Venustiano Carranza de la Garza (December 29, 1859 – May 21, 1920) was one of the leaders of the
Mexican RevolutionThe Mexican Revolution was a major armed struggle that started in 1910 with an uprising led by Francisco I. Madero against longtime autocrat Porfirio Díaz. The Revolution was characterized by several socialist, liberal, anarchist, populist, and agrarianist movements.Over time the Revolution...
. He ultimately became
President of MexicoThe Constitutional Citizen President of the United Mexican States is the head of state of Mexico. Under the Constitution, the president is also the head of government and the Supreme Commander of the Mexican armed forces...
following the overthrow of the dictatorial
HuertaJosé Victoriano Huerta Márquez was a Mexican military officer and president of Mexico.-Early life:...
regime in the summer of 1914 and during his administration the current constitution of
MexicoThe United Mexican States , commonly known as Mexico , is a federal constitutional republic in North America. It is bordered on the north by the United States; on the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; on the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea; and on the east by the Gulf of...
was drafted. He was assassinated near the end of his term of office at the behest of a cabal of army generals resentful at his insistence that his successor be a civilian.
Early years, 1859–1887
Carranza was born in the town of
Cuatro CiénegasCuatro Ciénegas is a city in the northern Mexican state of Coahuila. It stands at , at an average elevation of 740 metres above sea level. The city serves as the municipal seat for the surrounding municipality of the same name....
, in the state of
CoahuilaCoahuila, formally Coahuila de Zaragoza , is one of Mexico's 31 component states. It is located in the north of the country.To the north, Coahuila accounts for a stretch of the U.S. - Mexico border, adjacent to the U.S...
, to a middle-class
cattleCattle are the most common type of large domesticated ungulates. They are a prominent modern member of the subfamily Bovinae, are the most widespread species of the genus Bos, and are most commonly classified collectively as Bos primigenius...
-ranching family. His father,
Jesús CarranzaJesús Carranza Neira was a Mexican colonel from Cuatro Ciénegas, Coahuila. He helped Benito Juárez and also lent him money.Jesús Carranza was married to María de Jesús Garza and had 15 children; among them was Venustiano Carranza, who later became President of Mexico.The Veracruz town of Jesús...
, had been a rancher and mule-driver until the time of the
Reform WarThe War of Reform was a Mexican civil war fought from December 1857 to January 1861. It began with a coup of generals representing conservative elites. They refused to recognize the reformist Constitution of 1857, and issued a decree overturning it, called the Plan de Tacubaya...
(1857-1861), in which he fought against the Indians and on the
LiberalLiberalism is the belief in the importance of individual freedom. This belief is widely accepted today throughout the world, and was recognized as an important value by many philosophers throughout history...
side. During the Franco-Mexican War (1861-1867), Jesús Carranza became a
colonelColonel is a military rank of a commissioned officer, with corresponding ranks existing in almost every country in the world. It is also used in some police forces and other paramilitary rank structures...
and was
Benito JuárezBenito Pablo Juárez García was a Zapotec Amerindian who served five terms as president of Mexico: 1858–1861 as interim, 1861–1865, 1865–1867, 1867–1871 and 1871–1872...
's main contact in Coahuila.
Venustiano Carranza was born in 1859. He studied at the
Ateneo Fuente, a famous Liberal school in
SaltilloSaltillo is the capital city of the northeastern Mexican state of Coahuila and the municipal seat of the municipality of the same name. The city is located at 400km south of the U.S...
. In 1874 he went to the
Escuela Nacional PreparatoriaThe Escuela Nacional Preparatoria opened its doors on February 1, 1868. It was founded by Gabino Barreda, M.D. following orders of then President of Mexico Benito Juárez. It is the oldest institution of the modern UNAM....
(National Preparatory School) in
Mexico CityMexico City is the capital city of Mexico. It is the economic, industrial, and cultural center in the country, and the most populous city, with about 8,836,045 inhabitants in 2008...
. Carranza was still there in 1876 when
Porfirio DíazJosé de la Cruz Porfirio Díaz Mori was the President of Mexico from 1876 to 1880 and from 1884 to 1911, and one of the most controversial figures of the country...
issued the
Plan of TuxtepecThe Plan de Tuxtepec was a plan in Mexican history. It was drafted by Porfirio Díaz in 1876 and proclaimed on January 10 1876 in the Villa de Ojitlán municipality of San Lucas Ojitlán, Tuxtepec district, Oaxaca...
, marking the start of Porfirio Díaz's rebellion against
PresidentThe Constitutional Citizen President of the United Mexican States is the head of state of Mexico. Under the Constitution, the president is also the head of government and the Supreme Commander of the Mexican armed forces...
Sebastián Lerdo de TejadaSebastián Lerdo de Tejada y Corral was a jurist and Liberal president of Mexico.-Background:He was born in Jalapa, Veracruz, into a Criollo family...
under the slogan "No Reelection" (Tejada had served one term as president). Díaz's troops handily defeated Tejada's and Díaz and his armies marched into Mexico City in triumph.
Upon completion of his studies, Carranza returned to Coahuila to raise cattle with his family. He married Virginia Salinas in 1882 and the couple had two daughters.
Introduction to politics, 1887–1909
In 1887, at age 28, he became
municipal presidentA presidente municipal is the chief of government of municipios in Mexico. The position is comparable to the mayor of a city in the United States although the jurisdiction of a presidente municipal includes not only a city but the municipality surrounding it...
of
Cuatro CiénegasCuatro Ciénegas is a city in the northern Mexican state of Coahuila. It stands at , at an average elevation of 740 metres above sea level. The city serves as the municipal seat for the surrounding municipality of the same name....
. Carranza remained a Liberal who idolized Benito Juárez, at the same time as he grew disillusioned with the increasingly authoritarian characteristic of the rule of Porfirio Díaz during this period.
In 1893, 300 Coahuila ranchers organized an armed resistance to oppose the "reelection" of Porfirio Díaz's supporter
José María Garza GalánJosé María Garza Galán was a Mexican politician. He was governor of the northern state of Coahuila during the presidency of Porfirio Díaz. Garza Galán wanted to be again governor in 1893, but there were protests. Eventually, Porfirio Díaz asked Garza Galán to withdraw his candidacy....
as
Governor of CoahuilaList of governors of the northeastern Mexican state of Coahuila de Zaragoza, since its establishment as the province of Nueva Extremadura in Northern New Spain, later province of Coahuila and Texas, and Coahuila as a Mexican state....
