War of Devolution
Encyclopedia
The War of Devolution saw Louis XIV
's French
armies overrun the Habsburg-controlled Spanish Netherlands
and the Franche-Comté
, but forced to give most of it back by a Triple Alliance of England
, Sweden
, and the Dutch Republic
in the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle
.
, which ended 24 years of war between the two states. With the Treaty, King Philip IV of Spain
(1605–1665) had to cede certain territories, and also had to consent to the marriage of his daughter Maria Theresa of Spain
(1638–1683) to the young Louis XIV of France
(1638–1715). Furthermore, it was agreed that with this marriage, Maria Theresa explicitly renounced all rights to her father's inheritance. As compensation, a dowry of 500 000 gold écus was promised to the Bourbon Louis XIV; this was not paid, however.
When Philip IV died on 17 September 1665, the French king immediately laid claim to parts of the Spanish Netherlands: the Duchies of Brabant
and Limburg
, Cambrai, the marquessate of Antwerpen, the Lordship of Mechelen, Guelders, the counties of Namur, Artois
and Hainaut
, a third of the County of Burgundy and a quarter of the Duchy of Luxembourg. Louis XIV justified this with the fact that the promised dowry had not been paid and that the Queen's renunciation of her inheritance was therefore invalid.
French legal scholars concluded from this and the clause of 'devolution' that the Spanish Netherlands should not go to the still underage heir to the Spanish throne Charles II of Spain
(1661–1700), since he had been born as a result of the second marriage of Philip IV. Maria Theresa on the other hand was a result of his first marriage and was therefore entitled to the inheritance in Brabant
, and, through her, Louis XIV. The Queen could not renounce this natural right for her children as well.
Maria Theresa's stepmother, Queen Mariana
of Spain (1634–1696), who was taking care of government business for her underage son along with her confessor Cardinal Johann Eberhard Neidhardt (1607–1681), rejected these claims, referring to the renunciation by Maria Theresa of all inheritance rights. At this, the French king began preparations for a new campaign against Spain. His able financial minister Colbert
reorganized the army and expanded it from 50,000 to 80,000 men. Spain, on the other hand, was a fragmented nation struggling to cope with major inflation.
), which had brought Spain almost only defeats and which bound up the largest part of the Spanish military potential. France at first supported Portugal covertly, then openly. Thus, the two states formally concluded an alliance on 31 March 1667.
The United Provinces were another ally of France. After France had for a long time supported the Dutch in their war with Spain, both countries entered into a defence alliance in 1662. Louis XIV was anxious to gain the support of the United Provinces for a conquest of the Spanish Netherlands and therefore entered into negotiations. The United Provinces were at this time at war with England (the Second Anglo–Dutch War), and in the States-General there were fears of a rapprochement between England and France, if they did not take up the French offers. The influential Grand Pensionary
Johan de Witt
(1625–1672) suggested that the Spanish Netherlands be mutually divided. Such plans were already being debated from 1663 onwards. But the share that Louis XIV demanded for himself alienated de Witt, and the deal was never concluded. At the same time, the Spanish suggested setting up a combined army if the French invaded. De Witt believed Spanish military power to be weak however, and the French emissary declared candidly that a Dutch alliance with Spain would amount to a declaration of war on France. Although the Franco-Dutch negotiations had not led to tangible results, Louis XIV was convinced of the benevolence of the United Provinces. He promised them that he would mediate in the conflict with England and in the end himself declared war on England, although the French navy was not engaged to a very large extent.
Therefore, the only remaining potential obstacle to French expansion was the Holy Roman Empire
. As part of the Burgundian Circle
, the Spanish Netherlands were subject of a special defence guarantee by the Empire, according to the agreement of Augsburg of 1548 between the Empire and Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor
(who was also King of Spain). In the event of an attack, the Imperial State
s of the Reichstag could declare an imperial war on France. The French diplomats however were very intent on eliminating this threat. To this end, they availed themselves of the members of the League of the Rhine. Bilateral treaties were concluded with the Prince-Bishopric of Münster, the Archbishopric of Mainz
, Palatinate-Neuburg
, the Electorate of Brandenburg, the Electorate of Cologne, in which these Imperial States pledged to deny their territories to foreign troops and to push for imperial neutrality in the Reichstag. Thus, the planned French campaign was also protected against intervention of the Empire from the East.
On 8 May 1667 Louis XIV transmitted to the Spanish court a declaration, in which he repeated his demands. This declaration was likewise advertised by the French ambassadors in every court in Europe. They were to present the campaign of the Sun King not as an invasion, but as an entry into lands that already rightfully belonged to him. The King himself called the invasion a "voyage".
the French armed forces had been sharply reduced in order to save costs. In 1665 they numbered only 50,000 men. Louis XIV however authorised preparations through which the number of soldiers grew to 82,000 by the start of the war. In spring 1667 51,000 French soldiers, who had been raised in 4 days, deployed between Mézières
and the sea. The main army consisted of 35,000 men personally commanded by Louis XIV. However, the actual commander was Maréchal Turenne
(1611–1675). To the left of the main army, a further French corps drew up in Artois
at the coast, under Maréchal Antoine d’Aumont de Rochebaron (1601–1669), whilst another corps under Lieutenant General François de Créquy, marquis de Marines
(1624–1687), took over the protection of the main army on the right flank. All three armies were to enter the Spanish territories at the same time, in order to take advantage of the French numerical superiority and not allow the Spanish to concentrate their defence against a single French force.
On 10 May 1667, Maréchal de Turenne had taken over the supreme command over the French forces. The first objective was the stronghold of Charleroi
, which, due to its location on the Sambre, dominated the connection between the northern and southern Spanish possessions. The Marquis de Castel-Rodrigo did not have the means to hold this important position, and abandoned the fortress, after destroying all the fortifications. Maréchal de Turenne occupied Charleroi on 2 June and had the fortifications reconstructed by the prominent engineer Vauban
(1633–1707), in order to advance from there against Mons
or Namur
. To this end, the whole main army encamped for 15 days around Charleroi.
The Spanish strengthened the fortresses of Mons and Namur. However, Turenne bypassed Mons and took Ath
on 16 June, which the Spanish troops left without putting up resistance, surprised by the unexpected French advance. The French extended the fortifications of this town as well.
Maréchal de Turenne's objective was now to cut off all of Flanders, along with the capital city of Lille
, from the large Spanish bases in the East (Bruges
, Ghent
, Brussels
, Namur). Therefore, he next turned to Tournai
. On 21 June the main army reached the stronghold and surrounded it. It surrendered a few days later, and the French entered it on 25 June.
After this, the main army marched westwards along the Scheldt and there successfully besieged Douai
from 1–7 July. Meanwhile, further to the North the corps of the Maréchal d’Aumont de Rochebaron had also successfully advanced and, in taking the fortresses of Bergues
(6 June) and Furnes
(12 June), had cut Flanders off from the sea. After this, Maréchal de Turenne had ordered this corps to attack Courtrai. This city was conquered on 18 July, and shortly after, the Spanish force in Oudenaarde
also surrendered to d'Aumont's troops (29–31 July).
