Viola is a
genusIn biology, a genus is a taxonomic unit used in the classification of living and fossil organisms. The term comes from Latin genus "descent, family, type, gender" , cognate with – genos, "race, stock, kin" ..In addition, genus is a taxonomic rank in the hierarchy In biology, a genus (plural:...
of
flowering plantThe flowering plants or angiosperms are the most diverse group of land plants. The flowering plants and the gymnosperms are the only extant groups of seed plants...
s in the violet family
ViolaceaeViolaceae is a family of flowering plants consisting of about 800 species in 21 genera...
, with around 400–500 species distributed around the world. Most species are found in the temperate
Northern HemisphereThe Northern Hemisphere is the half of a planet that is north of the equator—the word hemisphere literally means 'half sphere'. It is also that half of the celestial sphere north of the celestial equator...
, however viola species (commonly called
violets,
pansies or
heartsease) are also found in widely divergent areas such as
HawaiiHawaii is the newest of the 50 U.S. states, and is the only state made up entirely of islands. It is located on an archipelago in the central Pacific Ocean, southwest of the continental United States, southeast of Japan, and northeast of Australia. The state was admitted to the Union on August...
,
AustralasiaAustralasia is a region of Oceania: Australia, New Zealand, the island of New Guinea, and neighbouring islands in the Pacific Ocean. The term was coined by Charles de Brosses in Histoire des navigations aux terres australes . He derived it from the Latin for "south of Asia" and differentiated the...
, and the
AndesThe Andes are the world's longest exposed mountain range. They lie as a continuous chain of highland along the western coast of South America...
in
South AmericaSouth America is the southern continent of the Americas, situated entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a relatively small portion in the Northern Hemisphere...
.
Most
Viola species are tiny
perennial plantA perennial plant or perennial is a plant that lives for more than two years. When used by gardeners or horticulturalists, this term applies specifically to perennial herbaceous plants...
s, some are
annual plantAn annual plant is a plant that usually germinates, flowers, and dies in a year or season. True annuals will only live longer than a year if they are prevented from setting seed...
s, and a few are small
shrubA shrub or bush is a horticultural rather than strictly botanical category of woody plant, distinguished from a tree by its multiple stems and lower height, usually less than 5-6 m tall. A large number of plants can be either shrubs or trees, depending on the growing conditions they experience...
s. A number of species are grown for their ornamental flowers in borders and rock gardens; the garden
pansyThe pansy or pansy violets are a large group of hybrid plants cultivated as garden flowers. Pansies are derived from Viola species Viola tricolor hybridized with other viola species, these hybrids are referred to as Viola × wittrockiana or less commonly Viola tricolor hortensis...
in particular is an extensively used spring and autumn/winter bedding and pot plant.
Viola and
violetta are terms used by gardeners and generally in
horticultureHorticulture is the industry and science of plant cultivation. Some would say that horticulture is the process of preparing soil for the planting of seeds, tubers, or cuttings. Horticulturists work and conduct research in the disciplines of plant propagation and cultivation, crop production, plant...
for neat, small-flowered hybrid plants intermediate in size between pansies and violets.
(Viola is . This should not be confused with the
violaThe viola is a bowed string instrument. It is the middle voice of the violin family, between the violin and the cello.The casual observer may mistake the viola for the violin because of their similarity in size, closeness in pitch range , and nearly identical playing position...
, a musical instrument of the
violinThe violin is a bowed string instrument with four strings usually tuned in perfect fifths. It is the smallest and highest-pitched member of the violin family of string instruments, which also includes the viola and cello....
family, which is .)
Description
Viola species typically have heart-shaped, scalloped
leavesIn botany, a leaf is an above-ground plant organ specialized for photosynthesis. For this purpose, a leaf is typically flat and thin. There is continued debate about whether the flatness of leaves evolved to expose the chloroplasts to more light or to increase the absorption of carbon dioxide. In...
, though a number have palmate leaves or other shapes. The vast majority of
Viola species are herbaceous, and a substantial number are acaulescent in habit - meaning they lack any noticeable stems and the foliage and flowers appear to rise from the ground; the remaining species have short stems with foliage and flowers produced in the axils of the leaves. The simple leaves of plants with either habit are arranged alternately; the acaulescent species produce basal rosettes. Plants always have leaves with stipules that are often leaf-like.
