Vehicular cycling
Encyclopedia
Vehicular cycling is the practice of riding bicycle
Bicycle
A bicycle, also known as a bike, pushbike or cycle, is a human-powered, pedal-driven, single-track vehicle, having two wheels attached to a frame, one behind the other. A person who rides a bicycle is called a cyclist, or bicyclist....

s on roads in a manner that is visible, predictable, and in accordance with the principles for driving
Driving
Driving is the controlled operation and movement of a land vehicle, such as a car, truck or bus.Although direct operation of a bicycle and a mounted animal are commonly referred to as riding, such operators are legally considered drivers and are required to obey the rules of the road...

 in traffic
Traffic
Traffic on roads may consist of pedestrians, ridden or herded animals, vehicles, streetcars and other conveyances, either singly or together, while using the public way for purposes of travel...

.

The phrase vehicular cycling was coined by John Forester in the 1970s to characterize the bicycle driver style utilized in his native U.K.
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...

 in contrast to the deferential stay-out-of-the-way-of-cars style of cycling and practices that he found to be typical in the United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...

.

In his book Effective Cycling
Effective Cycling
Effective Cycling is a trademarked cycling educational program designed by John Forester, which was the national education program of the League of American Wheelmen for a number of years until Forester withdrew permission for them to use the name...

, Forester contends that "Cyclists fare best when they act and are treated as driver
Driving
Driving is the controlled operation and movement of a land vehicle, such as a car, truck or bus.Although direct operation of a bicycle and a mounted animal are commonly referred to as riding, such operators are legally considered drivers and are required to obey the rules of the road...

s of vehicles"
. Forester's book is generally considered the primary modern reference work about vehicular cycling, along with Cyclecraft
Cyclecraft
Cyclecraft is a British cycling skills manual written by John Franklin and now published by The Stationery Office. It is the foundation of Bikeability, the UK's national standard for cycle training....

by John Franklin, which is part of Bikeability
Bikeability
Bikeability is the national programme for cycle training in England and Wales, administered by Cycling England. It is based on the National Standard for Cycle Training, a UK Government standard run by the Department for Transport and approved by RoSPA, LARSOA, British Cycling, CTC, Sustrans and...

, the UK's national standard for cycle training, and Bicycling Streetsmarts by John S. Allen, a compact tutorial also published in custom formats including as bicycle driving manuals for some states.

Basic principles of traffic cycling

In Effective Cycling, Forester introduces what he calls "the five basic principles of cycling in traffic" (note that he writes in a country which drives on the right):
About these principles Forester writes: "If you obey these five principles, you can cycle in many places you want to go with a low probability of creating traffic conflicts. You won't do everything in the best possible way, and you won't yet know how to get yourself out of troubles that other drivers may cause, but you will still do much better than the average American bicyclist.

In a paper generally critical of many of Forester's views, Jeffrey Hiles writes this about these principles: "As you can see, these are not just principles for cyclists, they are the basis for the rules of the road that apply to all vehicles. This does not mean, though, that bicyclists should drive exactly like motorists. Both cars and bikes are subclasses of the broader category “vehicle” and, because they are different in speed and width, cars and bikes often use different parts of the roadway. In doing so, both modes are still adhering to the basic traffic principles."

In Bicycle Transportation, Forester explains that vehicular cycling goes beyond following traffic laws and these principles: "There is much more to the vehicular-cycling principle than only obeying the traffic laws for drivers. The vehicular-style cyclist not only acts outwardly like a driver, he knows inwardly that he is one. Instead of feeling like a trespasser on roads owned by cars he feels like just another driver with a slightly different vehicle, one who is participating and cooperation in the organized mutual effort to get to desired destinations with the least trouble".