. Venustiano Carranza and his brother Emilio participated in this rising. Porfirio Díaz quickly despatched his "man in the north",
Bernardo ReyesBernardo Reyes was a General in the army of Mexico under Porfirio Díaz. He served as governor of Nuevo León he helped in the modernization of that state.. While governor of Nuevo León, Reyes approved a workers compensation law. He was the father of the writer Alfonso Reyes, and grandfather of...
, to defuse the situation. Venustiano Carranza was granted a personal audience with Reyes in order to explain the justification of the uprising and the ranchers' opposition to Garza Galán. Reyes agreed with Carranza and wrote to Díaz recommending that he withdraw support for Garza Galán.
The events of 1893 allowed Carranza to forge a personal friendship with Bernardo Reyes. After winning a second term as municipal president of
Cuatro CiénegasCuatro Ciénegas is a city in the northern Mexican state of Coahuila. It stands at , at an average elevation of 740 metres above sea level. The city serves as the municipal seat for the surrounding municipality of the same name....
(1894-1898), Reyes had Carranza "elected" to the legislature. In 1904, Bernardo Reyes's protege
Miguel CárdenasMiguel Cárdenas was a Mexican politician. He was candidate for the elections of 1894 for the post of governor of Coahuila and was supported by Bernardo Reyes. But Cárdenas removed his candidacy as did José María Garza Galán. So, José María Múzquiz became governor. Eventually, Miguel Cárdenas...
, Governor of Coahuila, recommended to Porfirio Díaz that Carranza would make a good senator. As such, Carranza entered the Mexican Senate later that year. Although Carranza was sceptical of the
CientíficoThe Científicos were a circle of technocratic advisors to President of Mexico Porfirio Díaz....
s whom Porfirio Díaz was relying on to run Mexico, Carranza kept his head down and was a dutiful Porfirian senator.
In 1909, Carranza received Porfirio Díaz's permission to declare himself as candidate to replace Miguel Cárdenas as Governor of Coahuila. Miguel Cárdenas supported Carranza's candidacy, as did the wealthiest landowner in the region, Evaristo Madero (father of
Francisco I. MaderoFrancisco Ignacio Madero González was a politician, writer and revolutionary who served as President of Mexico from 1911 to 1913. As a respectable upper-class politician he supplied a center around which opposition to the dictatorship of Porfirio Díaz could coalesce...
). However, for reasons never made entirely clear, Porfirio Díaz ultimately did not support Carranza in this race, with the result that Carranza lost the election. This left Carranza angry with Porfirio Díaz.
Supporter of Francisco I. MaderoFrancisco Ignacio Madero González was a politician, writer and revolutionary who served as President of Mexico from 1911 to 1913. As a respectable upper-class politician he supplied a center around which opposition to the dictatorship of Porfirio Díaz could coalesce...
, 1909–1911
Carranza followed Francisco Madero's Antireelection Movement of 1910 with interest, and after Madero fled to the US and Díaz was reelected as president, Carranza traveled to
San Antonio, TexasSan Antonio is the second-largest city in the state of Texas and the seventh-largest city in the United States. The city is characteristic of other Southwest urban centers in which there are sparsely populated areas and a low density rate outside of the city. It was the fourth-fastest growing...
to join Madero. Madero named Carranza provisional Governor of Coahuila. The
Plan of San Luis PotosíThe Plan of San Luis de Potosí was a political document written in San Antonio, Texas, United States, and published in the Mexican city of San Luis Potosí in 1910. The document ushered in the Mexican revolution and the collapse of the Presidency of Porfirio Díaz...
, which Madero issued at this time, called for a revolution beginning November 20, 1910. Madero named Carranza
commander-in-chiefA commander-in-chief is the commander of a nation's military forces or significant element of those forces. In the latter case, the force element may be defined as those forces within a particular region or those forces which are associated by function. As a practical term it refers to the...
of the Revolution in Coahuila,
Nuevo LeónNuevo León is a state located in northeastern Mexico. It borders the states of Tamaulipas to the north and east and San Luis Potosí to the south, and Coahuila to the west. To the north, Nuevo León accounts for a 15 kilometer stretch of the U.S.-Mexico border adjacent to the U.S...
, and
TamaulipasTamaulipas is one of the 31 states of Mexico and is located in the central-northeastern part of the Mexican federation. It borders the the U.S. state of Texas to the north, the Gulf of Mexico to the east, Veracruz to the south, San Luis Potosí to the southwest, and Nuevo León to the west...
. Carranza, however, failed to organize a revolution in these states, leading some of Madero's supporters to speculate that Carranza was still loyal to Bernardo Reyes. Nevertheless, following the revolutionaries' decisive victory at
Ciudad JuárezCiudad Juárez, also known as just Juárez and formerly known as Paso del Norte, is a city and seat of the municipality of Juárez in the Mexican state of Chihuahua. Juárez has an estimated population of 1.5 million people. It stands on the Rio Grande , across the U.S. border from El Paso, Texas...
, Carranza travelled to Ciudad Juárez and Madero named Carranza his Minister of War on May 3, 1911. The revolutionaries were split on how to deal with Porfirio Díaz and Vice President
Ramón CorralRamón Corral was the Vice President of Mexico under Porfirio Díaz from 1904 until their deposition in 1911.-Early Years:...
. Madero favored having Díaz and Corral resign, with
Francisco León de la BarraFrancisco León de la Barra y Quijano was a Mexican political figure and diplomat, who served as interim president of Mexico from May 25 to November 6, 1911....
serving as interim president until a new election could be held. Carranza disagreed with Madero, arguing that allowing Díaz and Corral to resign would legitimate their rule, while an interim government would merely be a prolongation of the dictatorship and would discredit the Revolution. Madero's view prevailed, however.
Governor of CoahuilaList of governors of the northeastern Mexican state of Coahuila de Zaragoza, since its establishment as the province of Nueva Extremadura in Northern New Spain, later province of Coahuila and Texas, and Coahuila as a Mexican state....