The
flowerA flower, sometimes known as a bloom or blossom, is the reproductive structure found in flowering plants . The biological function of a flower is to mediate the union of male sperm with female ovum in order to produce seeds...
s of the vast majority of the species are zygomorphic with bilateral symmetry. The flowers are formed from five petals; four are upswept or fan-shaped petals with two per side, and there is one broad, lobed lower petal pointing downward. The shape of the petals and placement defines many species, for example, some
Viola species have a "spur" on the end of each petal while most have a spur on the lower petal.
Solitary flowers end long stalks with a pair of bracteoles. The flowers have 5 sepals that persistent after blooming, and in some species the sepals enlarge after blooming. The flowers have five free stamens with short filaments that are oppressed against the ovary, only the lower two stamens have nectary spurs that are inserted on the lowest petal into the spur or a pouch. The flower styles are thickened near the top and the stigmas are head-like, narrowed or often beaked. The flowers have a superior ovary with one cell, which has three placentae, containing many ovules.
After flowering, fruit capsules are produced that split open by way of three valves.
Viola flowers are most often spring blooming with chasmogamous flowers with well developed petals pollinated by insects. Many species also produce self-pollinated cleistogamous flowers in summer and autumn that do not open and lack petals. The nutlike seeds have straight embryos, flat cotyledons, and soft fleshy endosperm that is oily. The seeds are often spread by ants.
Flower colours vary in the genus, ranging from
violetAs the name of a color, violet is used in two senses: first, referring to the color of light at the short-wavelength end of the visible spectrum, approximately 380–420 nm when indigo is recognized as a distinct color, or more commonly 380–450 nm...
, as their common name suggests, through various shades of blue, yellow, white, and cream, whilst some types are bicolored, often blue and yellow. Many cultivars and hybrids have been
bredPlant breeding is the art and science of changing the genetics of plants for the benefit of humankind. Plant breeding can be accomplished through many different techniques ranging from simply selecting plants with desirable characteristics for propagation, to more complex molecular techniques...
in a greater spectrum of colours. Flowering is often profuse, and may last for much of the spring and summer.
One quirk of some viola is the elusive scent of their flowers; along with
terpeneTerpenes are a large and varied class of hydrocarbons, produced primarily by a wide variety of plants, particularly conifers, though also by some insects such as termites or swallowtail butterflies, which emit terpenes from their osmeterium....
s, a major component of the scent is a
ketoneIn organic chemistry, a ketone is a type of compound that features a carbonyl group bonded to two other carbon atoms, i.e., R3CCO-CR3 where R can be a variety of atoms and groups of atoms...
compound called
iononeThe ionones are a series of closely related chemical substances that are part of a group of compounds known as rose ketones, which also includes damascones and damascenones. Ionones are aroma compounds found in a variety of essential oils, including rose oil...
, which temporarily desensitises the
receptorsAn olfactory receptor neuron, also called an olfactory sensory neuron, is the primary transduction cell in the olfactory system.-In vertebrates:...
of the nose, thus preventing any further scent being detected from the flower until the nerves recover.
Selected species
See
List of Viola species for a more complete list.
- Viola arvensis
Viola arvensis is a species of the genus Viola. It is also called Field pansy. Also called Heartsease, possibly due to the odor of Wintergreen when the roots are crushed. This plant is native to Europe, but is found in old fields and waste ground in the eastern United States...
- field pansy
- Viola banksii
The well-known Native Violet is sold and grown throughout garden nurseries and grown and loved in gardens around Australia, especially in the east. For many years it was known as Viola hederacea, however the species complex was revised in 2004 by Kevin Thiele...
- (Australian) native violet
- Viola biflora
Viola biflora is a species of the genus Viola. It is also called twoflower violet. It is found in Europe, Siberia, Central Asia, Pakistan, Western & Northern China, North Korea, Japan, and Western North America....
- yellow wood violet or twoflower violet
- Viola canina
Viola canina is a species of the genus Viola, native to Europe, where it is found in heaths, fens, and moist woodlands, especially on acidic soils....
- heath dog violet
- Viola cheiranthifolia
Viola cheiranthifolia is a species of the genus Viola. It is also known as the Teide Violet.This plant is exclusively found in the dry and stony caldera of the volcano Teide on the Canary Island of Tenerife. It survives there in altitudes of 2000-3000m.It reaches heights of 6 to 7 inches....
- Teide violet
- Viola hederacea
Viola hederacea is a species of violet which is native to Australia. It is common and widespread in Victoria and Tasmania, along the Great Dividing Range in New South Wales north at least to the Barrington Tops area, in the far south-east of South Australia, and in a small area of the Adelaide...