Through the French advances, Maréchal de Turenne had isolated the most important Spanish fortresses of Ypres
, Lille and Mons. However, instead of immediately besieging these locations, he decided to first move against Antwerp, in order to capitalise on the weakness of the Spanish forces. This move however failed at Dendermonde
, between Ghent and Brussels. The small stronghold of Dendermonde, defended by 2500 Spanish, held out against the French army. Maréchal de Turenne therefore pulled back at the beginning of August via Oudenaarde and prepared to besiege Lille.
This siege was the greatest undertaking of the entire campaign and lasted from the 10th to the 28th August, when the Spanish garrison capitulated in return for being allowed to freely withdraw. As the Marquis de Castel-Rodrigo had not yet been informed of the fall of the city, he sent another army of 12,000 men under the Marquis de Marchin
, to relieve Lille. On 31 August this army came upon the corps of the French Marquis de Créquy, which Maréchal de Turenne had meanwhile drawn up to cover the siege. This battle was decided in favour of the French, and the troops of the Marquis de Marchin (1601–1673) had to withdraw.
After the taking of Lille, Maréchal de Turenne only undertook one further manoeuver. On 12 September he conquered the stronghold of Aalst
, thus breaking the connection lines between Ghent and Brussels. After this, the French troops limited themselves to a loose blockade of Ypres and Mons, and on 13 October turned in to their winter quarters.
In Spain, preparations to dispatch a military force to Flanders had already begun in June. The government of the Regent raised more than one million peso
s and appointed Juan José de Austria (1629–1679) as commander of the intended army. His reputation as a general was already tarnished after a number of defeats in the war against Portugal, and as he assessed the conditions in the Spanish Netherlands pessimistically, he delayed the departure for weeks and months. His pretext for this was the decision of a theological commission, that had declared itself against an alliance with the Protestant countries, England and the Netherlands. In the end, further complications of domestic politics meant that the Spanish army never arrived in Flanders.
Furthermore, Spain entered into negotiations with the Portuguese court and on 13 February 1668 agreed the Peace of Lisbon. Spain would therefore be able to use all its armed forces against France from the coming spring.
To at least keep Emperor Leopold I out of the conflict, French diplomats entered secret negotiations with the court at Vienna. They offered the Emperor the partition of the Spanish Empire. King Charles II of Spain was a six-year-old child, whom no-one expected to live long, due to numerous physical and mental disablements. With him, the Spanish line of the Habsburgs would die out. The Emperor took up the offer. He was to receive Spain itself, along with its colonies and the Duchy of Milan
. France, for its part, claimed the Spanish Netherlands, Franche-Comté, Navarre and the Kingdom of Naples and Sicily. The secret treaty of partition was agreed on 19 January 1668. The Emperor thus no longer had any reason to go to war with France, as it only occupied territories that the Emperor had agreed it should have. The treaty was however not ratified by the Emperor in the following years, so as not to worsen relations with Spain any further.
The rapid progress of the French had however greatly alarmed the United Provinces. Though they too were basically enemies of the Spanish monarchy, at the same time, "inactive and tired Spain was a better neighbour for them than powerful and aggressive France." They were desperate to maintain the Spanish Netherlands as a buffer state. The Netherlands therefore hurriedly ended their war with England, and despite the very successful conduct of the war, signed the Treaty of Breda on 31 July 1667. After this, they offered to mediate in the war between France and Spain. Louis XIV however rejected this in September and continued to try to persuade the Dutch to divide up the Spanish Netherlands with the French. These attempts were a failure, and Louis XIV played with the idea of a war against the Dutch.
Now attempts were made by the Dutch to set up a coalition against France, in order to set a limit to the French expansion. It was not de Witt's intention to damage their good relations with France in doing so, however. Charles II of England
had, after the Treaty of Breda, started secretly negotiating an alliance with France, which would be hostile to the United Provinces. But at the same time, he started negotiations with the United Provinces over a common alliance against France. In the former case, French subsidies would make him independent of the English Parliament; in the latter case, his gain would be to have broken the Franco-Dutch alliance. Whilst Louis XIV rejected the English offer, De Witt was receptive. On 23 January 1668, the United Provinces and England concluded an alliance, whose declared aim was to bring about the Spanish relinquishment of certain territories and to persuade France to limit its claims. A secret added protocol, however, also provided that, if the French king extended his claims or were to continue his campaign of conquest, the alliance would use force to push France back to the borders of 1659. The Kingdom of Sweden also joined this alliance, to obtain urgently needed subsidies by these means. At the same time, De Witt assured the French diplomats that this alliance was not aimed against France, but had the purpose of making Spain relinquish the specified territories.
. This was isolated, and practically devoid of Spanish troops, for several reasons: France had respected the territory's neutrality in the last war against Spain; furthermore, the Spanish generals did not expect an attack by the French in the middle of winter.
Louis XIV instructed the Prince de Condé
(1621–1686) to undertake preparations for a winter campaign against the Franche-Comté. Condé had fallen into disgrace as a former opponent of the King during the Fronde
and was entrusted with a military command in 1668 for the first time in 9 years. As the Governor of Burgundy, Condé was in the best position to prepare an attack against the County. To this end, a second army of newly-raised troops was set up. Louis XIV once again personally accompanied the campaign. The King left Saint-Germain on 2 February 1668, in order to join up with the main army. It was at this point that he received news of the formation of the Triple Alliance; he was also informed by a spy that its members would be prepared to declare war on France.
Despite this, he persisted with the campaign, as he hoped to conquer territories that would be a suitable bargaining counter in later negotiations. General de Condé had started the invasion on 4 February, and on 7 February took Besançon
, which also lay in Franche-Comté. On the same day a further French corps under General François-Henri de Montmorency, duc de Luxembourg (1628–1695) managed to take Salin. Both strongholds put up practically no resistance.
After this, the French army concentrated on taking the town of Dole
. This town did not surrender until 14 February after a short siege of four days, in which 400-500 French soldiers lost their lives. Five days later, on 19 February, the stronghold of Gray
also fell to the French. Shortly before, the Spanish Marquis de Yenne had surrendered to the French king, and now persuaded the Governor of Gray to capitulate. Louis XIV returned to Saint-Germain, arriving on 24 February 1668. After only 17 days, the whole County was occupied. The causes behind this quick success were surprise, and the fact that the Spanish were badly prepared. Furthermore, the local population tended to sympathise with the French, and mostly welcomed them.
(1640–1701), was to advance into Catalonia, whilst the Prince de Condé, with 22,000 men, would defend against any potential offensive by the Holy Roman Empire in the dioceses of Metz, Toul and Verdun.
But after Louis XIV had secured the Franche-Comté as a bargaining counter, the immediate question was whether he should bow to the demands of the triple alliance, or whether he should continue the war. The Marquis de Louvois
, the Secretary of State for War
, as well as Turenne and Condé were in favour of continuing the war, as the situation seemed advantageous, since the Spanish were significantly weakened. On the other hand, the foreign minister, Hugues de Lionne
(1611–1671), and the finance minister, Jean-Baptiste Colbert
(1619–1683), both would have preferred to see a peace treaty signed quickly, as the costs of continuing the war were incalculable (so far it had cost most than 18 million livres), and the international conditions did not make a victory seem likely. This was especially the case since Spain had in the meantime (13 February 1668) signed the Treaty of Lisbon with Portugal and could now concentrate on the war with France.