Practices, techniques and skills

A vehicular cyclist is a cyclist who generally travels within the roadway in accordance with the basic vehicular rules of the road that are shared by all drivers, and the most effective cycling
Effective Cycling
Effective Cycling is a trademarked cycling educational program designed by John Forester, which was the national education program of the League of American Wheelmen for a number of years until Forester withdrew permission for them to use the name...

 practices. Primarily, this means:
  • Travel on the same side of the road as other traffic traveling in the same direction. An appreciable percentage of cyclists believe that cycling facing oncoming traffic is a better survival strategy as it enables them to see dangerous situations developing and to take evasive action. Wrong-way cycling is illegal in most states and countries because cyclists are traditionally required to follow the same rules as motorists. For cycling in particular, collisions at intersections (defined broadly as "not only the junction of two roadways, but also points where driveways, sidewalks, or paths meet a roadway, or where sidewalks or paths meet a driveway") while traveling in the wrong direction against traffic has been determined to be over three times more likely for wrong-way cyclists. Wrong-way cycling increases closing speeds and wrong-way cyclists are easily overlooked by motorists at intersections. Wrong-way cycling also makes bike-bike collisions more likely. In contrast to the driver rules which apply to cyclists, the rules for pedestrians and joggers, who generally travel much slower than cyclists, and, unlike cyclists, can stop and evasively move laterally practically instantaneously, often require pedestrians to face oncoming traffic when traveling on roadways. Horse riders on the roadway, like cyclists, are also generally required to follow the rules for drivers of vehicles, not the rules for pedestrians, for the same reasons.
  • Respect traffic controls, such as yield (give way) sign
    Yield sign
    In road transport, a ' or ' traffic sign indicates that each driver must prepare to stop if necessary to let a driver on another approach proceed. A driver who stops has yielded the right of way to another...

    s, stop sign
    Stop sign
    A Stop sign is a traffic sign to notify drivers that they must stop before proceeding.-Specifications:The Vienna Convention on Road Signs and Signals proposed standard stop sign diameters of 0.6, 0.9 or 1.2 metres. UK and New Zealand stop signs are 750, 900 or 1200 mm, according to sign...

    s and traffic light
    Traffic light
    Traffic lights, which may also be known as stoplights, traffic lamps, traffic signals, signal lights, robots or semaphore, are signalling devices positioned at road intersections, pedestrian crossings and other locations to control competing flows of traffic...

    s.
  • Between intersections
    Intersection (road)
    An intersection is a road junction where two or more roads either meet or cross at grade . An intersection may be 3-way - a T junction or fork, 4-way - a crossroads, or 5-way or more...

     and other junctions
    Interchange (road)
    In the field of road transport, an interchange is a road junction that typically uses grade separation, and one or more ramps, to permit traffic on at least one highway to pass through the junction without directly crossing any other traffic stream. It differs from a standard intersection, at which...

    , choose the appropriate lane or lateral position according to those rules of the road that are shared by all drivers.
  • At intersection approaches, choose the appropriate lane or lateral position according to destination positioning.
  • Ignore designated bicycle lane stripes when choosing where to travel on the street (this does not mean to avoid riding in bicycle lanes; it means deciding whether to ride in the space demarcated as a bike lane just as one would if the stripe were not there).
  • Change lanes or lateral (left/right) position in response to, and in anticipation of, factors such as changing traffic conditions.
  • Control the traffic lane unless overtaking traffic is being delayed and the marked traffic lane is wide enough to safely share.
  • Always stay outside of the door zone
    Door zone
    The door zone is the space spanning about four feet from the sides of parallel parked cars. It is hazardous to ride a bicycle or motorcycle in a door zone because if a door is suddenly opened, the cyclist must either crash into it , brake suddenly, or swerve into the adjacent lane of traffic...

    ; when passing motor vehicles that are parked parallel to the road, no closer than the largest estimated width of an open door, plus some margin for error.
  • When making a turn toward the nearside of a road (left in the U.S.) when multiple traffic lanes are marked, merge into each lane one at a time while using negotiation with other drivers as required.
  • Feel and act like a vehicle driver, albeit the driver of a narrow and relatively low-powered vehicle.

Lane control

A cyclist is controlling a lane (also known as "taking control of the lane", "taking the lane" or "claiming the lane") when traveling near the center of a marked travel lane. Controlling the lane normally precludes passing within the same lane by drivers of wide motor vehicles, while being positioned near a lane edge usually encourages such passing—even when it is hazardous to bicyclists.