- (Australian) native violet
- Viola hirta
Viola hirta is a species of the plant genus Viola. It is also called Hairy violet....
- hairy violet
- Viola odorata - sweet violet
- Viola pedunculata - yellow pansy
- Viola pubescens
Viola pubescens, often called Downy yellow violet, is a plants species of the genus Viola. It is found in dry mixed and deciduous woodland areas of the United States and Canada; from Minnesota and Ontario to Nova Scotia, South to Virginia...
- downy yellow violet
- Viola riviniana
Common Dog-violet is a species of the genus Viola. It is also called wood violet or dog violet. It is a perennial herb of woodland rides, grassland and shady hedge banks. It is found in all soils except acid or very wet....
- common dog violet
- Viola rostrata
Viola rostrata, is a stemmed herbaceous perennial plant that is native to eastern North America. It is known by a number of common names including long-spurred violet.-General description:...
- long-spurred violet
- Viola sororia
Viola sororia, also known as the Common Blue Violet, is a stemless herbaceous perennial plant that is native to eastern North America...
- common blue violet or hooded violet
- Viola stagnina - fen violet
- Viola tricolor - wild pansy or heartsease
Note: Neither
SaintpauliaSaintpaulia, commonly known as African violet, is a genus of 6 species of herbaceous perennial flowering plants in the family Gesneriaceae, native to Tanzania and adjacent southeastern Kenya in eastern tropical Africa, with a concentration of species in the Nguru mountains of Tanzania...
("African violets") nor
Erythronium dens-canisErythronium dens-canis is a small herbaceous flowering plant in the Liliaceae, native to Europe, where it is the only naturally occurring species....
("dogtooth violets") are related to the true
Viola.
The genus includes
dog violetDog violet is the common name for various species of the plant genus Viola with unscented flowers. The term arose to differentiate them from the scented sweet violet. Species so named include:*Viola canina - heath dog violet...
s, a group of scentless species which are the most common viola in many areas,
sweet violetViola odorata is a species of the genus Viola native to Europe and Asia, but has also been introduced to North America and Australasia. It is commonly known as Sweet Violet, English Violet, Common Violet, or Garden Violet...
Viola odorata (named from its sweet scent), and many other species whose common name includes the word "violet". Several species are known as pansies, including the
yellow pansyThe Yellow Pansy is a common and attractive wildflower of coastal regions of California and Baja California. It is also known as the California Golden Violet, or as the Johnny Jump Up, though the latter name is more usually associated with the introduced Heartsease, Viola tricolor.The Yellow...
of the Pacific coasts.
Common blue violet
Viola sororiaViola sororia, also known as the Common Blue Violet, is a stemless herbaceous perennial plant that is native to eastern North America...
is the
state flower of
WisconsinWisconsin is one of the fifty U.S. states. Located in the north-central United States, Wisconsin is considered part of the Midwest. It is bordered by Minnesota to the west, Iowa to the southwest, Illinois to the south, Lake Michigan to the east, Michigan to the northeast, and Lake Superior to the...
,
Rhode IslandRhode Island and Providence Plantations, more commonly referred to as Rhode Island , is a state in the New England region of the United States. It is the smallest U.S. state by area...
,
IllinoisIllinois , the 21st state admitted to the United States of America, is the most populous and demographically diverse Midwestern state and the fifth most populous state in the nation...
, and
New JerseyNew Jersey is a state in the Mid-Atlantic region of the United States. It is bordered on the north by New York, and to the east by the Hudson River, Upper New York Bay, the Kill Van Kull, Newark Bay, the Arthur Kill, Raritan Bay, Sandy Hook Bay, Westchester County, New York City, Long Island, and...
.
Australia is home to a number of
Viola species, including
Viola hederaceaViola hederacea is a species of violet which is native to Australia. It is common and widespread in Victoria and Tasmania, along the Great Dividing Range in New South Wales north at least to the Barrington Tops area, in the far south-east of South Australia, and in a small area of the Adelaide...
,
Viola betonicifoliaViola betonicifolia, commonly known as the Arrowhead Violet, Showy Violet or Mountain Violet, is a small perennial herbaceous shrub of the Viola, which contains pansies and violets. It occurs from India and Pakistan in southern Asia throughout eastern Australia and Tasmania...
and
Viola banksiiThe well-known Native Violet is sold and grown throughout garden nurseries and grown and loved in gardens around Australia, especially in the east. For many years it was known as Viola hederacea, however the species complex was revised in 2004 by Kevin Thiele...