, 1911–1913
Carranza returned to Coahuila to serve as governor, shortly holding elections in August 1911 which he won handily. As governor, Carranza began to reform the judiciary, the legal codes, and tax laws. He introduced regulations to prevent
miningMining is the extraction of valuable minerals or other geological materials from the earth, usually from an ore body, vein or seam. Materials recovered by mining include base metals, precious metals, iron, uranium, coal, diamonds, limestone, oil shale, rock salt and potash...
accidents, to rein in abusive practices at company stores, to break up commercial monopolies, to combat
alcoholismAlcoholism is a term with multiple and sometimes conflicting definitions. In common and historic usage, alcoholism is any condition that results in the continued consumption of alcoholic beverages, despite health problems and negative social consequences...
, and to rein in
gamblingGambling is the wagering of money or something of material value on an event with an uncertain outcome with the primary intent of winning additional money and/or material goods. Typically, the outcome of the wager is evident within a short period....
and
prostitutionProstitution is the act or practice of engaging in sex acts for hire. In most cultures, prostitution is viewed by many as a deviant profession, either illegal or socially discouraged...
. He also made large investments in
educationEducation in its broadest sense is any act or experience that has a formative effect on the mind, character or physical ability of an individual...
, which he saw as the key to societal development. At the same time, he was concerned to promote law and order in the countryside, and had Porfirio Díaz's
ruralesRurales was the name commonly used to designate the Mexican Guardia Rural : a force of mounted police or gendarmerie that existed between 1861 and 1914...
reenlist into his security forces.
The relationship between Carranza and Madero deteriorated in this period. Carranza, who had opposed Madero's plan to have an interim presidency, now criticized Madero for being a weak and ineffectual president. Madero in turn accused Carranza of being spiteful and authoritarian. Carranza believed that there would soon be an uprising against Madero, so he formed alliances with other Liberal governors: Pablo González Garza,
Governor of San Luis PotosíThe Governor of San Luis Potosí solely exercises the role of the Executive branch of government in the Mexican state of San Luis Potosí, per the Political Constitution of the Free and Sovereign State of San Luis Potosí...
; Alberto Fuentes Dávila,
Governor of AguascalientesList of governors of the Mexican state of Aguascalientes....
; and
Abraham GonzálezAbraham González Casavantes was the provisional and constitutional governor of the Mexican state of Chihuahua during the early period of the Mexican Revolution...
,
Governor of ChihuahuaAccording to the Political Constitution of the Free and Sovereign State of Chihuahua, Executive Power in that Mexican state resides with a single individual, the Constitutional Governor of the Free State and Sovereign of Chihuahua, who is chosen for a period of six years and cannot for any reason...
.
Carranza was unsurprised in February 1913 when
Victoriano HuertaJosé Victoriano Huerta Márquez was a Mexican military officer and president of Mexico.-Early life:...
,
Bernardo ReyesBernardo Reyes was a General in the army of Mexico under Porfirio Díaz. He served as governor of Nuevo León he helped in the modernization of that state.. While governor of Nuevo León, Reyes approved a workers compensation law. He was the father of the writer Alfonso Reyes, and grandfather of...
, and
Félix DíazFélix Díaz Velasco was a Mexican politician and general born in Oaxaca, Oaxaca. He graduated as an engineer from the Colegio Militar in 1888. He was a leading figure in the rebellion against President Francisco I...
overthrew Madero during
La Decena trágica (The Ten Tragic Days). Carranza offered Madero refuge in Coahuila, but he was unable to prevent Madero's execution.
A passionate student of history, Carranza believed that Madero had made the same mistakes in 1912 that
Ignacio ComonfortIgnacio Comonfort was a Mexican politician and military officer who served as president of Mexico.He was born in 1812 in Puebla de los Ángeles, in the state of Puebla, to French parents. He participated in the Mexican-American War. He was president of Mexico from September 15, 1855 to January 21,...
had made in 1857-58: by being weak and overly humanitarian, Madero had allowed conservative reactionaries to seize power. Carranza now believed that he could fill the role that
Benito JuárezBenito Pablo Juárez García was a Zapotec Amerindian who served five terms as president of Mexico: 1858–1861 as interim, 1861–1865, 1865–1867, 1867–1871 and 1871–1872...
had played in the years after Comonfort's downfall.
In late February 1913, Carranza asked the legislature of Coahuila to formally declare itself in a state of rebellion against Huerta's government. In his first battle with federal troops, in early March 1913, Carranza was defeated and forced to retreat to
MonclovaSantiago de la Monclova, more commonly known as just Monclova in everyday speech, is a city and seat of the surrounding municipality of the same name in the northern Mexican state of Coahuila. According to the 2005 INEGI census there were 198,819 inhabitants in the city and 200,160 in the...
. On the way, he stopped at his Guadalupe
HaciendaHacienda is a Spanish word for an estate. Some haciendas were plantations, mines, or even business factories. Many haciendas combined these productive activities. The hacienda system of Argentina, parts of Brazil, Chile, Mexico and New Granada was a system of large land-holdings that were an end in...
. There he found a group of young officers—Francisco J. Múgica, Jacinto B. Treviño, and
Lucio BlancoLucio Blanco was a Mexican military officer, noteworthy for his participation in the Mexican Revolution of 1910 to 1920.Lucio Blanco was born on July 21, 1879 in Nadadores, Coahuila. He is noted for three major accomplishments...
—who had drawn up a
planIn Mexican history, a plan was a declaration of principles announced in conjunction with a rebellion, usually armed, against the central government of the country . Mexican plans were often more formal than the pronunciamientos that were their equivalent elsewhere in Spanish America and Spain...
modeled on the
Plan of San Luis PotosíThe Plan of San Luis de Potosí was a political document written in San Antonio, Texas, United States, and published in the Mexican city of San Luis Potosí in 1910. The document ushered in the Mexican revolution and the collapse of the Presidency of Porfirio Díaz...
which disavowed Huerta and called on Carranza to become
Primer Jefe ("First Chief") of the
Constitutional ArmyThe Constitutional Army was the army that fought against Huerta's Federal Army, the Villistas and Zapatistas during the Mexican Revolution. It was formed in March 1913 by Venustiano Carranza, so-called "First-Chief" of the army, as a response to the murder of President Francisco I...
. Carranza felt that it had been a mistake to include promises of social reform in the Plan of San Luis Potosí because this had created unrealistic expectations in the populace, and had resulted in them growing disillusioned with the Revolution after it failed to deliver on its promises. He therefore insisted that the
Plan of GuadalupeThe Plan of Guadalupe was a document drafted on March 23, 1913 by Venustiano Carranza in response to the overthrow and execution of Francisco I. Madero, then President of Mexico...
include only a promise to restore the
1857 Constitution of MexicoThe 1857 Constitution was a liberal constitution drafted in Mexico during the presidency of Ignacio Comonfort. It instituted Liberal policies, including: freedom of speech; freedom of conscience; freedom of the press; freedom of assembly; and the right to bear arms...