Louis XIV was forced to realize that France was no match for the coalition of Spain, the Netherlands, England, and Sweden, and therefore announced a cease-fire until the end of March 1668 and started negotiations. In April, the parties involved met in Saint-Germain and negotiated a peace treaty by the 13th. From the 25th April onwards, a congress met, chaired by the nuntius of Pope Clement IX, in Aachen
, where the treaty was finally signed on 2 May 1668 (see Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1668)
).
During these negotiations, the Triple Alliance managed to enforce their demands: France abandoned the Franche-Comté, including the free imperial city of Besançon, but first destroyed all fortifications of the cities of Gray and Dole. French troops also had to withdraw from the Spanish Netherlands. A total of 12 conquered cities would remain in the hands of the French king: Lille, Tournai, Oudenarde, Courtrai, Furnes, Bergues, Douai with la Scarpe, Binche, Charleroi, Ath and Armentiers.
s. This did not, however, come close to the "heroism" of some of his predecessors; Voltaire unfavourably compared his actions with those of Francis I
and Henry IV
.
During this period the King did, however, travel with his entire royal household and all the luxuries that he was accustomed to and would not dispense with even in wartime. This alone required a huge logistical effort. Louis XIV was accompanied by, amongst others, the Queen, his two mistresses, (Louise de La Vallière and Madame de Montespan
), as well as all his ministers and generals who were not involved in the war. The latter in particular tended to scheme against the marshals in command, especially against the Maréchal de Turenne, which impaired his ability to lead.
The two leading court painters, Adam Frans van der Meulen and Charles Le Brun
, were also amongst the King's retinue; they were instructed to record the Sun King's deeds, as were various other artists. Thus numerous paintings and Gobelin tapestries were created, as well as medals and poems. After peace was declared, a great victory celebration took place in Versailles; various important figures of the time participated in arranging this, including Molière, Jean-Baptiste Lully, Louis Le Vau and Carlo Vigarani. At all these events and in every representation, the King was constantly portrayed as having personally been in sole command; the numerous marshals and generals were not mentioned. In the years following the war (after 1671) the King was often praised as Louis le Grand or Ludovicus Magnus (Ludwig the Great), and on the suggestion of Colbert, the finance minister, even a triumphal arch was to be built in Paris; however, construction was abandoned in 1671.
of 1672–1678.
The consequences of the War of Devolution were manifold. From a purely military perspective, France had gained some advantages, by breaking through the ring of fortresses that surrounded the Spanish Netherlands. This simultaneously increased the French defensive power, as Vauban immediately set about expanding the conquered cities into strong fortifications. These in turn served as starting points from which further French campaigns of conquest could be launched in later wars. It is not possible to determine how high the French and Spanish losses of troops were during the war, or to ascertain civilian losses. Due to the short duration of the conflict, however, they were probably fairly low. For example, it is known that the French army sustained more than 4,000 casualties (dead or wounded) in the siege of Lille alone. The Spanish troops then lost 180 men in fighting in Brussels.
On the political level, the results were less positive for Louis XIV. The King's reputation in the Holy Roman Empire had certainly been damaged, above all due to taking the free imperial city of Besançon. Due to the perceived French expansionist drive, the League of the Rhine dissolved itself already in 1668, and other allies such as the Elector of Brandenburg also abandoned France. This U-turn of many Imperial States was made vivid when, in 1673, at the beginning of the second war of Louis XIV, they declared an imperial war on France.
The most important consequence, however, was the changed attitude of Louis XIV towards the United Provinces. The King mostly blamed them, his former close allies, for the creation of the Triple Alliance, whose pressure had put a halt to his conquests. The French foreign policy of the following years was therefore completely geared towards isolating the United Provinces, in order to attack them at a convenient opportunity. After succeeding in isolating them through alliances with several German princes, England and Sweden, Louis XIV started the Franco-Dutch War in 1672, which was to expand into a pan-European conflict. Many historians see this war as merely a continuation of the War of Devolution.
Louis XIV of France
Louis XIV , known as Louis the Great or the Sun King , was a Bourbon monarch who ruled as King of France and Navarre. His reign, from 1643 to his death in 1715, began at the age of four and lasted seventy-two years, three months, and eighteen days...
's French
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
armies overrun the Habsburg-controlled Spanish Netherlands
Southern Netherlands
Southern Netherlands were a part of the Low Countries controlled by Spain , Austria and annexed by France...
and the Franche-Comté
Franche-Comté
Franche-Comté the former "Free County" of Burgundy, as distinct from the neighbouring Duchy, is an administrative region and a traditional province of eastern France...
, but forced to give most of it back by a Triple Alliance of England
England
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west; the Irish Sea is to the north west, the Celtic Sea to the south west, with the North Sea to the east and the English Channel to the south separating it from continental...
, Sweden
Sweden
Sweden , officially the Kingdom of Sweden , is a Nordic country on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe. Sweden borders with Norway and Finland and is connected to Denmark by a bridge-tunnel across the Öresund....
, and the Dutch Republic
Dutch Republic
The Dutch Republic — officially known as the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands , the Republic of the United Netherlands, or the Republic of the Seven United Provinces — was a republic in Europe existing from 1581 to 1795, preceding the Batavian Republic and ultimately...
in the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle
Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1668)
The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle or Treaty of Aachen was signed on May 2, 1668 in Aachen. It ended the war of Devolution between France and Spain. It was mediated by the Triple Alliance of England, the Dutch Republic and Sweden at the first Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle...
.
Background
Louis's claims to the Spanish Netherlands were tenuous: in 1659, France and Spain had concluded the Treaty of the PyreneesTreaty of the Pyrenees
The Treaty of the Pyrenees was signed to end the 1635 to 1659 war between France and Spain, a war that was initially a part of the wider Thirty Years' War. It was signed on Pheasant Island, a river island on the border between the two countries...
, which ended 24 years of war between the two states. With the Treaty, King Philip IV of Spain
Philip IV of Spain
Philip IV was King of Spain between 1621 and 1665, sovereign of the Spanish Netherlands, and King of Portugal until 1640...
(1605–1665) had to cede certain territories, and also had to consent to the marriage of his daughter Maria Theresa of Spain
Maria Theresa of Spain
Maria Theresa of Austria was the daughter of Philip IV, King of Spain and Elizabeth of France. Maria Theresa was Queen of France as wife of King Louis XIV and mother of the Grand Dauphin, an ancestor of the last four Bourbon kings of France.-Early life:Born as Infanta María Teresa of Spain at the...
(1638–1683) to the young Louis XIV of France
Louis XIV of France
Louis XIV , known as Louis the Great or the Sun King , was a Bourbon monarch who ruled as King of France and Navarre. His reign, from 1643 to his death in 1715, began at the age of four and lasted seventy-two years, three months, and eighteen days...