, first collected by
Joseph BanksSir Joseph Banks, 1st Baronet, GCB, PRS was a British naturalist, botanist and patron of the natural sciences. He took part in Captain James Cook's first great voyage . Banks is credited with the introduction to the Western world of eucalyptus, acacia, mimosa, and the genus named after him, Banksia...
and
Daniel SolanderDaniel Carlsson Solander or Daniel Charles Solander was a Swedish botanist.Solander was born in Piteå, Norrland, Sweden and was the son of a Lutheran principal. He enrolled at Uppsala University in July 1750 and studied languages and the humanities...
on the
CookCaptain James Cook, FRS RN , was a British explorer, navigator and cartographer, ultimately rising to the rank of Captain in the Royal Navy...
voyage to
Botany BayBotany Bay is a bay in Sydney, New South Wales, a few kilometres south of the Sydney central business district. The Cooks River and the Georges River are the two major tributaries that flow into the bay...
.
The modern
garden pansyThe pansy or pansy violets are a large group of hybrid plants cultivated as garden flowers. Pansies are derived from Viola species Viola tricolor hybridized with other viola species, these hybrids are referred to as Viola × wittrockiana or less commonly Viola tricolor hortensis...
(
V. × wittrockiana) is a plant of complex hybrid origin involving at least three species,
V. tricolorHeartsease redirects here, for the place, see Heartsease, Powys or Heartsease, NorwichHeartsease is a common European wild flower, growing as an annual or short-lived perennial...
(wild pansy or heartsease),
V. altaica and
V. luteaViola lutea , also known as Mountain Pansy, is a species in the genus Viola. It is native to Europe....
(mountain pansy).
Species and cultivars
Cultivars of
Viola cornuta,
Viola cucullataViola cucullata is a species of the genus Viola native to eastern North America, from Newfoundland west to Ontario and Minnesota, and south to Georgia....
,
Viola odorata, are commonly grown from seed. Other species often grown include
Viola labradoricaViola labradorica, commonly known as Labrador Violet or Alpine Violet is an evergreen running herb. It has edible leaves and flowers, but the leaves are sometimes characterized as "wooly" and thus not as desirable for eating....
,
Viola pedataA perennial with short rhizomes that is often misidentified as one of the buttercup species prior to flowering. Bird's-foot violet is usually found along the edges of woods in the mountainous and piedmont areas of Virginia, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Tennessee, Kentucky, and West Virginia...
and
Viola rotundifolia.
Bedding plants
The plants known to gardeners as "violas" are common bedding and pot plants world wide. In 2005 in the United States, violas (including pansies) were one of the top three bedding plant crops and 111 million dollars worth of flats of violas were produced for the bedding flower market. Pansies and violas used for bedding are generally raised from seed, and
F1 hybridF1 hybrid is a term used in genetics and selective breeding. F1 stands for Filial 1, the first filial generation seeds/plants or animal offspring resulting from a cross mating of distinctly different parental types....
seed strains have been developed which produce compact plants of reasonably consistent flower colouring and appearance. Bedding plants are usually discarded after one growing season.
Perennial cultivars
There are hundreds of perennial viola and violetta
cultivarA cultivar is a cultivated plant that has been selected and given a unique name because of desired characteristics; it is usually distinct from similar plants and when propagated it retains those characteristics....
s; many of these do not "come true" from seed and therefore have to be
propagatedPropagation can refer to:*Reproduction, and other forms of multiplication or increase**Plant propagation, the production of more plants by seeds, cuttings, grafting or other methods**Propagation of schema, in artificial reproduction...
from cuttings. Violettas can be distinguished from violas by the lack of ray markings on their petals. A few popular examples include:
- Viola 'Ardross Gem' (viola)
- Viola 'Buttercup' (violetta)
- Viola 'Columbine' (viola)
- Viola 'Dawn' (violetta)
- Viola 'Etain' (viola)
- Viola 'Irish Molly' (viola)
- Viola 'Jackanapes' (viola)
- Viola 'Maggie Mott' (viola)
- Viola 'Martin' (viola)
- Viola 'Molly Sanderson' (viola)
- Viola 'Rebecca' (violetta)
- Viola 'Vita' (viola)
- Viola 'Zoe' (violetta)
Weed control
Not all violets are desired, and wild violets function as a weed in North American lawns. Wild violets are a problem in shady
fescueFescue is a genus of about 300 species of perennial tufted grasses, belonging to the grass family Poaceae . The genus has a cosmopolitan distribution, although the majority of the species are found in cool temperate areas, such as the transition zone and Canada...
lawns in North America. Violets thrive in the part/full shade and are not susceptible to most herbicides used to kill common lawn weeds.