, without the promised social reforms of the Plan of San Luis Potosí.
A few weeks after Carranza had issued the Plan of Guadalupe, he met a delegation from
SonoraSonora is a state in northwestern Mexico with an area of 182,052 square kilometers, making it around the size of Syria. It is surrounded by the states of Baja California and the Sea of Cortez to the west, Chihuahua to the east, Sinaloa to the south, and Arizona to the north.The capital is...
headed by
Adolfo de la HuertaFelipe Adolfo de la Huerta Marcor was a Mexican politician and interim President of Mexico from June 1 to December 1 1920....
in Monclova, and the Sonorans agreed to support the Plan of Guadalupe.
Primer Jefe of the Constitutional ArmyThe Constitutional Army was the army that fought against Huerta's Federal Army, the Villistas and Zapatistas during the Mexican Revolution. It was formed in March 1913 by Venustiano Carranza, so-called "First-Chief" of the army, as a response to the murder of President Francisco I...
, 1913–1915
Carranza initially divided the country into seven operational zones, though his Revolution was really launched in only three: (1) the northwest, under the command of Pablo González Garza; (2) the center, under the command of Pánfilo Natera; and (3) the northeast, under the command of
Álvaro ObregónGeneral Álvaro Obregón Salido was President of Mexico from 1920 to 1924. He was assassinated in 1928.A successful Sonoran chickpea farmer and municipal president of Huatabampo, Obregón first volunteered for military service in 1912, when he supported the regime of Francisco I. Madero against a...
. The Revolution, launched in March 1913, initially did not go well, and Huerta's troops marched into
MonclovaSantiago de la Monclova, more commonly known as just Monclova in everyday speech, is a city and seat of the surrounding municipality of the same name in the northern Mexican state of Coahuila. According to the 2005 INEGI census there were 198,819 inhabitants in the city and 200,160 in the...
, forcing Carranza to flee to the rebels' stronghold of
SonoraSonora is a state in northwestern Mexico with an area of 182,052 square kilometers, making it around the size of Syria. It is surrounded by the states of Baja California and the Sea of Cortez to the west, Chihuahua to the east, Sinaloa to the south, and Arizona to the north.The capital is...
in August 1913. In March 1914, Carranza was informed of
Pancho VillaJosé Doroteo Arango Arámbula , better known as Francisco “Pancho” Villa, was the first Mexican Revolutionary general along with Troyal Gonzales and Uriel Carrasco....
's victories and of advances made by the forces under Pablo González and Álvaro Obregón. Carranza determined that it was safe to leave Sonora, and traveled to
Ciudad JuárezCiudad Juárez, also known as just Juárez and formerly known as Paso del Norte, is a city and seat of the municipality of Juárez in the Mexican state of Chihuahua. Juárez has an estimated population of 1.5 million people. It stands on the Rio Grande , across the U.S. border from El Paso, Texas...
, which served as his capital for the remainder of his struggle with Huerta.
Although Pancho Villa was a skilled commander, his tactics throughout the 1913-14 campaign created a number of diplomatic incidents which were a major headache for Carranza in this period. Villa had confiscated the property of Spaniards in Chihuahua, and had allowed his troops to murder an Englishman, Benton, and an American, Bauch. At one point, Villa arrested Manuel Chao, the
Governor of ChihuahuaAccording to the Political Constitution of the Free and Sovereign State of Chihuahua, Executive Power in that Mexican state resides with a single individual, the Constitutional Governor of the Free State and Sovereign of Chihuahua, who is chosen for a period of six years and cannot for any reason...
, and Carranza had to personally travel to Chihuahua to order Villa to release Chao. In response to the Benton Affair, the American government sent 2,000
MarinesThe United States Marine Corps is a branch of the United States armed forces responsible for providing force projection from the sea, using the mobility of the United States Navy to rapidly deliver combined-arms task forces. It is one of seven uniformed services of the United States...
to occupy
Veracruz, VeracruzThe city of Veracruz is a major port city and municipality on the Gulf of Mexico in the Mexican state of Veracruz. The metropolitan area is Mexico's 2nd largest on the Gulf coast and an important east coast port...
. The fighting ended with 18 American Marines and 200 Mexican soldiers being killed, and Veracruz taken.
The fight against Huerta formally ended on August 15, 1914, when Álvaro Obregón signed a number of treaties in Teoloyucan in which the last of Huerta's forces surrendered to him and recognized the Constitutional government. On August 20, 1914, Carranza made a triumphal entry into
Mexico CityMexico City is the capital city of Mexico. It is the economic, industrial, and cultural center in the country, and the most populous city, with about 8,836,045 inhabitants in 2008...
.
The Convention of AguascalientesThe Convention of Aguascalientes was a major meeting that took place during the Mexican Revolution.The call for the Convention was issued on 1 October 1914 by Venustiano Carranza, head of the Constitutional Army, who described it as the Gran Convención de Jefes militares con mando de fuerzas y...
: Break with Pancho VillaJosé Doroteo Arango Arámbula , better known as Francisco “Pancho” Villa, was the first Mexican Revolutionary general along with Troyal Gonzales and Uriel Carrasco....
and Emiliano ZapataEmiliano Zapata Salazar was a leading figure in the Mexican Revolution, which broke out in 1910, and which was initially directed against the president Porfirio Díaz...
Although the revolutionaries
Pancho VillaJosé Doroteo Arango Arámbula , better known as Francisco “Pancho” Villa, was the first Mexican Revolutionary general along with Troyal Gonzales and Uriel Carrasco....
and
Emiliano ZapataEmiliano Zapata Salazar was a leading figure in the Mexican Revolution, which broke out in 1910, and which was initially directed against the president Porfirio Díaz...
had fought against the Huerta government, they had never signed on to the Plan of Guadalupe.
Zapata, in his
Plan of AyalaThe Plan of Ayala was a document drafted by revolutionary leader Emiliano Zapata during the Mexican Revolution. In it, Zapata denounced President Francisco I. Madero for his perceived betrayal of the revolutionary ideals, embodied in Madero's Plan de San Luis, and set out his vision of land reform...