(1638–1715). Furthermore, it was agreed that with this marriage, Maria Theresa explicitly renounced all rights to her father's inheritance. As compensation, a dowry of 500 000 gold écus was promised to the Bourbon Louis XIV; this was not paid, however.
When Philip IV died on 17 September 1665, the French king immediately laid claim to parts of the Spanish Netherlands: the Duchies of Brabant
Duchy of Brabant
The Duchy of Brabant was a historical region in the Low Countries. Its territory consisted essentially of the three modern-day Belgian provinces of Flemish Brabant, Walloon Brabant and Antwerp, the Brussels-Capital Region and most of the present-day Dutch province of North Brabant.The Flag of...
and Limburg
Duchy of Limburg
The Duchy of Limburg, situated in the Low Countries between the river Meuse and the city of Aachen, was a state of the Holy Roman Empire. Its territory is now divided between the Belgian provinces of Liège and Limburg , the Dutch province of Limburg , and a small part of North Rhine-Westphalia in...
, Cambrai, the marquessate of Antwerpen, the Lordship of Mechelen, Guelders, the counties of Namur, Artois
County of Artois
The County of Artois was an historic province of the Kingdom of France, held by the Dukes of Burgundy from 1384 until 1477/82, and a state of the Holy Roman Empire from 1493 until 1659....
and Hainaut
County of Hainaut
The County of Hainaut was a historical region in the Low Countries with its capital at Mons . In English sources it is often given the archaic spelling Hainault....
, a third of the County of Burgundy and a quarter of the Duchy of Luxembourg. Louis XIV justified this with the fact that the promised dowry had not been paid and that the Queen's renunciation of her inheritance was therefore invalid.
French legal scholars concluded from this and the clause of 'devolution' that the Spanish Netherlands should not go to the still underage heir to the Spanish throne Charles II of Spain
Charles II of Spain
Charles II was the last Habsburg King of Spain and the ruler of large parts of Italy, the Spanish territories in the Southern Low Countries, and Spain's overseas Empire, stretching from the Americas to the Spanish East Indies...
(1661–1700), since he had been born as a result of the second marriage of Philip IV. Maria Theresa on the other hand was a result of his first marriage and was therefore entitled to the inheritance in Brabant
Duchy of Brabant
The Duchy of Brabant was a historical region in the Low Countries. Its territory consisted essentially of the three modern-day Belgian provinces of Flemish Brabant, Walloon Brabant and Antwerp, the Brussels-Capital Region and most of the present-day Dutch province of North Brabant.The Flag of...
, and, through her, Louis XIV. The Queen could not renounce this natural right for her children as well.
Maria Theresa's stepmother, Queen Mariana
Mariana of Austria
Mariana of Austria was Queen consort of Spain as the second wife of King Philip IV, who was also her maternal uncle...
of Spain (1634–1696), who was taking care of government business for her underage son along with her confessor Cardinal Johann Eberhard Neidhardt (1607–1681), rejected these claims, referring to the renunciation by Maria Theresa of all inheritance rights. At this, the French king began preparations for a new campaign against Spain. His able financial minister Colbert
Jean-Baptiste Colbert
Jean-Baptiste Colbert was a French politician who served as the Minister of Finances of France from 1665 to 1683 under the rule of King Louis XIV. His relentless hard work and thrift made him an esteemed minister. He achieved a reputation for his work of improving the state of French manufacturing...
reorganized the army and expanded it from 50,000 to 80,000 men. Spain, on the other hand, was a fragmented nation struggling to cope with major inflation.
Political preparations
The international situation in 1667 was very advantageous for France. Spain had already been at war with Portugal for some years (the Portuguese Restoration WarPortuguese Restoration War
Portuguese Restoration War was the name given by nineteenth-century 'romantic' historians to the war between Portugal and Spain that began with the Portuguese revolution of 1640 and ended with the Treaty of Lisbon . The revolution of 1640 ended the sixty-year period of dual monarchy in Portugal...
), which had brought Spain almost only defeats and which bound up the largest part of the Spanish military potential. France at first supported Portugal covertly, then openly. Thus, the two states formally concluded an alliance on 31 March 1667.
The United Provinces were another ally of France. After France had for a long time supported the Dutch in their war with Spain, both countries entered into a defence alliance in 1662. Louis XIV was anxious to gain the support of the United Provinces for a conquest of the Spanish Netherlands and therefore entered into negotiations. The United Provinces were at this time at war with England (the Second Anglo–Dutch War), and in the States-General there were fears of a rapprochement between England and France, if they did not take up the French offers. The influential Grand Pensionary
Grand Pensionary
The Grand Pensionary was the most important Dutch official during the time of the United Provinces. In theory he was only a civil servant of the Estates of the dominant province among the Seven United Provinces: the county of Holland...
Johan de Witt
Johan de Witt
Johan de Witt, heer van Zuid- en Noord-Linschoten, Snelrewaard, Hekendorp and IJsselveere was a key figure in Dutch politics in the mid 17th century, when its flourishing sea trade in a period of globalization made the United Provinces a leading European power during the Dutch Golden Age...
(1625–1672) suggested that the Spanish Netherlands be mutually divided. Such plans were already being debated from 1663 onwards. But the share that Louis XIV demanded for himself alienated de Witt, and the deal was never concluded. At the same time, the Spanish suggested setting up a combined army if the French invaded. De Witt believed Spanish military power to be weak however, and the French emissary declared candidly that a Dutch alliance with Spain would amount to a declaration of war on France. Although the Franco-Dutch negotiations had not led to tangible results, Louis XIV was convinced of the benevolence of the United Provinces. He promised them that he would mediate in the conflict with England and in the end himself declared war on England, although the French navy was not engaged to a very large extent.
Therefore, the only remaining potential obstacle to French expansion was the Holy Roman Empire
Holy Roman Empire
The Holy Roman Empire was a realm that existed from 962 to 1806 in Central Europe.It was ruled by the Holy Roman Emperor. Its character changed during the Middle Ages and the Early Modern period, when the power of the emperor gradually weakened in favour of the princes...
. As part of the Burgundian Circle
Burgundian Circle
The Burgundian Circle was an Imperial Circle of the Holy Roman Empire created in 1512 and significantly enlarged in 1548. In addition to the Free County of Burgundy , the circle roughly covered the Low Countries, i.e...
, the Spanish Netherlands were subject of a special defence guarantee by the Empire, according to the agreement of Augsburg of 1548 between the Empire and Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor
Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor
Charles V was ruler of the Holy Roman Empire from 1519 and, as Charles I, of the Spanish Empire from 1516 until his voluntary retirement and abdication in favor of his younger brother Ferdinand I and his son Philip II in 1556.As...
(who was also King of Spain). In the event of an attack, the Imperial State
Imperial State
An Imperial State or Imperial Estate was an entity in the Holy Roman Empire with a vote in the Imperial Diet assemblies. Several territories of the Empire were not represented, while some officials were non-voting members; neither qualified as Imperial States.Rulers of Imperial States were...
s of the Reichstag could declare an imperial war on France. The French diplomats however were very intent on eliminating this threat. To this end, they availed themselves of the members of the League of the Rhine. Bilateral treaties were concluded with the Prince-Bishopric of Münster, the Archbishopric of Mainz
Archbishopric of Mainz
The Archbishopric of Mainz or Electorate of Mainz was an influential ecclesiastic and secular prince-bishopric in the Holy Roman Empire between 780–82 and 1802. In the Roman Catholic Church hierarchy, the Archbishop of Mainz was the primas Germaniae, the substitute of the Pope north of the Alps...
