end of the war


This was as far as Alexander's army would go. At this time, the Magadha Empire further east on the Gangetic plain had 6,000 war elephants. These numbers of war elephants were many times larger than the numbers employed by the Persians and Greeks, which was discouraging for Alexander's men and stayed further progress into India. Alexander, using the incorrect maps of the Greeks, thought that the world ended a mere 600 miles away, at the edge of India. He was unaware of China, Malaysia, as well as the other lands east of India. Although he viewed the decision to turn back, which had been forced upon him by his troops, as a defeat, it was probably for the better.

Alexander's men had marched over 11,000 miles in eight years, and killed at least 750,000 Asians. Ultimately, it was the weather that forced his army to give up. Plains had turned into swamps, their armor was corroded, their rations rotted as mildew ruined their grain. Their boots leaked, and their swords turned green as soon as they had been polished. The rivers were fast and violent, torrential rains had brought into their tents snakes and scorpions of a size no Greek had ever before seen. Before deciding to turn back, Alexander gave a speech, in which he pled with his men that they continue marching east. One soldier, who was dying anyway, gave a speech, which he ended by telling Alexander that the one thing all successful men should know is when to stop. Alexander, facing his first ever defeat, called his priests, who told him that, for the first time, the Gods were against him. Claiming to bow to the will of the Gods–certainly not to the will of his men–he finally announced that they were going home.

In the fall of 326 BC, Alexander's army began marching back home. For Alexander, "home" was Babylon, although for the rest of his troops, it was Macedon. They met a flotilla
Flotilla

A flotilla , or naval flotilla, is a Tactical formation of small warships that may be part of a larger Naval fleet. A flotilla is usually composed of a homogeneous group of the same ship class of warship, such as destroyers, torpedo boats, submarines, gunboats or Minesweeper ....
 at the Jhelum River, which had been intended to carry the army east. Instead, it brought supplies and helped in the westward march. The flotilla had trouble moving against the currents, and the ship carrying Alexander, who could not swim, almost sank. The violent rivers snapped the oars of Alexander's ships, Indian tribesman kept threatening the army, and the priests began warning that the Gods had turned against them. Alexander intended to capture one threatening citadel, but none of his men would follow him. He personally led the charge, being the first to scale the citadel. His troops behind him rushed up, but the rungs of the ladder collapsed and several soldiers died. Alexander was alone with three of this soldiers inside the citadel, where they fought the Indians. Alexander was hit with an arrow in the chest, and was pulled out nearly dead. Rumors began circling that he was dead, and the Indians grew so enthusiastic that they began attacking with renewed vigor. Eventually, though, Alexander recovered from his wound.

As the army made its way down the Indus River
Indus River

File:Indian subcontinent CIA.pngThe Indus River is the longest river in Pakistan and the twenty-first largest river in the world, in terms of annual flow, on the Indian Subcontinent....
, some Indian tribes surrendered, while others fought. Alexander split his army into two forces, and personally led the larger force through the Makran
Makran

Makran is a semi-desert coastal strip in the south of Balochistan , in Iran and Pakistan, along the coast of the Arabian Sea and the Gulf of Oman....
 desert. Soon, his army was out of water, and the soldiers were suffering from heat stroke. When they were able to find water, some soldiers died of over-drinking. As they went through sand dunes and sand storm
Sand Storm

Sand Storm is a 1992 action game in which you are shooting an anti-air ballistic weapon. The premise of the game is similar to that of Sabotage ....
s, the axles of their wagons sank into the sand. Poisonous plants and animals were all around, some of which caused blindness, while others caused their animals to foam at the mouth and die. Flash floods plagued them, and one even killed most of the women and children that were with the army, leaving the soldiers with nothing but the clothes on their backs. It took them two months to emerge from the Makran. About 85,000 people had entered the desert, and only 25,000 survived. The flotilla, after battling angry tribesman, surviving a school of whales, and being forced to eat their camels, returned in December of 325 BC. Alexander celebrated by staging days of celebrations to thank the Gods for the return of his fleet. His army returned to Greece, and he returned to his throne in Babylon
Babylon

Babylon was a city-state of ancient Mesopotamia, sometimes considered an empire, the remains of which can be found in present-day Al Hillah, Babil Governorate, Iraq, about 85 kilometers south of Baghdad....
, where he would live until his death in June 323 BC.