, demanded sweeping social reforms of the type which Carranza had specifically excluded from the Plan of Guadalupe. When it became clear that Carranza was not willing to introduce these social reforms, Zapata broke with Carranza, formally breaking off all connection on September 5, 1914.
As we saw above, tensions between Carranza and Pancho Villa were high throughout 1913-14, over Governor Chao and over the diplomatic incidents which Villa provoked. In August, Carranza refused to let Villa enter Mexico City with him, and refused to promote Villa to major-general. Villa formally disavowed Carranza on September 23, 1914.
On July 8, 1914, Villistas and Carrancistas had signed the Treaty of
TorreónTorreón is a city and seat of the surrounding municipality of the same name in the Mexican state of Coahuila. As of 2009, the city's population was 1,000,723 with 1,000,477 in the municipality. The metropolitan population, including Matamoros, Coahuila, and Gómez Palacio and Lerdo in adjacent...
, in which they agreed that after Huerta's forces were defeated, 150 generals of the Revolution would meet to determine the future shape of the country. This Convention went ahead at
Aguascalientes, AguascalientesThe city of Aguascalientes is the capital of the state of Aguascalientes in western central Mexico. It stands on the banks of the Río Aguascalientes, 1888 meters above sea level, at...
on October 5, 1914. Carranza did not participate in the
Convention of AguascalientesThe Convention of Aguascalientes was a major meeting that took place during the Mexican Revolution.The call for the Convention was issued on 1 October 1914 by Venustiano Carranza, head of the Constitutional Army, who described it as the Gran Convención de Jefes militares con mando de fuerzas y...
because he was not a general (several
ZapatistaZapatista may refer to:* Mexican armed insurgent groups:** Liberation Army of the South, 1910s* Indigenous Mexican organization:** Zapatista Army of National Liberation, 1994...
civilian intellectuals were allowed to join the Convention, however).
At the Convention, the young philosopher
José VasconcelosJosé Vasconcelos Calderón was a Mexican writer, philosopher and politician. He married Serafina Miranda of Tlaxiaco in the state of Oaxaca in 1906...
argued that Article 128 of the 1857 Constitution provided that the revolutionary army now constituted the legitimate government of Mexico; the assembled generals quickly agreed with him. The Convention therefore called on Carranza to resign. Carranza responded with a message to the Convention sent on November 23, 1914. He agreed to resign, but only if he could be assured that a truly constitutional government would be put in place following his resignation. He therefore listed three preconditions that must be met before he would resign: (1) the establishment of a preconstitutional regime that would make necessary social and political reforms before constitutional government is reestablished; (2) the resignation and exile of Villa; and (3) the resignation and exile of Zapata.
A week later, the Convention's joint commissions of war and of the interior (a group which included
Álvaro ObregónGeneral Álvaro Obregón Salido was President of Mexico from 1920 to 1924. He was assassinated in 1928.A successful Sonoran chickpea farmer and municipal president of Huatabampo, Obregón first volunteered for military service in 1912, when he supported the regime of Francisco I. Madero against a...
,
Felipe ÁngelesFelipe Ángeles Ramirez was a Mexican military officer, noteworthy for his participation in the Mexican Revolution of 1910 to 1921.-Early Life:...
,
Eulalio GutiérrezEulalio Gutiérrez Ortiz was elected provisional president of Mexico during the Aguascalientes Convention and led the country for a few months between November 6, 1914, and January 16, 1915....
, and
Francisco I. MaderoFrancisco Ignacio Madero González was a politician, writer and revolutionary who served as President of Mexico from 1911 to 1913. As a respectable upper-class politician he supplied a center around which opposition to the dictatorship of Porfirio Díaz could coalesce...
's brother Raúl) agreed in principle to Carranza's conditions. The Convention then elected Eulalio Gutiérrez as provisional President for 20 days until his position could be ratified, and called on Carranza to resign immediately. Carranza responded by moving his government to
Córdoba, VeracruzCórdoba is a city and is the seat of the municipality of the same name in the Mexican state of Veracruz.The city is composed of 15 barrios, bounded to the north by Ixhuatlán del Café and Tomatlán, and in the south borders with Amatlán de los Reyes and Naranjal...
and by sending the Convention a telegram in which he said he would not resign until his conditions had been fully met and they had not: Villa remained in control of the
División del NorteWhen the Mexican Revolution broke out in 1910, the call to arms from Francisco Madero led to the creation of various factions in Mexico. The famous División del Norte was led by none other than the illustrious Doroteo Arango, better known to history as Pancho Villa...
; Zapata had not resigned; and Gutiérrez was only granted power for 20 days, which hardly made him an effective preconstitutional government.
With Carranza's withdrawal, Carrancistas now controlled only
VeracruzVeracruz, formally Veracruz de Ignacio de la Llave is one of the 31 states that constitute the United Mexican States. Veracruz is borderd by Tamaulipas to the north, the Gulf to the east, Tabasco to the southeast, Oaxaca and Chiapas to the south and Puebla, Hidalgo, and San Luis Potosi to the west...
and
TamaulipasTamaulipas is one of the 31 states of Mexico and is located in the central-northeastern part of the Mexican federation. It borders the the U.S. state of Texas to the north, the Gulf of Mexico to the east, Veracruz to the south, San Luis Potosí to the southwest, and Nuevo León to the west...
. The rest of the country was now under the control of the various generals represented by the Convention. Carranza was at least able to negotiate the withdrawal of American troops from
Veracruz, VeracruzThe city of Veracruz is a major port city and municipality on the Gulf of Mexico in the Mexican state of Veracruz. The metropolitan area is Mexico's 2nd largest on the Gulf coast and an important east coast port...
in November 1914 and set up his capital there.
Álvaro Obregón and Pablo González remained loyal to Carranza, however, and fought on. In April 1915, Obregón scored a decisive victory over Villa in the
BajíoThe Bajío is a region of Central Mexico that includes the plains south of the Sierra de Guanajuato, in the state of Guanajuato, as well as parts of the states of Querétaro and Michoacán .In general parlance, it is usually associated with the States of Guanajuato and Querétaro, although it only...
at the
Battle of CelayaThe Battle of Celaya, which occurred near Celaya, Guanajuato on 13 April 1915, was a battle of the Mexican Revolution.The Conventionist forces under Pancho Villa were badly defeated by forces under the command of Álvaro Obregón, who supported the presidency of Venustiano Carranza. Villa lost...