, Palatinate-Neuburg
Palatinate-Neuburg
Palatinate-Neuburg is a former territory of the Holy Roman Empire, founded in 1505. Its capital was Neuburg an der Donau. Its area was about 2,750 km², with a population of some 100,000.-History:...
, the Electorate of Brandenburg, the Electorate of Cologne, in which these Imperial States pledged to deny their territories to foreign troops and to push for imperial neutrality in the Reichstag. Thus, the planned French campaign was also protected against intervention of the Empire from the East.
On 8 May 1667 Louis XIV transmitted to the Spanish court a declaration, in which he repeated his demands. This declaration was likewise advertised by the French ambassadors in every court in Europe. They were to present the campaign of the Sun King not as an invasion, but as an entry into lands that already rightfully belonged to him. The King himself called the invasion a "voyage".
War
After the Treaty of the PyreneesTreaty of the Pyrenees
The Treaty of the Pyrenees was signed to end the 1635 to 1659 war between France and Spain, a war that was initially a part of the wider Thirty Years' War. It was signed on Pheasant Island, a river island on the border between the two countries...
the French armed forces had been sharply reduced in order to save costs. In 1665 they numbered only 50,000 men. Louis XIV however authorised preparations through which the number of soldiers grew to 82,000 by the start of the war. In spring 1667 51,000 French soldiers, who had been raised in 4 days, deployed between Mézières
Mézières
Mézières can refer to:People*Jean-Claude Mézières, French comic book artist*Rob De Mezieres, South African writer and director*Nicolas Le Camus de Mézières , French architect and theoretician*Philippe de Mézières Mézières can refer to:People*Jean-Claude Mézières, French comic book artist*Rob De...
and the sea. The main army consisted of 35,000 men personally commanded by Louis XIV. However, the actual commander was Maréchal Turenne
Henri de la Tour d'Auvergne, Vicomte de Turenne
Henri de la Tour d'Auvergne, Vicomte de Turenne,often called simply Turenne was the most illustrious member of the La Tour d'Auvergne family. He achieved military fame and became a Marshal of France...
(1611–1675). To the left of the main army, a further French corps drew up in Artois
Artois
Artois is a former province of northern France. Its territory has an area of around 4000 km² and a population of about one million. Its principal cities are Arras , Saint-Omer, Lens and Béthune.-Location:...
at the coast, under Maréchal Antoine d’Aumont de Rochebaron (1601–1669), whilst another corps under Lieutenant General François de Créquy, marquis de Marines
François de Créquy
François, chevalier de Créquy and marquis de Marines was marshal of France.-Life:He was born in the military Créquy family dating back to the 10th century....
(1624–1687), took over the protection of the main army on the right flank. All three armies were to enter the Spanish territories at the same time, in order to take advantage of the French numerical superiority and not allow the Spanish to concentrate their defence against a single French force.
Campaign in the Spanish Netherlands
On 24 May 1667 French forces crossed the border into the Spanish Netherlands. The latter were badly prepared for war and could not expect reinforcement from the mother country in the foreseeable future. Indeed, the military forces in the Spanish Netherlands were not centrally organised. Every large town had its own area of responsibility and went about the maintenance of its own defence arrangements, which in practice however meant that they were badly prepared for a siege. Their commanders were relatively independent and responsible only to the Statthalter Marquis of Castel Rodrigo (1610–1675), who also commanded the few regular Spanish troops. Apart from this, he only had militias at his disposal, which were however only available in the utmost emergency. Thus the small number of available troops did not permit the establishment of a field army. Therefore, the few available forces were posted in the strongholds of the country, to hold out as long as possible. For this reason, during the whole war, not one large battle was fought; instead, small skirmishes and sieges ensued.On 10 May 1667, Maréchal de Turenne had taken over the supreme command over the French forces. The first objective was the stronghold of Charleroi
Charleroi
Charleroi is a city and a municipality of Wallonia, located in the province of Hainaut, Belgium. , the total population of Charleroi was 201,593. The metropolitan area, including the outer commuter zone, covers an area of and had a total population of 522,522 as of 1 January 2008, ranking it as...
, which, due to its location on the Sambre, dominated the connection between the northern and southern Spanish possessions. The Marquis de Castel-Rodrigo did not have the means to hold this important position, and abandoned the fortress, after destroying all the fortifications. Maréchal de Turenne occupied Charleroi on 2 June and had the fortifications reconstructed by the prominent engineer Vauban
Vauban
Sébastien Le Prestre, Seigneur de Vauban and later Marquis de Vauban , commonly referred to as Vauban, was a Marshal of France and the foremost military engineer of his age, famed for his skill in both designing fortifications and breaking through them...
(1633–1707), in order to advance from there against Mons
Mons
Mons is a Walloon city and municipality located in the Belgian province of Hainaut, of which it is the capital. The Mons municipality includes the old communes of Cuesmes, Flénu, Ghlin, Hyon, Nimy, Obourg, Baudour , Jemappes, Ciply, Harmignies, Harveng, Havré, Maisières, Mesvin, Nouvelles,...
or Namur
Namur (city)
Namur is a city and municipality in Wallonia, in southern Belgium. It is both the capital of the province of Namur and of Wallonia....
. To this end, the whole main army encamped for 15 days around Charleroi.
The Spanish strengthened the fortresses of Mons and Namur. However, Turenne bypassed Mons and took Ath
Ath
Ath is a Belgian municipality located in the Walloon province of Hainaut. The Ath municipality includes the old communes of Lanquesaint, Irchonwelz, Ormeignies, Bouvignies, Ostiches, Rebaix, Maffle, Arbre, Houtaing, Ligne, Mainvault, Moulbaix, Villers-Notre-Dame, Villers-Saint-Amand, Ghislenghien...
on 16 June, which the Spanish troops left without putting up resistance, surprised by the unexpected French advance. The French extended the fortifications of this town as well.
Maréchal de Turenne's objective was now to cut off all of Flanders, along with the capital city of Lille
Lille
Lille is a city in northern France . It is the principal city of the Lille Métropole, the fourth-largest metropolitan area in the country behind those of Paris, Lyon and Marseille. Lille is situated on the Deûle River, near France's border with Belgium...
, from the large Spanish bases in the East (Bruges
Bruges
Bruges is the capital and largest city of the province of West Flanders in the Flemish Region of Belgium. It is located in the northwest of the country....
, Ghent
Ghent
Ghent is a city and a municipality located in the Flemish region of Belgium. It is the capital and biggest city of the East Flanders province. The city started as a settlement at the confluence of the Rivers Scheldt and Lys and in the Middle Ages became one of the largest and richest cities of...
, Brussels
Brussels
Brussels , officially the Brussels Region or Brussels-Capital Region , is the capital of Belgium and the de facto capital of the European Union...
