Vaisheshika or
is one of the six
HinduHindu refers to an identity associated with the philosophical, religious and cultural systems that are indigenous to the Indian subcontinent. As used in the Constitution of India, the word "Hindu" is also attributed to all persons professing any Indian religion...
schools of
philosophyPhilosophy is the study of general and fundamental problems, such as those connected with existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. Philosophy is distinguished from other ways of addressing such problems by its critical, generally systematic approach and its reliance on rational...
(orthodox
VedicThe religion of the Vedic period is a historical predecessor of Hinduism. Its liturgy is reflected in the mantra portion of the four Vedas, which are compiled in Sanskrit. The religious practices centered on a clergy administering rites...
systems) of India. Historically, it has been closely associated with the Hindu school of
logicIn philosophy, Logic is the formal systematic study of the principles of valid inference and correct reasoning. Logic is used in most intellectual activities, but is studied primarily in the disciplines of philosophy, mathematics, semantics, and computer science...
,
Nyaya' is the name given to one of the six orthodox or astika schools of Hindu philosophy—specifically the school of logic...
.
Vaisheshika espouses a form of
atomismAtomism is a natural philosophy that developed in several ancient traditions. The atomists theorized that the natural world consists of two fundamental parts: indivisible atoms and empty void.According to Aristotle, atoms are indestructible and immutable and there are an infinite variety of shapes...
and postulates that all objects in the physical universe are reducible to a finite number of
atomThe atom is a basic unit of matter that consists of a dense central nucleus surrounded by a cloud of negatively charged electrons. The atomic nucleus contains a mix of positively charged protons and electrically neutral neutrons...
s. Originally proposed by the sage
{{Hindu philosophy}}
Vaisheshika or {{IAST|Vaiśeṣika}} ({{lang-sa|वैशॆषिक}}) is one of the six HinduHindu refers to an identity associated with the philosophical, religious and cultural systems that are indigenous to the Indian subcontinent. As used in the Constitution of India, the word "Hindu" is also attributed to all persons professing any Indian religion...
schools of
philosophyPhilosophy is the study of general and fundamental problems, such as those connected with existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. Philosophy is distinguished from other ways of addressing such problems by its critical, generally systematic approach and its reliance on rational...
(orthodox
VedicThe religion of the Vedic period is a historical predecessor of Hinduism. Its liturgy is reflected in the mantra portion of the four Vedas, which are compiled in Sanskrit. The religious practices centered on a clergy administering rites...
systems) of India. Historically, it has been closely associated with the Hindu school of
logicIn philosophy, Logic is the formal systematic study of the principles of valid inference and correct reasoning. Logic is used in most intellectual activities, but is studied primarily in the disciplines of philosophy, mathematics, semantics, and computer science...
,
Nyaya' is the name given to one of the six orthodox or astika schools of Hindu philosophy—specifically the school of logic...
.
Vaisheshika espouses a form of
atomismAtomism is a natural philosophy that developed in several ancient traditions. The atomists theorized that the natural world consists of two fundamental parts: indivisible atoms and empty void.According to Aristotle, atoms are indestructible and immutable and there are an infinite variety of shapes...
and postulates that all objects in the physical universe are reducible to a finite number of
atomThe atom is a basic unit of matter that consists of a dense central nucleus surrounded by a cloud of negatively charged electrons. The atomic nucleus contains a mix of positively charged protons and electrically neutral neutrons...
s. Originally proposed by the sage
{{Hindu philosophy}}
Vaisheshika or {{IAST|Vaiśeṣika}} ({{lang-sa|वैशॆषिक}}) is one of the six HinduHindu refers to an identity associated with the philosophical, religious and cultural systems that are indigenous to the Indian subcontinent. As used in the Constitution of India, the word "Hindu" is also attributed to all persons professing any Indian religion...
schools of
philosophyPhilosophy is the study of general and fundamental problems, such as those connected with existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. Philosophy is distinguished from other ways of addressing such problems by its critical, generally systematic approach and its reliance on rational...