Vehicular cyclists commonly control lanes under the following circumstances:
  • when approaching a junction at which approaching or waiting traffic may turn or cross directly in front of the cyclist
  • when there is more than one lane of traffic in the same direction
  • when there is only one lane of traffic in the relevant direction, but the cyclist is traveling at the normal speed of traffic at that time and place or the marked lane is too narrow to safely share with overtaking traffic
  • when the lane is too narrow for cyclists to share the lane safely side-by-side with a motor vehicle
  • when there is a gap in faster same direction traffic (to improve vantage and maneuvering space with respect to noticing and avoiding hazards up ahead, and to increase conspicuousness to traffic approaching from the rear as well as to traffic with potential crossing conflicts up ahead)
  • when the cyclist is the only traffic moving in that direction at that time and place, regardless of the cyclist's speed
  • when approaching a place where the lane narrows (such as a construction zone) so as not to be "squeezed out" when that happens
  • when merging across a roadway in preparation for a turn across the opposing lanes
  • when overtaking and passing another vehicle, bicyclist moving more slowly
  • when avoiding hazards
  • when approaching an intersection or junction at which the cyclist's destination is straight ahead
  • when approaching or traveling in a roundabout
    Roundabout
    A roundabout is the name for a road junction in which traffic moves in one direction around a central island. The word dates from the early 20th century. Roundabouts are common in many countries around the world...

     or traffic circle
    Traffic circle
    A traffic circle or rotary is a type of circular intersection in which traffic must travel in one direction around a central island. In some countries, traffic entering the circle has the right-of-way and drivers in the circle must yield. In many other countries, traffic entering the circle must...



John Franklin advocates operating bicycles in accordance with the basic rules of the road for vehicle operation. Using the terms "primary riding position" — meaning in the center of the traffic lane — and "secondary riding position" — meaning about 1 meter (3.2 feet) to the side of moving traffic, but not closer than .5 meters (1.6 feet) from the edge of the road — Franklin advocates the primary riding position as the normal position and the secondary riding position only when it is safe, reasonable and necessary to allow faster traffic to pass.

Vehicular cycling, including controlling lanes when appropriate, is supported by traffic laws in most countries (California's Vehicle Code section 21202 is an example of this).

Lane sharing

All forms of lane sharing
Lane sharing
Lane sharing is the practice of operating a vehicle in a traffic lane in a manner that allows other traffic to use the unused portion of the lane, or to pass slower traffic in the lane by using an unused portion of the lane. When lane sharing is done for the purpose of passing slow or stopped...

 are aspects of vehicular cycling. Sharing lanes with normal width vehicles is rare because lanes are rarely wide enough. However, bicyclists can sometimes share lanes safely due to their narrow width. In lanes wide enough for a bicycle and a vehicle to travel safely side by side within the lane, and when faster same-direction traffic is present or approaching, vehicular cycling suggests riding about 1 metres (3.3 ft) to the outside of overtaking traffic and about the same distance from roadside hazards, as well as staying outside of the door zone
Door zone
The door zone is the space spanning about four feet from the sides of parallel parked cars. It is hazardous to ride a bicycle or motorcycle in a door zone because if a door is suddenly opened, the cyclist must either crash into it , brake suddenly, or swerve into the adjacent lane of traffic...

.

As long as it is safe and not explicitly prohibited, lane sharing does not contradict the vehicular rules of the road. Due to the relatively narrow and slow nature of bicycles, the opportunities for lane sharing are generally more frequent for bicyclists than for other drivers. It is also possible for cyclists to filter forward
Lane splitting
Lane splitting refers to a two-wheeled vehicle moving between lanes of vehicles that are proceeding in the same direction. More narrowly, it refers to passing stopped or slower moving traffic between lanes at a speed greater than surrounding traffic....

 past slow or stopped motor traffic. Where they exist, wide outside lane
Wide outside lane
In the United States of America, wide outside lane , or wide curb lane , is a term used by cyclists and bicycle transportation planners to refer to the outermost lane of a roadway when it is wide enough to be safely shared side by side by a bicycle and a wider motor vehicle at the same time. ...

s may also be shared in order to facilitate being overtaken by faster traffic.