, Namur). Therefore, he next turned to Tournai
Tournai
Tournai is a Walloon city and municipality of Belgium located 85 kilometres southwest of Brussels, on the river Scheldt, in the province of Hainaut....
. On 21 June the main army reached the stronghold and surrounded it. It surrendered a few days later, and the French entered it on 25 June.
After this, the main army marched westwards along the Scheldt and there successfully besieged Douai
Douai
-Main sights:Douai's ornate Gothic style belfry was begun in 1380, on the site of an earlier tower. The 80 m high structure includes an impressive carillon, consisting of 62 bells spanning 5 octaves. The originals, some dating from 1391 were removed in 1917 during World War I by the occupying...
from 1–7 July. Meanwhile, further to the North the corps of the Maréchal d’Aumont de Rochebaron had also successfully advanced and, in taking the fortresses of Bergues
Bergues
Bergues is a commune in the Nord department in northern France.It is situated to the south of Dunkirk and from the Belgian border. Locally it is referred to as "the other Bruges in Flanders"...
(6 June) and Furnes
Furnes
Furnes is a village in the Ringsaker municipality of Hedmark County , Norway.-History:Furnes is situated between Hamar and Brumunddal. Furnes was also a former municipality in Hedmark county. Furnes was separated from Vang in 1891. It was merged with Ringsaker January 1, 1964.Furnes's own parish...
(12 June), had cut Flanders off from the sea. After this, Maréchal de Turenne had ordered this corps to attack Courtrai. This city was conquered on 18 July, and shortly after, the Spanish force in Oudenaarde
Oudenaarde
Oudenaarde is a Belgian municipality in the Flemish province of East Flanders. The municipality comprises the city of Oudenaarde proper and the towns of Bevere, Edelare, Eine, Ename, Heurne, Leupegem, Mater, Melden, Mullem, Nederename, Welden, Volkegem and a part of Ooike.From the 15th to the 18th...
also surrendered to d'Aumont's troops (29–31 July).
Through the French advances, Maréchal de Turenne had isolated the most important Spanish fortresses of Ypres
Ypres
Ypres is a Belgian municipality located in the Flemish province of West Flanders. The municipality comprises the city of Ypres and the villages of Boezinge, Brielen, Dikkebus, Elverdinge, Hollebeke, Sint-Jan, Vlamertinge, Voormezele, Zillebeke, and Zuidschote...
, Lille and Mons. However, instead of immediately besieging these locations, he decided to first move against Antwerp, in order to capitalise on the weakness of the Spanish forces. This move however failed at Dendermonde
Dendermonde
Dendermonde is a Belgian city and municipality located in the Flemish province of East Flanders in the Denderstreek. The municipality comprises the city of Dendermonde proper and the towns of Appels, Baasrode, Grembergen, Mespelare, Oudegem, Schoonaarde, and Sint-Gillis-bij-Dendermonde...
, between Ghent and Brussels. The small stronghold of Dendermonde, defended by 2500 Spanish, held out against the French army. Maréchal de Turenne therefore pulled back at the beginning of August via Oudenaarde and prepared to besiege Lille.
This siege was the greatest undertaking of the entire campaign and lasted from the 10th to the 28th August, when the Spanish garrison capitulated in return for being allowed to freely withdraw. As the Marquis de Castel-Rodrigo had not yet been informed of the fall of the city, he sent another army of 12,000 men under the Marquis de Marchin
John Gaspar Ferdinand de Marchin, Comte de Granville
John Gaspar Ferdinand de Marchin, or Marsin, Comte de Granville was a Walloon military commander from the Spanish Netherlands.-Life:...
, to relieve Lille. On 31 August this army came upon the corps of the French Marquis de Créquy, which Maréchal de Turenne had meanwhile drawn up to cover the siege. This battle was decided in favour of the French, and the troops of the Marquis de Marchin (1601–1673) had to withdraw.
After the taking of Lille, Maréchal de Turenne only undertook one further manoeuver. On 12 September he conquered the stronghold of Aalst
Aalst
Aalst can refer to:Place names* Aalst, Belgium, a city and municipality in Belgium* Aalst, Buren, a village in the Netherlands, in the province of Gelderland* Aalst, North Brabant, a village in the Netherlands, in the province of North-Brabant...
, thus breaking the connection lines between Ghent and Brussels. After this, the French troops limited themselves to a loose blockade of Ypres and Mons, and on 13 October turned in to their winter quarters.
In Spain, preparations to dispatch a military force to Flanders had already begun in June. The government of the Regent raised more than one million peso
Peso
The word peso was the name of a coin that originated in Spain and became of immense importance internationally...
s and appointed Juan José de Austria (1629–1679) as commander of the intended army. His reputation as a general was already tarnished after a number of defeats in the war against Portugal, and as he assessed the conditions in the Spanish Netherlands pessimistically, he delayed the departure for weeks and months. His pretext for this was the decision of a theological commission, that had declared itself against an alliance with the Protestant countries, England and the Netherlands. In the end, further complications of domestic politics meant that the Spanish army never arrived in Flanders.
Diplomatic turnaround
Operations were suspended in winter, and in this time, decisive shifts occurred in European politics. Spain attempted to put itself in a more advantageous position. First, the Spanish government asked the United Provinces for help. Above all, the Marquis de Castel-Rodrigo asked for financial support (2 million guilders); in return, he offered to hand over the customs revenue of the trade on the Maas and the Scheldt to the United Provinces. The relinquishment of Bruges, Ostend and Damme was also discussed. De Witt, however, did not want to risk a direct confrontation with France and did not take up this offer of an alliance.Furthermore, Spain entered into negotiations with the Portuguese court and on 13 February 1668 agreed the Peace of Lisbon. Spain would therefore be able to use all its armed forces against France from the coming spring.
To at least keep Emperor Leopold I out of the conflict, French diplomats entered secret negotiations with the court at Vienna. They offered the Emperor the partition of the Spanish Empire. King Charles II of Spain was a six-year-old child, whom no-one expected to live long, due to numerous physical and mental disablements. With him, the Spanish line of the Habsburgs would die out. The Emperor took up the offer. He was to receive Spain itself, along with its colonies and the Duchy of Milan
Duchy of Milan
The Duchy of Milan , was created on the 1st of may 1395, when Gian Galeazzo Visconti, Lord of Milan, purchased a diploma for 100,000 Florins from King Wenceslaus. It was this diploma that installed, Gian Galeazzo as Duke of Milan and Count of Pavia...
. France, for its part, claimed the Spanish Netherlands, Franche-Comté, Navarre and the Kingdom of Naples and Sicily. The secret treaty of partition was agreed on 19 January 1668. The Emperor thus no longer had any reason to go to war with France, as it only occupied territories that the Emperor had agreed it should have. The treaty was however not ratified by the Emperor in the following years, so as not to worsen relations with Spain any further.