TriclopyrTriclopyr is a systemic, foliar herbicide in the pyridine group. It is used to control broadleaf weeds while leaving grasses and conifers unaffected....
, a weedkiller, has been found to be an effective method of controlling wild violets in
fescueFescue is a genus of about 300 species of perennial tufted grasses, belonging to the grass family Poaceae . The genus has a cosmopolitan distribution, although the majority of the species are found in cool temperate areas, such as the transition zone and Canada...
lawns.
Culinary
When newly opened,
Viola flowers may be used to decorate salads or in stuffings for poultry or fish. Soufflés, cream and similar desserts can be flavoured with essence of
Viola flowers. The young leaves are edible raw or cooked as a somewhat bland
leaf vegetableLeaf vegetables, also called potherbs, green vegetables, greens, or leafy greens, are plant leaves eaten as a vegetable, sometimes accompanied by tender petioles and shoots...
. The flowers and leaves of the cultivar 'Rebecca', one of the Violetta violets, has a distinct vanilla flavor with hints of wintergreen, however, that is quite delicious in salads.
A
candied violet or
crystallized violet is a flower, usually of
Viola odorata, preserved by a coating of egg white and crystallised sugar. Alternately, hot syrup is poured over the fresh flower (or the flower is immersed in the syrup) and stirred until the sugar recrystallizes and has dried. This method is still used for
roseA rose is a perennial flower shrub or vine of the genus Rosa, within the family Rosaceae, that contains over 100 species and comes in a variety of colours. The species form a group of erect shrubs, and climbing or trailing plants, with stems that are often armed with sharp prickles...
petals and was applied to
orangeAn orange—specifically, the sweet orange—is the citrus Citrus ×sinensis and its fruit. The orange is a hybrid of ancient cultivated origin, possibly between pomelo and tangerine...
flowers in the past (when
almondThe Almond is a species of tree native to the Middle East. Almond is also the name of the edible and widely cultivated nut of this tree...
s or orange peel are treated this way they are called
pralinePraline is a family of confections made from nuts and sugar syrup.-Pralines in America:As originally inspired in France at the Château of Vaux-le-Vicomte by the cook of the 17th-century sugar industrialist Marshal du Plessis-Praslin , early pralines were whole almonds individually coated in...
s). Candied violets are still made commercially at
ToulouseToulouse is a city in southwest France on the banks of the River Garonne, 590 km away from Paris and half-way between the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. With 1,102,882 inhabitants as of Jan...
, France, where they are known as
violettes de Toulouse. They are used as decorating or included in aromatic desserts.
The French are also known for their violet syrup, most commonly made from an extract of violets. In the United States, this French violet syrup is used to make violet
scone-People:*Barbara Young, Baroness Young of Old Scone , Labour member of the House of Lords*Robert of Scone , 12th century bishop of Cell Rígmonaid -Places and related meanings:*Scone, Scotland**Abbot of Scone...
s and
marshmallowThe marshmallow is a confection that, in its modern form, typically consists of sugar or corn syrup, water, gelatin that has been softened in hot water, dextrose, and flavorings, whipped to a spongy consistency...
s.
Viola essence flavours the liqueurs
Creme YvetteCreme Yvette, also called Creme D'Yvette, is a proprietary liqueur made from parma violet petals and possibly vanilla & other spices. Once manufactured by Charles Jacquin et Cie in the United States, who purchased the brand formerly made by Sheffield Company of Connecticut. It has become almost...
,
Creme de VioletteCrème de Violette, also known as liqueur de violette, is a generic term for a liqueur with natural and/or artificial violet flower flavoring and coloring with either a brandy base, a neutral spirit base, or a combination of the two. The taste profile and aroma are distinctly floral and sweet, and...
, and
Parfait d'AmourParfait Amour is a liqueur. Purple in colour, it is often used in cocktails primarily for its colour, and is generally created from a Curaçao liqueur base....
. It is also used in
Parma VioletsParma Violets are a violet-flavoured confectionery manufactured by the Derbyshire-based company Swizzels Matlow. The candies are hard, biconcave disc-shaped sweets, similar to the Fizzers product from the same company, but without their fizziness. Swizzels Matlow have also released a line of Giant...
confectionery.