Further reading

  • Alexander the Great in Fact and Fiction, edited by A.B. Bosworth, E.J. Baynham. New York: Oxford University Press (USA), 2002 (Paperback, ISBN 0-19-925275-0).
  • Baynham, Elizabeth. Alexander the Great: The Unique History of Quintus Curtius. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1998 (hardcover, ISBN 0-472-10858-1); 2004 (paperback, ISBN 0-472-03081-7).
  • Brill's Companion to Alexander the Great by Joseph Roisman (editor). Leiden: Brill Academic Publishers, 2003.
  • Cartledge, Paul
    Paul Cartledge

    Paul Anthony Cartledge is the first A. G. Leventis Professor of Greek Culture at Cambridge University , having previously held a personal chair in Greek History at Cambridge....
    . Alexander the Great: The Hunt for a New Past. Woodstock, NY; New York: The Overlook Press, 2004 (hardcover, ISBN 1-58567-565-2); London: PanMacmillan, 2004 (hardcover, ISBN 1-4050-3292-8); New York: Vintage, 2005 (paperback, ISBN 1-4000-7919-5).
  • Dahmen, Karsten. The Legend of Alexander the Great on Greek and Roman Coins. Oxford: Routledge, 2006 (hardcover, ISBN 0-415-39451-1; paperback, ISBN 0-415-39452-X).
  • De Santis, Marc G. “At The Crossroads of Conquest.” Military Heritage
    Military Heritage

    Military Heritage is a glossy, bi-monthly military history magazine published by Sovereign Media. It was founded by Carl A. Gnam, Jr., who also serves as the editorial director....
    , December 2001. Volume 3, No. 3: 46–55, 97 (Alexander the Great, his military, his strategy at the Battle of Gaugamela and his defeat of Darius making Alexander the King of Kings).
  • Fuller, J.F. C
    J.F.C. Fuller

    Major-General John Frederick Charles Fuller Order of the Bath, Order of the British Empire, Distinguished Service Order, commonly J.F.C. Fuller, , was a British Army officer, military history and military strategy, notable as an early theorist of modern armoured warfare, including categorising Principles of Warfare....
    ; A Military History of the Western World: From the earliest times to the Battle of Lepanto; New York: Da Capo Press, Inc., 1987 and 1988. ISBN 0-306-80304-6
  • Gergel, Tania Editor Alexander the Great (2004) published by the Penguin Group
    Penguin Books

    Penguin Books is a United Kingdom publisher founded in 1935 by Allen Lane. Lane's idea was to provide quality writing cheaply, for the same price as a pack of cigarettes....
    , London ISBN 0-14-200140-6 Brief collection of ancient accounts translated into English
  • Larsen, Jakob A. O. "Alexander at the Oracle of Ammon", Classical Philology, Vol. 27, No. 1. (Jan., 1932), pp. 70–75.
  • Lonsdale, David. Alexander the Great, Killer of Men: History's Greatest Conqueror and the Macedonian Way of War, New York, Carroll & Graf, 2004, ISBN 0786714298
  • Pearson, Lionel Ignacius Cusack. The Lost Histories of Alexander the Great. Chicago Ridge, IL: Ares Publishers, 2004 (paperback, ISBN 0-89005-590-4).
  • Thomas, Carol G. Alexander the Great in his World (Blackwell Ancient Lives). Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 2006 (hardcover, ISBN 0631232451; paperback, ISBN 063123246X).


Non-Greek/Latin perspectives

  • A. Shapur Shahbazi, "Iranians and Alexander", American Journal of Ancient History n.s. 2 (2003), 5–38: the Persian side of the story.
  • R.J. van der Spek, "Darius III, Alexander the Great and Babylonian scholarship" in: Achaemenid History 13 (2003), 289–346: an overview of several Babylonian sources
  • Two chapters of Jona Lendering
    Jona Lendering

    Jona Lendering is a Netherlands historian and the author of books on Ancient history, History of the Netherlands and modern management. He studied history at Leiden University and Mediterranean culture at the Vrije Universiteit....
    's Dutch book Alexander de Grote, which uses the cuneiform sources, are available in translation. In , he argues that at Gaugamela, Alexander attacked a Persian army that was looking for an excuse to run away; and in , he offers a Babylonian perspective on Alexander's final days.


External links

Primary Sources
  • from Livius.org
  • Wiki Classical Dictionary, and
Other
  • by Waldemar Heckel
  • , entry in historical sourcebook by Mahlon H. Smith
  • , a comprehensive directory of some 1,000 sites
  • , a project by John J. Popovic
  • , photos of all sites Alexander visited
  • , a site depicting Alexander's coins and later coins featuring Alexander's image