, and in May 1915, González began a campaign against the last-remaining Zapatistas. In July 1915,
Francisco Lagos CházaroFrancisco Jerónimo de Jesús Lagos Cházaro Mortero was acting President of Mexico from June 10, 1915 to October 10, 1915....
, the last interim president appointed by the Convention of Aguascalientes, surrendered. In August 1915, Carranza's troops entered Mexico City a second time. The United States recognized Carranza as President of Mexico in October 1915.
Head of the Preconstitutional Government, 1915–1917
With the defeat of the
División del Norte and the Zapatistas, by mid-1915, Carranza was President of Mexico as head of what he termed a "Preconstitutional Government." Carranza formally took charge of the executive branch on May 1 1915.
On December 12, 1914, Carranza had issued his
Additions to the Plan of Guadalupe, which laid out an ambitious reform program, including Laws of Reform, in conscious imitation of Benito Juárez's Laws of Reform.
Reforms were carried through in many areas
- Judicial reform - Carranza introduced important reforms to ensure an independent judiciary for Mexico.
- Land reform - although Carranza had initially been sceptical about the need for land reform, his interactions with Zapata convinced him that the problem was real. Carranza's solution was the ejido
The ejido [ɛxˈido] system is a process whereby the government promotes the use of communal land shared by the people of the community...
system, by which formerly communal lands which had been privately expropriated were to be returned to villages. In practice, very few lands were returned.
- Labor - in February 1915, the Constitutionalist Army signed an agreement with the Casa del Obrero Mundial ("House of the World Worker"), the labor union with anarcho-syndicalist
Anarcho-syndicalism is a branch of anarchism which focuses on the labour movement. Syndicalisme is a French word, ultimately derived from the Greek, meaning "trade unionism" hence, the "syndicalism" qualification. Syndicalism is an alternative co-operative economic system...
connections which had been established during Francisco I. Madero's presidency. As a result of this agreement, six "Red Battalions" of workers were formed to fight alongside the Constitutionalists against Villa and Zapata. However, after the defeat of Villa and Zapata, relations between Carranza and organized labor soured. In January 1916, the Red Battalions were dissolved, and throughout 1916, Carranza opposed workers' who attempted to exercise their right to strike, seeing their actions as disruptive. In August 1916, the Casa del Obrero Mudial was forcibly disbanded by the police, and an 1862 law making striking a capital offense was reinstated.
- Struggle against foreign companies for natural resources - under the presidency of Porfirio Díaz
José de la Cruz Porfirio Díaz Mori was the President of Mexico from 1876 to 1880 and from 1884 to 1911, and one of the most controversial figures of the country...
, foreign mining and oil companies (chiefly American companies) had received generous rights from the government. On January 7, 1915, Carranza issued a decree declaring his intention to return the wealth of oil and coal to the people of Mexico. The two largest oil companies exploiting Mexico's natural resources were the Mexican Eagle Petroleum CompanyEl Aguila , was a Mexican oil company in the 20th Century.-History:...
, an English company led by Lord CowdrayWeetman Dickinson Pearson, 1st Viscount Cowdray GCVO was an engineer, oil industrialist, and owner of the Pearson conglomerate...
and operating mainly in the region of Poza Rica, Veracruz and Papantla, Veracruz; and Mexican Petroleum, an American company led by Edward L. DohenyEdward Laurence Doheny was an Irish American oil tycoon, who in 1892, along with partner Charles A. Canfield, drilled the first successful well in the Los Angeles City oil field, setting off the petroleum boom in southern California...
and operating in the region of Tampico, Tamaulipas. Carranza was largely unable to move against the foreign oil companies because the region of La HuastecaLa Huasteca is the first climbing area in Monterrey Mexico, only 15 minutes from the city. With nearly 200 bolted routes with grades from 5.8 to 5.13C, it is the favorite place for weekend climbers. It is also known for the slippery type of limestone from which it is comprised, and which makes...
where they operated was under the control of General Manuel PeláezManuel Peláez Gorrochotegui Mexican military officer, noteworthy for his participation in the Mexican Revolution of 1910 to 1920....
who protected the oil companies' interests in exchange for protection money from the oil companies. Carranza moved more successfully against the mining companies, implementing the Calvo DoctrineThe Calvo Doctrine is a foreign policy doctrine which holds that jurisdiction in international investment disputes lies with the country in which the investment is located. The Calvo Doctrine thus proposed to prohibit diplomatic protection or intervention before local resources were exhausted...
. He raised their taxes, and removed the right of diplomatic recourse for mining companies, declaring them now subject to the Mexican courts (both policies were opposed by the United States and delayed several times at the request of United States Secretary of StateThe United States Secretary of State is the head of the United States Department of State, concerned with foreign affairs. The Secretary is a member of the President's Cabinet and the highest-ranking cabinet secretary both in line of succession and order of precedence. The current Secretary of...
Robert LansingRobert Lansing served in the position of Legal Advisor to the State Department at the outbreak of World War I where he vigorously advocated against Britain's policy of blockade and in favor of the principles of freedom of the seas and the rights of neutral nations...
).
The Constitutional Convention of Querétaro, 1916–1917
In September 1916, Carranza convoked a Constitutional Convention, to be held in Querétaro, Querétaro. He declared that the
liberalLiberalism is the belief in the importance of individual freedom. This belief is widely accepted today throughout the world, and was recognized as an important value by many philosophers throughout history...
1857 Constitution of MexicoThe 1857 Constitution was a liberal constitution drafted in Mexico during the presidency of Ignacio Comonfort. It instituted Liberal policies, including: freedom of speech; freedom of conscience; freedom of the press; freedom of assembly; and the right to bear arms...
would be respected, though purged of some of its shortcomings.
However, when the Constitutional Convention met in December 1916, it contained only 85 conservatives and centrists close to Carranza's brand of liberalism, a group known as the
bloque renovador ("renewal faction"). Against them were 132 more radical delegates who insisted that
land reformBefore the 1910 Mexican Revolution that overthrew Porfirio Díaz, most of the land was owned by a single elite ruling class. Legally there was no slavery or serfdom; however, those with heavy debts, Indian wage workers, or peasants, were essentially debt-slaves to the landowners. A small percentage...
be embodied in the new constitution. These radical delegates were particularly inspired by the thought of
Andrés Molina EnríquezAndrés Molina Enríquez was a Mexican positivist sociologist, amateur anthropologist, and former Justice of the Peace in Mexico State.-Los Grandes Problemas Nacionales:...