Medicinal
The flowers, leaves and roots of various
Viola species are used for medicinal purposes, being rich in
vitaminA vitamin is an organic compound required as a nutrient in tiny amounts by an organism. The term 'vitamin' first became popular in the early 1800's as a contraction of the words 'vital' and 'mineral', though the actual meaning of the word has developed somewhat since that time...
s A and C. They also contain a type of
antioxidantAn antioxidant is a molecule capable of slowing or preventing the oxidation of other molecules. Oxidation is a chemical reaction that transfers electrons from a substance to an oxidizing agent. Oxidation reactions can produce free radicals, which start chain reactions that damage cells...
called an
anthocyaninAnthocyanins are water-soluble vacuolar pigments that may appear red, purple, or blue according to pH. They belong to a parent class of molecules called flavonoids synthesized via the phenylpropanoid pathway; they are odorless and nearly flavorless, contributing to taste as a moderately stringent...
.
Viola flowers are also used to make an herbal tea that is used in
Chinese herbal medicineChinese Herbology or 中药, is the common name for the subject of Chinese materia medica . It includes the basic theory of Chinese materia medica, "crude medicine," "prepared drug in slices" and traditional Chinese patent medicines and simple preparations' source, collection and preparation,...
.
Perfume
Viola odorata is used as a source for scents in the perfume industry. Violet is known to have a flirty scent as its fragrance comes and goes. Iodine is present in the flowers, which turns off the ability for humans to smell the fragrant compound for moments at a time.
Uses by other species
Viola species are used as food plants by the
larvaA larva is a young form of animal with indirect development, going through or undergoing metamorphosis ....
e of some
LepidopteraLepidoptera is an order of insects that includes moths and butterflies. It is one of the most speciose orders in the class Insecta, encompassing moths and the three superfamilies of butterflies, skipper butterflies, and moth-butterflies...
species, including the
Giant Leopard MothThe Giant Leopard Moth or Eyed Tiger Moth is a moth of the family Arctiidae. It is distributed throughout the Southern and Eastern United States from New England to Mexico. The obsolete name Ecpantheria scribonia is still occasionally encountered.This species has a wingspan of 3 inches...
,
Large Yellow UnderwingThe Large Yellow Underwing is a moth, the type species for the family Noctuidae. It is an abundant species throughout Europe, one of the most common and most familiar moths of the region. In some years the species is highly migratory with large numbers appearing suddenly in marginal parts of the...
,
Lesser Broad-bordered Yellow UnderwingThe Lesser Broad-bordered Yellow Underwing is a moth of the family Noctuidae. It is distributed throughout southern and central Europe, and southern Sweden....
,
High Brown FritillaryThe High Brown Fritillary is a butterfly of the Nymphalidae family, native from Europe across mainland Asia to Japan.The adults fly in July/August and lay eggs near to the larval food plants which are species of violets,...
,
Small Pearl-bordered FritillaryThe Small Pearl-bordered Fritillary , called the Silver-bordered Fritillary in North America, is a butterfly of the Nymphalidae family...
,
Pearl-bordered fritillaryThe Pearl-bordered Fritillary is a butterfly of the Nymphalidae family.It is orange with black spots on the upperside of its wing and has a wingspan of 38–46 mm. On the underside of the wings there is a row of silver pearly markings along the edge, which give the species its name...
and
Setaceous Hebrew CharacterThe Setaceous Hebrew Character is a moth of the family Noctuidae. It is a common species throughout Europe.The forewings of this species are reddish brown with distinctive patterning towards the base: a black mark resembling the Hebrew letter Nun:
ITIS (Accessed December 2 2002)
The Oxford Companion to Food, by Alan Davidson, Oxford University PressOxford house Press is the largest university press in the world. It is a department of the University of Oxford and is governed by a group of 15 academics appointed by the Vice-Chancellor known as the Delegates of the Press. they are headed by the Secretary to the Delegates, who serves as OUP's...
. ISBN 0-19-211579-0
Larousse Gastronomique, by Prosper Montagne (Ed.), Clarkson Potter, 2001. ISBN 0-609-60971-8
External links
- Violaceae in Topwalks
- Viola charlestonensis type sheet from Louis-Marie herbarium (Laval University; Isotype, holotype
A holotype is one of several possible biological types. A type is what fixes a name to a taxon. A holotype is a single physical example of an organism, known to have been used when the species was formally described...
is at University of CaliforniaThe University of California is a public university system in the state of California. Under the California Master Plan for Higher Education, the University of California is a part of the state's three-tier public higher education system, which also includes the California State University system...
).
- Images of Japanese Viola Flavon's art gallery
- The American Violet Society