The rapid progress of the French had however greatly alarmed the United Provinces. Though they too were basically enemies of the Spanish monarchy, at the same time, "inactive and tired Spain was a better neighbour for them than powerful and aggressive France." They were desperate to maintain the Spanish Netherlands as a buffer state. The Netherlands therefore hurriedly ended their war with England, and despite the very successful conduct of the war, signed the Treaty of Breda on 31 July 1667. After this, they offered to mediate in the war between France and Spain. Louis XIV however rejected this in September and continued to try to persuade the Dutch to divide up the Spanish Netherlands with the French. These attempts were a failure, and Louis XIV played with the idea of a war against the Dutch.
Now attempts were made by the Dutch to set up a coalition against France, in order to set a limit to the French expansion. It was not de Witt's intention to damage their good relations with France in doing so, however. Charles II of England
Charles II of England
Charles II was monarch of the three kingdoms of England, Scotland, and Ireland.Charles II's father, King Charles I, was executed at Whitehall on 30 January 1649, at the climax of the English Civil War...
had, after the Treaty of Breda, started secretly negotiating an alliance with France, which would be hostile to the United Provinces. But at the same time, he started negotiations with the United Provinces over a common alliance against France. In the former case, French subsidies would make him independent of the English Parliament; in the latter case, his gain would be to have broken the Franco-Dutch alliance. Whilst Louis XIV rejected the English offer, De Witt was receptive. On 23 January 1668, the United Provinces and England concluded an alliance, whose declared aim was to bring about the Spanish relinquishment of certain territories and to persuade France to limit its claims. A secret added protocol, however, also provided that, if the French king extended his claims or were to continue his campaign of conquest, the alliance would use force to push France back to the borders of 1659. The Kingdom of Sweden also joined this alliance, to obtain urgently needed subsidies by these means. At the same time, De Witt assured the French diplomats that this alliance was not aimed against France, but had the purpose of making Spain relinquish the specified territories.
Campaign in the Franche-Comté
With a new campaign, Louis XIV planned to conquer as many Spanish territories as possible, so as to use these as bargaining counters at any peace negotiations. To this end, he planned to take the Spanish Franche-ComtéFranche-Comté
Franche-Comté the former "Free County" of Burgundy, as distinct from the neighbouring Duchy, is an administrative region and a traditional province of eastern France...
. This was isolated, and practically devoid of Spanish troops, for several reasons: France had respected the territory's neutrality in the last war against Spain; furthermore, the Spanish generals did not expect an attack by the French in the middle of winter.
Louis XIV instructed the Prince de Condé
Louis II de Bourbon, Prince de Condé
Louis de Bourbon, Prince of Condé was a French general and the most famous representative of the Condé branch of the House of Bourbon. Prior to his father's death in 1646, he was styled the Duc d'Enghien...
(1621–1686) to undertake preparations for a winter campaign against the Franche-Comté. Condé had fallen into disgrace as a former opponent of the King during the Fronde
Fronde
The Fronde was a civil war in France, occurring in the midst of the Franco-Spanish War, which had begun in 1635. The word fronde means sling, which Parisian mobs used to smash the windows of supporters of Cardinal Mazarin....
and was entrusted with a military command in 1668 for the first time in 9 years. As the Governor of Burgundy, Condé was in the best position to prepare an attack against the County. To this end, a second army of newly-raised troops was set up. Louis XIV once again personally accompanied the campaign. The King left Saint-Germain on 2 February 1668, in order to join up with the main army. It was at this point that he received news of the formation of the Triple Alliance; he was also informed by a spy that its members would be prepared to declare war on France.
Despite this, he persisted with the campaign, as he hoped to conquer territories that would be a suitable bargaining counter in later negotiations. General de Condé had started the invasion on 4 February, and on 7 February took Besançon
Free City of Besançon
The City of Besançon was a self governing city surrounded by Franche-Comté.After losing its status as a free imperial city within the Holy Roman Empire in 1654 the City of Besançon refused to recognise the sovereignty of its protector, whether the king of France or Spain, until Louis XIV dissolved...
, which also lay in Franche-Comté. On the same day a further French corps under General François-Henri de Montmorency, duc de Luxembourg (1628–1695) managed to take Salin. Both strongholds put up practically no resistance.
After this, the French army concentrated on taking the town of Dole
Dole, Jura
Dole is a commune in the Jura department in the Franche-Comté region in eastern France, of which it is a subprefecture ....
. This town did not surrender until 14 February after a short siege of four days, in which 400-500 French soldiers lost their lives. Five days later, on 19 February, the stronghold of Gray
Gray, Haute-Saône
Gray is a commune in the Haute-Saône department in the region of Franche-Comté in eastern France. It has a population of 6,175 inhabitants .-Geography:Gray is situated on the banks of the Saône River...
also fell to the French. Shortly before, the Spanish Marquis de Yenne had surrendered to the French king, and now persuaded the Governor of Gray to capitulate. Louis XIV returned to Saint-Germain, arriving on 24 February 1668. After only 17 days, the whole County was occupied. The causes behind this quick success were surprise, and the fact that the Spanish were badly prepared. Furthermore, the local population tended to sympathise with the French, and mostly welcomed them.
Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle
The conquest of the France-Comté was initially only supposed to be the prelude to a broad campaign in the spring. The army's size had been increased to 134,000 soldiers. The plan was that the King and the Maréchal de Turenne would conquer the remaining part of the Spanish Netherlands with 60,000 men. At the head of a force of 10,000 men, the brother of the King, Philippe I, Duke of OrléansPhilippe I, Duke of Orléans
Philippe of France was the youngest son of Louis XIII of France and his queen consort Anne of Austria. His older brother was the famous Louis XIV, le roi soleil. Styled Duke of Anjou from birth, Philippe became Duke of Orléans upon the death of his uncle Gaston, Duke of Orléans...
(1640–1701), was to advance into Catalonia, whilst the Prince de Condé, with 22,000 men, would defend against any potential offensive by the Holy Roman Empire in the dioceses of Metz, Toul and Verdun.
But after Louis XIV had secured the Franche-Comté as a bargaining counter, the immediate question was whether he should bow to the demands of the triple alliance, or whether he should continue the war. The Marquis de Louvois
François-Michel le Tellier, Marquis de Louvois
François Michel Le Tellier, Marquis de Louvois was the French Secretary of State for War for a significant part of the reign of Louis XIV. Louvois and his father, Michel le Tellier, would increase the French Army to 400,000 soldiers, an army that would fight four wars between 1667 and 1713...
, the Secretary of State for War
Secretary of State for War (France)
The Secretary of State for War was one of the four or five specialized secretaries of state in France during the Ancien Régime. The position was responsible for the Army and for overseeing French border provinces...
, as well as Turenne and Condé were in favour of continuing the war, as the situation seemed advantageous, since the Spanish were significantly weakened. On the other hand, the foreign minister, Hugues de Lionne
Hugues de Lionne
Hugues de Lionne was a French statesman.He was born in Grenoble, of an old family of Dauphiné. Early trained for diplomacy, he fell into disgrace under Cardinal Richelieu, but his remarkable abilities attracted the notice of Cardinal Mazarin, who sent him as secretary of the French embassy to the...
(1611–1671), and the finance minister, Jean-Baptiste Colbert
Jean-Baptiste Colbert
Jean-Baptiste Colbert was a French politician who served as the Minister of Finances of France from 1665 to 1683 under the rule of King Louis XIV. His relentless hard work and thrift made him an esteemed minister. He achieved a reputation for his work of improving the state of French manufacturing...