, in particular his 1909 book
Los Grandes Problemas Nacionales (English:
The Great National Problems). Andrés Molina Enríquez, though not a delegate to the Convention, was a close advisor to the committee that drafted Article 27 of the constitution which declared that private property had been created by the Nation and that the Nation had the right to regulate private property to ensure that communities that had "none or not enough land and water" could take them from
latifundiosLatifundia are pieces of property covering tremendous areas. The latifundia of Roman history were great landed estates, specializing in agriculture destined for export: grain, olive oil, or wine. They were characteristic of Magna Graecia and Sicily, of Egypt and the North African Maghreb and of...
and
haciendasHacienda is a Spanish word for an estate. Some haciendas were plantations, mines, or even business factories. Many haciendas combined these productive activities. The hacienda system of Argentina, parts of Brazil, Chile, Mexico and New Granada was a system of large land-holdings that were an end in...
. Article 27 also moved much further than the
Calvo DoctrineThe Calvo Doctrine is a foreign policy doctrine which holds that jurisdiction in international investment disputes lies with the country in which the investment is located. The Calvo Doctrine thus proposed to prohibit diplomatic protection or intervention before local resources were exhausted...
and declared that only native-born or native Mexicans could have property rights in Mexico, and that, though the government might grant rights to foreigners, these rights were always provisional and could not be appealed to foreign governments.
The radicals also moved much further than Carranza approved on labor relations. In February 1917, they drafted Article 123 of the Constitution, which established an eight-hour work day, abolished child labor, contained provisions to protect female and adolescent workers, required holidays, provided a reasonable salary to be paid in cash and profit-sharing, established boards of arbitration, and provided for compensation in case of dismissal.
The radicals also established more radical reform of the relationship of church and state than that favored by Carranza. Articles 3 and 130 were heavily
anticlericalAnti-clericalism is a historical movement that opposes religious institutional power and influence, real or alleged, in all aspects of public and political life, and the involvement of religion in the everyday life of the citizen...
: the
Roman Catholic ChurchThe Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the world's largest Christian church. With more than a billion members, over half of all Christians and more than one-sixth of the world's population, the Catholic Church is a communion of the Western, or Latin Rite Church, and...
in Mexico was denied recognition as a legal entity; priests were denied various rights and subject to public registration; religious education was forbidden; public religious ritual outside of the churches was banned; and all churches were became the property of the nation.
In short, although Carranza had been the most ardent proponent of constitutionalism and led the Constitutional Army, the 1917
Constitution of MexicoThe Political Constitution of the United Mexican States of 1917 is the present constitution of Mexico. It was drafted in Santiago de Querétaro by a Constitutional Convention during the Mexican Revolution...
was very different from the liberal constitution that Carranza had wanted. However, the Carrancistas had gained some important victories in the Constitutional Convention: the power of the executive was enhanced and the
executive}}In the study of political science the executive branch of government has sole authority and responsibility for the daily administration of the state bureaucracy. The division of power into separate branches of government is central to the democratic idea of the separation of powers .In many...
was enhanced and the power of the
legislatureA legislature is a type of deliberative assembly with the power to pass, amend and repeal laws. The law created by a legislature is called legislation or statutory law...
was diminished. The post of Vice President was eliminated. And judges were given life tenure to promote judicial independence.
President of MexicoThe Constitutional Citizen President of the United Mexican States is the head of state of Mexico. Under the Constitution, the president is also the head of government and the Supreme Commander of the Mexican armed forces...
, 1917–1920
The new constitution was proclaimed on February 5, 1917. In May 1917, Carranza became the constitutional
President of MexicoThe Constitutional Citizen President of the United Mexican States is the head of state of Mexico. Under the Constitution, the president is also the head of government and the Supreme Commander of the Mexican armed forces...
.
Mexico was in desperate straits in 1917. The revolutionary fighting had decimated the economy; destroyed the nation's food supply; and led to widespread disease.
Carranza continued to face many internal enemies:
Emiliano ZapataEmiliano Zapata Salazar was a leading figure in the Mexican Revolution, which broke out in 1910, and which was initially directed against the president Porfirio Díaz...
continued his rebellion in the mountains of
MorelosMorelos is one of the 31 constituent states of Mexico. Morelos has an area of about , making it the second-smallest of the country's states. Morelos is bordered by Mexico State to the north-east and north-west, the Federal District to the north, Puebla to the east, and Guerrero to the south-west...
;
Félix DíazFélix Díaz Velasco was a Mexican politician and general born in Oaxaca, Oaxaca. He graduated as an engineer from the Colegio Militar in 1888. He was a leading figure in the rebellion against President Francisco I...
had returned to Mexico in May 1916 and organized an army that he called the
Ejército Reorganizador Nacional (National Reorganizer Army) that remained active in
VeracruzVeracruz, formally Veracruz de Ignacio de la Llave is one of the 31 states that constitute the United Mexican States. Veracruz is borderd by Tamaulipas to the north, the Gulf to the east, Tabasco to the southeast, Oaxaca and Chiapas to the south and Puebla, Hidalgo, and San Luis Potosi to the west...
; the former Porfirians Guillermo Meixueiro and José María Dávila were active in
OaxacaThe Free and Sovereign State of Oaxaca is one of the 31 states of Mexico, located in the southern part of the country, west of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec...
, calling themselves
Soberanistas (Sovereigntists) and insisted on local autonomy; General
Manuel PeláezManuel Peláez Gorrochotegui Mexican military officer, noteworthy for his participation in the Mexican Revolution of 1910 to 1920....
was still in charge of
La HuastecaLa Huasteca is the first climbing area in Monterrey Mexico, only 15 minutes from the city. With nearly 200 bolted routes with grades from 5.8 to 5.13C, it is the favorite place for weekend climbers. It is also known for the slippery type of limestone from which it is comprised, and which makes...
; the brothers Saturnino Cedillo, Cleophas Cedillo, and Magdaleno Cedillo organized an opposition in
San Luis PotosíThe Mexican state of San Luis Potosí has an area of .It is in the central part of the Mexican republic, It borders Coahuila to the north, Nuevo Leon to the north-east, Tamaulipas to the east, Veracruz to the east, Hidalgo, Queretaro, and Guanajuato to the south, and Zacatecas to the north-west...