When riding in a lane sharing position, a cyclist must yield to overtaking traffic using the other part of the lane, or obtain right-of-way to move over through negotiation, before moving laterally into that space.

Speed and destination positioning

Vehicular cyclists use "speed positioning" between intersections. The basic principle is "slower traffic keeps to the outside; faster traffic to the inside". When lanes are marked, vehicular cyclists generally operate in the outermost travel lane. When lanes are not marked, vehicular cyclists generally operate as far to the outside of the traveled way as is reasonably efficient and safe.

As vehicular cyclists approach a junction of ways, the principle of "destination positioning" comes into play, and they should position themselves laterally according to their destination (left, straight or right):
  • Where lanes are marked, vehicular cyclists approaching a junction should choose the outermost lane that serves their destination.
  • When lanes are not marked, vehicular cyclists approaching a junction will travel along the inside of their side of the road if turning toward the inside, along the outer side if turning to the outside, and in between if going straight.


Vehicular cycling theory suggests establishing the center of the outermost marked lane as the cyclist's default or primary position, where the cyclist will be more visible and predictable to motor vehicle traffic. The secondary position is nearer to the outer edge of the lane, and is used when traffic is overtaking and likely to be delayed while waiting to pass outside the lane, and when the lane can be efficiently and safely shared with motor vehicles.

On multi-lane roadways, some vehicular cyclists ride on the inside of the outermost lane (on the side furthest from the road edge in the lane nearest the road edge), for enhanced visibility to motor vehicle traffic. In Salt Lake City, this left-of-center position is painted by the City in green along with shared lane markings on several downtown roadways.

Looking back

Vehicular cycling advocates looking back over one's shoulder as a key skill, in order to
  1. check that moving laterally or turning will not violate the right-of-way of someone who is overtaking
  2. broadcast the cyclist's desire (to move laterally or turn) to other road users so that they can better predict the cyclist's path
  3. see if someone who's overtaking is about to make a mistake and violate their right-of-way


Particularly in slow traffic, a cyclist's look to the rear may serve as a signal, allowing the cyclist to keep both hands on the handlebar. However, a cyclist may also use a hand signal (arm extended to the side) to request that an overtaking driver make room. The cyclist then follows up with a second look to the rear to assure that the driver has made room.

Negotiation

The concept of negotiation is an important part of traversing across one or more lanes of traffic. The basic idea is to negotiate for the right-of-way in the adjacent lane, move into that lane, and then repeat the process for any additional lanes. This is an important vehicular cycling skill, because it allows the cyclist to merge in with the flow of other traffic instead of cutting across at a right-angle (as a pedestrian would).

The first step in traversing across a lane is looking back for traffic that may be overtaking in that lane. When there is overtaking traffic which will arrive too soon for the cyclist to merge out into the lane (i.e., there is an insufficient gap), the cyclist needs to either wait until traffic has passed and a sufficient gap becomes available, or request that someone in that traffic explicitly yield the right-of-way by slowing down to let the cyclist in. Simply looking back is often all that is required to signal the cyclist's intent, but sometimes a hand signal is helpful in getting a driver in overtaking traffic to yield right-of-way by slowing down to the cyclist's speed in order to allow the cyclist to move in front of the driver. Once right-of-way has been acquired in the adjacent lane, the second step is for the cyclist to move into that lane.

If there is another lane to traverse, the cyclist repeats the steps until there are no more lanes to traverse. The key to the process is that the cyclist merges into traffic lanes as per the rules of the road, one lane at a time, either when there is a natural gap to move into, or after someone slows down explicitly to allow the cyclist to move over.