(1619–1683), both would have preferred to see a peace treaty signed quickly, as the costs of continuing the war were incalculable (so far it had cost most than 18 million livres), and the international conditions did not make a victory seem likely. This was especially the case since Spain had in the meantime (13 February 1668) signed the Treaty of Lisbon with Portugal and could now concentrate on the war with France.
Louis XIV was forced to realize that France was no match for the coalition of Spain, the Netherlands, England, and Sweden, and therefore announced a cease-fire until the end of March 1668 and started negotiations. In April, the parties involved met in Saint-Germain and negotiated a peace treaty by the 13th. From the 25th April onwards, a congress met, chaired by the nuntius of Pope Clement IX, in Aachen
Aachen
Aachen has historically been a spa town in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. Aachen was a favoured residence of Charlemagne, and the place of coronation of the Kings of Germany. Geographically, Aachen is the westernmost town of Germany, located along its borders with Belgium and the Netherlands, ...
, where the treaty was finally signed on 2 May 1668 (see Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1668)
Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1668)
The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle or Treaty of Aachen was signed on May 2, 1668 in Aachen. It ended the war of Devolution between France and Spain. It was mediated by the Triple Alliance of England, the Dutch Republic and Sweden at the first Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle...
).
During these negotiations, the Triple Alliance managed to enforce their demands: France abandoned the Franche-Comté, including the free imperial city of Besançon, but first destroyed all fortifications of the cities of Gray and Dole. French troops also had to withdraw from the Spanish Netherlands. A total of 12 conquered cities would remain in the hands of the French king: Lille, Tournai, Oudenarde, Courtrai, Furnes, Bergues, Douai with la Scarpe, Binche, Charleroi, Ath and Armentiers.
Image of the "Sun King"
For the young French king, the war against Spain was an opportunity to secure a great reputation for himself. As was customary, he personally commanded the army, at least nominally, and accompanied it on campaigns. He reached the main army on 3 June 1667 near Charleroi and left it again on 2 September 1667. From 2–24 February 1668 he was once again in the field with the army of Prince Condé in the Franche-Comté. Although Louis took part in the council of war, it was in fact experienced generals who decided matters on the battlefield. The King drew some attention to himself, however, by constantly putting himself in personal danger; during sieges, for example, he visited the trenches at the front line, and spent many nights in bivouac shelterBivouac shelter
A bivouac traditionally refers to a military encampment made with tents or improvised shelters, usually without shelter or protection from enemy fire or such a site where a camp may be built. It is also commonly used to describe a variety of improvised camp sites such as those used in scouting and...
s. This did not, however, come close to the "heroism" of some of his predecessors; Voltaire unfavourably compared his actions with those of Francis I
Francis I of France
Francis I was King of France from 1515 until his death. During his reign, huge cultural changes took place in France and he has been called France's original Renaissance monarch...
and Henry IV
Henry IV of France
Henry IV , Henri-Quatre, was King of France from 1589 to 1610 and King of Navarre from 1572 to 1610. He was the first monarch of the Bourbon branch of the Capetian dynasty in France....
.
During this period the King did, however, travel with his entire royal household and all the luxuries that he was accustomed to and would not dispense with even in wartime. This alone required a huge logistical effort. Louis XIV was accompanied by, amongst others, the Queen, his two mistresses, (Louise de La Vallière and Madame de Montespan
Françoise-Athénaïs, marquise de Montespan
Françoise Athénaïs de Rochechouart de Mortemart, marquise of Montespan , better known as Madame de Montespan, was the most celebrated maîtresse en titre of King Louis XIV of France, by whom she had seven children....
), as well as all his ministers and generals who were not involved in the war. The latter in particular tended to scheme against the marshals in command, especially against the Maréchal de Turenne, which impaired his ability to lead.
The two leading court painters, Adam Frans van der Meulen and Charles Le Brun
Charles Le Brun
Charles Le Brun , a French painter and art theorist, became the all-powerful, peerless master of 17th-century French art.-Biography:-Early life and training:...
, were also amongst the King's retinue; they were instructed to record the Sun King's deeds, as were various other artists. Thus numerous paintings and Gobelin tapestries were created, as well as medals and poems. After peace was declared, a great victory celebration took place in Versailles; various important figures of the time participated in arranging this, including Molière, Jean-Baptiste Lully, Louis Le Vau and Carlo Vigarani. At all these events and in every representation, the King was constantly portrayed as having personally been in sole command; the numerous marshals and generals were not mentioned. In the years following the war (after 1671) the King was often praised as Louis le Grand or Ludovicus Magnus (Ludwig the Great), and on the suggestion of Colbert, the finance minister, even a triumphal arch was to be built in Paris; however, construction was abandoned in 1671.
Aftermath
France gained some territory in Flanders, but nearly all of the Spanish Netherlands, as well as the Franche-Comté, was returned to Spain. Inwardly, Louis XIV was seething. He had hoped to take the entirety of the Spanish Netherlands and felt betrayed by the Dutch, who, to French eyes, were only independent due to French assistance in the Eighty Years' War. The War of Devolution thus led directly to the Franco-Dutch WarFranco-Dutch War
The Franco-Dutch War, often called simply the Dutch War was a war fought by France, Sweden, the Bishopric of Münster, the Archbishopric of Cologne and England against the United Netherlands, which were later joined by the Austrian Habsburg lands, Brandenburg and Spain to form a quadruple alliance...
of 1672–1678.
The consequences of the War of Devolution were manifold. From a purely military perspective, France had gained some advantages, by breaking through the ring of fortresses that surrounded the Spanish Netherlands. This simultaneously increased the French defensive power, as Vauban immediately set about expanding the conquered cities into strong fortifications. These in turn served as starting points from which further French campaigns of conquest could be launched in later wars. It is not possible to determine how high the French and Spanish losses of troops were during the war, or to ascertain civilian losses. Due to the short duration of the conflict, however, they were probably fairly low. For example, it is known that the French army sustained more than 4,000 casualties (dead or wounded) in the siege of Lille alone. The Spanish troops then lost 180 men in fighting in Brussels.
On the political level, the results were less positive for Louis XIV. The King's reputation in the Holy Roman Empire had certainly been damaged, above all due to taking the free imperial city of Besançon. Due to the perceived French expansionist drive, the League of the Rhine dissolved itself already in 1668, and other allies such as the Elector of Brandenburg also abandoned France. This U-turn of many Imperial States was made vivid when, in 1673, at the beginning of the second war of Louis XIV, they declared an imperial war on France.
The most important consequence, however, was the changed attitude of Louis XIV towards the United Provinces. The King mostly blamed them, his former close allies, for the creation of the Triple Alliance, whose pressure had put a halt to his conquests. The French foreign policy of the following years was therefore completely geared towards isolating the United Provinces, in order to attack them at a convenient opportunity. After succeeding in isolating them through alliances with several German princes, England and Sweden, Louis XIV started the Franco-Dutch War in 1672, which was to expand into a pan-European conflict. Many historians see this war as merely a continuation of the War of Devolution.