(orthodox
VedicThe religion of the Vedic period is a historical predecessor of Hinduism. Its liturgy is reflected in the mantra portion of the four Vedas, which are compiled in Sanskrit. The religious practices centered on a clergy administering rites...
systems) of India. Historically, it has been closely associated with the Hindu school of
logicIn philosophy, Logic is the formal systematic study of the principles of valid inference and correct reasoning. Logic is used in most intellectual activities, but is studied primarily in the disciplines of philosophy, mathematics, semantics, and computer science...
,
Nyaya' is the name given to one of the six orthodox or astika schools of Hindu philosophy—specifically the school of logic...
.
Vaisheshika espouses a form of
atomismAtomism is a natural philosophy that developed in several ancient traditions. The atomists theorized that the natural world consists of two fundamental parts: indivisible atoms and empty void.According to Aristotle, atoms are indestructible and immutable and there are an infinite variety of shapes...
and postulates that all objects in the physical universe are reducible to a finite number of
atomThe atom is a basic unit of matter that consists of a dense central nucleus surrounded by a cloud of negatively charged electrons. The atomic nucleus contains a mix of positively charged protons and electrically neutral neutrons...
s. Originally proposed by the sage
{{IAST It has been claimed that Kashyapa, later known as Kanada was a Hindu sage and philosopher who founded the philosophical school of Vaisheshika. He talked of Dvyanuka and tryanuka...
(or
Kana-bhuk, literally,
atom-eater) around the 2nd century BC.
Overview
Although the Vaisheshika system developed independently from the Nyaya, the two eventually merged because of their closely related metaphysical theories. In its classical form, however, the Vaishesika school differed from the Nyaya in one crucial respect: where Nyaya accepted four sources of valid knowledge, the Vaishesika accepted only perception and inference. Although not among Kanada's original philosophies, later Vaishesika atomism also differs from the atomic theory of modern science by claiming the functioning of atoms(or their characterization because of which they function in their way) was guided or directed by the will of the Supreme Being. This is therefore a theistic form of atomism.
An alternative view would qualify the above in that the
holismHolism is the idea that all the properties of a given system cannot be determined or explained by its component parts alone...
evident in the ancient texts mandate the identification of six separate traditional environments of philosophy, consisting of
three sets of two pairs.
Literature of Vaisheshika
The earliest systematic exposition of the Vaisheshika is found in the {{IAST |Vaiśeṣika Sūtra}} of {{IAST |Kaṇāda}} (or {{IAST |Kaṇabhaksha}}). This treatise is divided into ten books. The two commentaries on the {{IAST |Vaiśeṣika Sūtra}}, {{IAST |Rāvaṇabhāṣya}} and {{IAST |Bhāradvājavṛtti}} are no more extant. {{IAST’s {{IAST |Padārthadharmasaṁgraha}} (c. 4th century) is the next important work of this school. Though commonly known as {{IAST |bhāṣya}} of {{IAST |Vaiśeṣika Sūtra}}, this treatise is basically an independent work on the subject. The next Vaisheshika treatise, Candra’s {{IAST |Daśapadārthaśāstra}} (648) based on {{IAST |Praśastapāda}}’s treatise is available only in Chinese translation. The earliest commentary available on {{IAST |Praśastapāda}}’s treatise is {{IAST |Vyomaśiva}}’s {{IAST |Vyomavatī}} (8th century). The other three commentaries are {{IAST |Śridhara}}’s {{IAST |Nyāyakandalī}} (991), Udayana’s {{IAST |Kiranāvali}} (10th century) and {{IAST |Śrivatsa}}’s {{IAST |Līlāvatī}} (11th century). {{IAST |Śivāditya}}’s {{IAST |Saptapadārthī}} which also belongs to the same period, presents the {{IAST |Nyāya}} and the {{IAST |Vaiśeṣika}} principles as a part of one whole. {{IAST |Śaṁkarā Miśra}}’s {{IAST |Upaskāra}} on {{IAST |Vaiśeṣika Sūtra}} is also an important work.