The higher the relative speed of the overtaking vehicles, the more time and space a willing motorist needs to notice the cyclist's request and to safely slow down enough to allow the cyclist in. An assertive arm signal coupled with a timely look back is usually sufficient to accomplish this, even in very dense and fast traffic. When the relative speed is large and the gaps are too small for merging, the cyclist who is unwilling to use negotiation either has to wait for traffic conditions to improve or find another route.

Segregated cycling

Segregated cycle facilities exist in some areas as an alternative to vehicular cycling, allowing cycling without sharing roads with motorized traffic. Cities that provide such facilities report a high degree of usage, such as in several cities in the Netherlands
Cycling in the Netherlands
Cycling in the Netherlands is a common and popular method of both transport and also recreation. The country is well equipped with cycle-paths and other segregated cycle facilities. The network reaches all parts of the nation and into the bordering nations of Belgium and Germany...

. Research indicates that cyclists are willing to pay a higher price in longer travel time for designated facilities such as an on-street bike lane.

Pedestrian cycling

Pedestrian cycling is cycling according to the pedestrian rules of the road. Pedestrian bicycling often means riding on sidewalk
Sidewalk
A sidewalk, or pavement, footpath, footway, and sometimes platform, is a path along the side of a road. A sidewalk may accommodate moderate changes in grade and is normally separated from the vehicular section by a curb...

s, pedestrian crossing
Pedestrian crossing
A pedestrian crossing or crosswalk is a designated point on a road at which some means are employed to assist pedestrians wishing to cross. They are designed to keep pedestrians together where they can be seen by motorists, and where they can cross most safely across the flow of vehicular traffic...

s, and other pedestrian facilities, which is illegal in many jurisdictions; however, in some places, such as the United Kingdom, shared-use footways may exist for the use of both pedestrians and cyclists.

This approach has the drawback that extra care must be taken when changing from one mode to the other, since the transition can leads to actions not expected by others, such as pedestrians who may not expect cyclists to be so close, and other vehicles at intersections.

As a practice

In The Art of Urban Cycling, Robert Hurst contrasts his approach to traffic cycling from vehicular cycling. He writes that his approach is "to anticipate the mistakes of others", contrasting that to his view of vehicular cycling which he claims "leaves responsibility in the hands of motorists, and trusts that they will act properly". However, much of vehicular cycling is about recognizing, anticipating and avoiding crashes due to motorist errors. Forester devotes nine pages of Effective Cycling to a section entitled "Avoiding Motorists' Intersection Errors" which clearly acknowledges that motorists make errors (and thus cannot be trusted to always act properly). Further, in the introductory paragraph of the "Riding the Intersections" chapter, Forester refers to "errors other drivers are likely to make" as being something the cyclist has to be able to anticipate. In the summary of that chapter, Forester allows for the possibility of driver error when he goes on to advise, "don't be diverted or stopped while you have the right-of-way unless the other driver is clearly doing the wrong thing". Also, in the Effective Cycling Instructor's Manual, Forester refers to the importance of understanding how the traffic system works in order to recognize when motorists are making mistakes in order to avoid crashes with them.

As opposition to segregated cycle facilities

Vehicular cycling advocates like John Forester and John S. Allen have written and spoken out about the drawbacks of segregated cycle facilities, and these views have drawn criticism.

Urban planning professor John Pucher writes that "although Forester makes a number of theoretical arguments why bikeways are unsafe, his empirical test of the superiority of vehicular cycling is based on a sample of one—a single bike ride he took on a new bike path in Palo Alto, California." However, Forester has never argued that it is impossible to ride on bikeways safely; he has even noted that it is possible to ride safely on what he considers to be the most dangerous type of bikeway, the sidepath. The test to which Pucher refers is one in which Forester rode his bicycle on a sidepath "system using the same speeds and right-of-way that [Forester] had enjoyed on the roadway", a test he had to terminate "because of its excessive dangers". Forester also objects to rejection of his test results as being non-scientific due to the test not having been repeated by anyone else, since it should be easy for any skeptic to repeat the test.