; José Inés Chávez García led the resistance to Carranza's government in
MichoacánMichoacán formally Michoacán de Ocampo , is one of the 31 constituent states of Mexico. It borders the states of Colima and Jalisco to the west, Guanajuato and Querétaro to the north, México to the east, Guerrero to the south-east, and the Pacific Ocean to the south.Michoacán has an area of...
; and
Pancho VillaJosé Doroteo Arango Arámbula , better known as Francisco “Pancho” Villa, was the first Mexican Revolutionary general along with Troyal Gonzales and Uriel Carrasco....
remained active in Chihuahua. The only two rebel leaders captured by Carranza were Pancho Villa's supporter
Felipe ÁngelesFelipe Ángeles Ramirez was a Mexican military officer, noteworthy for his participation in the Mexican Revolution of 1910 to 1921.-Early Life:...
, and
Emiliano ZapataEmiliano Zapata Salazar was a leading figure in the Mexican Revolution, which broke out in 1910, and which was initially directed against the president Porfirio Díaz...
(Carranza had put a bounty on Zapata's head, which led to his assassination).
Carranza maintained Mexican neutrality throughout
World War IWorld War I , also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All Wars, was a global military conflict which involved most of the world's great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances: the Triple Entente and the Triple Alliance...
. He briefly considered allying with the
German EmpireThe German Empire is the name commonly used in English to describe Germany from the unification of Germany and proclamation of Wilhelm I as German Emperor on 18 January 1871 to 1918, when it became a German republic after defeat in World War I and the abdication of Wilhelm II .The term Second Reich...
after German Foreign Secretary
Arthur ZimmermannArthur Zimmermann was State Secretary for Foreign Affairs of the German Empire from November 22, 1916, until his resignation on August 6, 1917. His name is associated with the Zimmermann Telegram during World War I...
sent Mexico the famous Zimmerman Telegram in January 1917, inviting Mexico to enter the war on the German side. Zimmerman promised Mexico German aide in re-capturing territory lost to the
United StatesThe United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
during the
Mexican–American WarThe Mexican–American War was an armed conflict between the United States and Mexico from 1846 to 1848 in the wake of the 1845 U.S. annexation of Texas. Mexico claimed ownership of Texas as a breakaway province and refused to recognize the secession and subsequent military victory by Texas in...
, specifically the states of
TexasTexas is the second-largest U.S. state in both area and population, and the largest state in the contiguous United States.The name had wide usage among native Americans, meaning "friends" or "allies"...
,
New MexicoNew Mexico is a state located in the southwestern region of the United States. Inhabited by Native American populations for many centuries, it has also been part of the Imperial Spanish viceroyalty of New Spain, part of Mexico, and a U.S. territory. Among U.S...
, and
ArizonaThe State of Arizona is a state located in the southwestern region of the United States. The capital and largest city is Phoenix. The second largest city is Tucson, followed in size by the four Phoenix metropolitan area cities of Mesa, Glendale, Chandler, and Scottsdale.Arizona was the 48th and...
. Carranza assigned a general to study the possibility of recapturing this territory from the U.S., but ultimately concluded that war to recapture territory from the U.S. was not feasible.
Carranza remained lukewarm about the anti-clerical Articles 3 and 130 of the Mexican Constitution, both of which he had opposed at the Constitutional Convention. He proposed a constitutional amendment to mollify these constitutional provisions, but his proposal was rejected by the state legislatures and 2/3 of the Mexican Congress.
Public corruption was a major problem of Carranza's presidency. A popular saying was that "The Old Man doesn't steal, but he lets them steal," and a new verb,
carrancear was coined, meaning "to steal".
Carranza determined not to run for re-election in 1920. His natural successor was
Álvaro ObregónGeneral Álvaro Obregón Salido was President of Mexico from 1920 to 1924. He was assassinated in 1928.A successful Sonoran chickpea farmer and municipal president of Huatabampo, Obregón first volunteered for military service in 1912, when he supported the regime of Francisco I. Madero against a...
, the heroic Carrancista general. Carranza, however, felt that Mexico should have a president who was not a general, and therefore endorsed
Ignacio BonillasIgnacio Bonillas Frajio was a Mexican diplomat. He was a Mexican ambassador to the United States and held a degree in mine engineering from M.I.T....
, an obscure diplomat, for the presidency. In response, a group of
SonoranSonora is a state in northwestern Mexico with an area of 182,052 square kilometers, making it around the size of Syria. It is surrounded by the states of Baja California and the Sea of Cortez to the west, Chihuahua to the east, Sinaloa to the south, and Arizona to the north.The capital is...
generals (including Obregón,
Plutarco Elías CallesPlutarco Elías Calles was a Mexican general and politician. He was president of Mexico from 1924 to 1928, but he continued to be the de facto ruler from 1928-1935, a period known as the maximato...
, and
Adolfo de la HuertaFelipe Adolfo de la Huerta Marcor was a Mexican politician and interim President of Mexico from June 1 to December 1 1920....
), who were the strongest power bloc in Mexico, issued the
Plan of Agua PrietaThe Plan of Agua Prieta was a manifesto, drawn up in the form of a plan, during the Mexican Revolution.Drafted and signed by supporters of Gen. Álvaro Obregón, the Plan repudiated the government of President Venustiano Carranza...
, repudiating Carranza's government and renewing the Revolution on their own.
On April 8 1920, a campaign aide to Obregon attempted to assassinate Carranza. After the failed attempt, Carranza was forced to flee
Mexico CityMexico City is the capital city of Mexico. It is the economic, industrial, and cultural center in the country, and the most populous city, with about 8,836,045 inhabitants in 2008...
. He set out towards Veracruz but was betrayed and
assassinatedAn Assassination is the targeted killing of a public figure.Assassinations may be prompted by ideological, political, or military reasons. Additionally, assassins may be motivated by financial gain, revenge, personal public recognition, or mental illness....
in Tlaxcalantongo in the
Sierra Norte de PueblaThe Sierra Norte de Puebla – known simply as the Sierra Norte by locals – is a mountain chain that makes up the southern end of the Sierra Madre Oriental in Mexico.It is approximately 100 km long, with a width ranging up to 50 km...
by the forces of General Rodolfo Herrero, supporter of Carranza's former allies, on May 21, 1920. According to General Francisco L. Urquizo, Carranza's last words were: "Licenciado, ya me rompieron una pierna" which translates as "Lawyer, they have already broken one of my legs". (Carranza was referring to his partner, Licenciado Aguirre Berlanga, when he was ambushed and shot).
External links