The Categories or Padārtha
According to the Vaisheshika school, all things which exist, which can be cognised, and which can be named are {{IAST |
padārtha}}s (literal meaning: the meaning of a word), the objects of experience. All objects of experience can be classified into six categories,
dravya (substance), {{IAST |
guṇa}} (quality),
karma (activity), {{IAST |
sāmānya}} (generality), {{IAST |
viśeṣa}} (particularity) and {{IAST |
samavāya}} (inherence). Later {{IAST |Vaiśeṣika}}s ({{IAST |Śrīdhara}} and Udayana and {{IAST |Śivāditya}}) added one more category {{IAST |
abhāva}} (non-existence). The first three categories are defined as
artha (which can perceived) and they have real objective existence. The last three categories are defined as {{IAST |
budhyapekṣam}} (product of intellectual discrimination) and they are logical categories.
1.
Dravya (substance): The substances are conceived as 9 in number. They are, {{IAST |
pṛthvī}} (earth),
ap (water),
tejas (fire), {{IAST |
vāyu}} (air), {{IAST |
ākaśa}} (ether), {{IAST |
kāla}} (time),
dik (space), {{IAST |
ātman}} (self) and
manas (mind). The first five are called {{IAST |
bhūta}}s, the substances having some specific qualities so that they could be perceived by one or the other external senses.
2.{{IAST |
Guṇa}} (quality): The {{IAST |Vaiśeṣika Sūtra}} mentions 17 {{IAST |guṇa}}s (qualities), to which {{IAST |Praśastapāda}} added another 7. While a substance is capable of existing independently by itself, a {{IAST |guṇa}}(quality) cannot exist so. The original 17 {{IAST |guṇa}}s (qualities) are, {{IAST |
rūpa}} (colour),
rasa (taste),
gandha (smell), {{IAST |
sparśa}} (touch), {{IAST |
saṁkhyā}} (number), {{IAST |
parimāṇa}} (size/dimension/quantity), {{IAST |
pṛthaktva}} (inidividuality), {{IAST |
saṁyoga}} (conjunction/accompaniments), {{IAST |
vibhāga}} (disjunction),
paratva (priority),
aparatva (posteriority),
buddhi (knowledge),
sukha (pleasure), {{IAST |
duḥkha}} (pain), {{IAST |
icchā}} (desire), {{IAST |
dveṣa}} (aversion) and
prayatna (effort). To these {{IAST |Praśastapāda}} added
gurutva (heaviness),
dravatva (fluidity),
sneha (viscosity),
dharma (merit),
adharma (demerit), {{IAST |
śabda}} (sound) and {{IAST |
saṁkāsra}} (faculty).
3.
Karma (activity): The
karmas (activities) like {{IAST |guṇa}}s (qualities) have no separate existence, they belong to the substances. But while a quality is a permanent feature of a substance, an activity is a transient one. {{IAST|
Ākaśa}} (ehter), {{IAST |
kāla}} (time),
dik (space) and {{IAST |
ātman}} (self), though substances, are devoid of
karma (activity).
4.{{IAST |
Sāmānya}} (generality): Since there are plurality of substances, there will be relations among them. When a property is found common to many substances, it is called {{IAST |
sāmānya}}.
5.{{IAST |
Viśeṣa}} (particularity): By means of {{IAST |
viśeṣa}} , we are able to perceive substances as different from one another. As the ultimate atoms are innumerable so are the {{IAST |
viśeṣa}}s.
6.{{IAST |
Samavāya}} (inherence): {{IAST |Kaṇāda}} defined {{IAST |
samavāya}} as the relation between the cause and the effect. {{IAST |Praśastapāda}} defined it as the relationship existing between the substances that are inseparable, standing to one another in the relation of the container and the contained. The relation of {{IAST |
samavāya}} is not perceivable but only inferable from the inseparable connection of the substances.
Epistemology and syllogism
The early {{IAST |vaiśeṣika}} epistemology considered only
pratyaksha (
perceptionPerception is the process of attaining awareness or understanding of the environment by organizing and interpreting sensory information. All perception involves signals in the nervous system, which in turn result from physical stimulation of the sense organs...
) and {{IAST |
anumāna}} (
inferenceInference is the act or process of deriving logical conclusions from premises known or assumed to be true. The conclusion drawn is also called an idiomatic. The laws of valid inference are studied in the field of logic.Human inference Inference is the act or process of deriving logical conclusions...
) as the {{IAST |
pramaṇa}}s (means of valid knowledge). The other two means of valid knowledge accepted by the
Nyaya' is the name given to one of the six orthodox or astika schools of Hindu philosophy—specifically the school of logic...
school, {{IAST |
upamānaUpamana , in Hinduism, is a pramana, or means of having knowledge of something. Observance of similarities provides knowledge of the relationship between the two....