Pucher's various transnational studies of bicycle transportation lead him to conclude: "the overwhelming evidence is that cycling is much safer and more popular precisely in those countries where bikeways, bike lanes, special intersection modifications, and priority traffic signals are the key to their bicycling policies. ... " In his reviews of Pucher's work, Forester objects to Pucher's conclusions, primarily on the grounds that Pucher is conflating correlation with causation. That is, Pucher ascribes the increase in use of bikes and bike safety observed to the bikeways, without showing that the bikeways are the actual cause of the increased use or safety.

The authors of a 2009 meta-study on cycle infrastructure safety research at the University of British Columbia
University of British Columbia
The University of British Columbia is a public research university. UBC’s two main campuses are situated in Vancouver and in Kelowna in the Okanagan Valley...

 similarly conclude that "in comparison to cycling on bicycle-specific infrastructure (paths, lanes, routes), on-road cycling appears to be less safe." In direct contrast to the claims of vehicular cycling proponents, Jennifer Dill and Theresa Carr's research on bicycle transportation in 35 U.S. cities also suggests that "higher levels of bicycle infrastructure are positively and significantly correlated with higher rates of bicycle commuting."
A recent study comparing streets in Copenhagen
Copenhagen
Copenhagen is the capital and largest city of Denmark, with an urban population of 1,199,224 and a metropolitan population of 1,930,260 . With the completion of the transnational Øresund Bridge in 2000, Copenhagen has become the centre of the increasingly integrating Øresund Region...

 that had had cycle tracks and bicycle lanes added to them found that cycling volume increased 20% on the cycle track streets but bicycle accidents increased 10% more than would be expected from the changed bicycle and automobile traffic volumes, making the cycle tracks less safe for bicyclists than the unmodified roads. Streets with bicycle lanes added saw a 5% increase in bicycle traffic but a 49% increase in bicycle accidents. However, the study noted that "the gains in health from increased physical activity [from increased numbers cycling are] much, much greater than the losses in health resulting from a slight decline in road safety." It is not known, from the study, how much of the increase in cycling on the modified streets was just a displacement of existing bicycle traffic from nearby streets to the modified streets, or a true increase, if any, of bicycling.

As a movement

The movement surrounding vehicular cycling has also drawn criticism for its effect on bicycle advocacy in general.

In Pedaling Revolution, Jeff Mapes states that Forester "fought bike lanes, European-style cycletracks, and just about any form of traffic calming", and "saw nothing wrong with sprawl and an auto-dependent lifestyle." Zack Furness is highly critical of vehicular cyclists in One Less Car: Bicycling and the Politics of Automobility, arguing that their criticism of 'political' cyclists "totally ignores all the relevant socioeconomic, physical, material, and cultural factors that influence—and in most cases dictate—everyday transportation choices." Critical Mass
Critical Mass
Critical Mass is a cycling event typically held on the last Friday of every month in over 300 cities around the world. The ride was originally founded in 1992 in San Francisco. The purpose of Critical Mass is not usually formalized beyond the direct action of meeting at a set location and time and...

 co-founder Chris Carlsson describes vehicular cycling as a naive, polarizing "ideology" that "essentially advocates bicyclists should strive to behave like cars on the streets of America."

Further reading

  • Effective Cycling by John Forester (First edition, 1976; Sixth edition, The MIT Press, 1993) ISBN 0-262-56070-4
  • Cyclecraft by John Franklin (First edition, Unwin Books, 1988; Fourth edition, The Stationery Office, 2007) ISBN 978-0-11-703740-3
  • Cyclecraft by John Franklin (First North American edition, The Stationery Office, 2009) ISBN 978-0-11-706476-8
  • Bicycling Street Smarts by John S. Allen (Second edition, Rubel Publications, 2002) ISBN 1-881559-75-0

External links

  • Segregation: are we moving away from cycling safety?, John Franklin
  • Video of LAB
    League of American Bicyclists
    The League of American Bicyclists is a non-profit membership organization which promotes cycling for fun, fitness and transportation through advocacy and education....

    traffic cycling instructors demonstrating lane control.
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