}} (comparison) and {{IAST |
śabda}} (verbal testimony) were considered as included in {{IAST |
anumāna}}. The syllogism of the {{IAST |vaiśeṣika}} school was similar to that of the
Nyaya' is the name given to one of the six orthodox or astika schools of Hindu philosophy—specifically the school of logic...
, but the names given by {{IAST |Praśastapāda}} to the 5 members of syllogism are different.
The atomic theory
The early {{IAST |vaiśeṣika}} texts presented the following syllogism to prove that all objects i.e. the four {{IAST |bhūta}}s, {{IAST |
pṛthvī}} (earth),
ap (water),
tejas (fire) and {{IAST |
vāyu}} (air) are made of indivisible {{IAST |
paramāṇu}}s (atoms): Assume that the matter is not made of indivisible atoms, and that it is continuous. Take a stone. One can divide this up into infinitely many pieces (since matter is continuous). Now, the Himalayan mountain range also has infinitely many pieces, so one may build another Himalayan mountain range with the infinite number of pieces that one has. One begins with a stone and ends up with the Himalayas,
which is a paradoxThe Banach–Tarski paradox is a theorem in set theoretic geometry which states the following: Given a solid ball in 3-dimensional space, there exists a decomposition of the ball into a finite number of non-overlapping pieces , which can then be put back together in a different way to yield two...
- so the original assumption that matter is continuous must be wrong, and so all objects must be made up of a finite number of {{IAST |
paramāṇu}}s (atoms).
According to the {{IAST |vaiśeṣika}} school, the {{IAST |
trasareṇu}} (dust particles visible in the sunbeam coming through a small window hole) are the smallest
mahat (perceivable) particles and defined as {{IAST |tryaṇuka}}s (triads). These are made of three parts, each of which are defined as {{IAST |dvyaṇuka}} (dyad). The {{IAST |dvyaṇuka}}s are conceived as made of two parts, each of which are defined as {{IAST |paramāṇu}} (atom). The {{IAST |paramāṇu}}s (atoms) are indivisible and eternal, they can neither be created nor destroyed. Each {{IAST |paramāṇu}} (atom) possesses its own distinct {{IAST |viśeṣa}} (individuality).
The measure of the partless atoms is known as
parimandala parimana. It is eternal and it cannot generate the measure of any other substance. Its measure is its own absolutely.
Later developments
Over the centuries, the school merged with the
Nyaya' is the name given to one of the six orthodox or astika schools of Hindu philosophy—specifically the school of logic...
school of Indian philosophy to form the combined school of
{{IAST |nyāya-vaiśeṣika}}. The school suffered a natural decline in
IndiaIndia , officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world...
after the 15th century.
Criticism by the Vedanta School
The Vaisheshikas say that the visible universe is created from an original stock of atoms (
janim asatah). As Kanada's Vaisheshika Sutra (7.1.20) states,
nityam parimandalam (that which is of the smallest size, the atom, is eternal), he and his followers also postulate eternality for other, nonatomic entities, including the souls who become embodied, and even a Supreme Soul. But in Vaisheshika cosmology the souls and the Supersoul play only token roles in the atomic production of the universe. The Brahma Sutra (2.2.12) criticizes this position as
ubhayathapi na karmatas tad-abhavah. According to this sutra, one cannot claim that, at the time of creation, atoms first combine together because they are impelled by some karmic impulse adhering in the atoms themselves, since atoms by themselves, in their primeval state before combining into complex objects, have no ethical responsibility that might lead them to acquire pious and sinful reactions. Nor can the initial combination of atoms be explained as a result of the residual karma of the living entities who lie dormant prior to creation, since these reactions are each
jivaIn Hinduism and Jainism, a jiva is a living being, or more specifically, the immortal essence of a living organism which survives physical death. It has a very similar usage to atma, but whereas atma refers to "the cosmic self", jiva is used to denote an individual 'living entity' or 'living...
's own and cannot be transferred from them even to other jivas, what to speak of inert atoms.
External links
{{Indian Philosophy}}