Sultan Mohammed Öz-Beg, better known as
Uzbeg or
Ozbeg (1282–1341, reign 1313–1341), was the longest-reigning
khanKhan is an originally Central Asian title for a sovereign or military ruler, first used by medieval Altaic-speaking nomadic tribes living to the north of China and the center of Rumelia Kailar yoruks are mentioned as yorukkhans in Ottoman arvhives...
of the
Golden HordeThe Ulus of Jochi or the Golden Horde is an East Slavic designation for the Mongol—later Turkicized—Muslim khanate established in the western part of the Mongol Empire after the Mongol invasion of Rus' in the 1240s: present-day Russia, Ukraine, Moldova, Kazakhstan, and the Caucasus...
, under whose rule the state reached its zenith. He was succeeded by his son
Jani BegJani Beg was a khan of the Golden Horde from 1342-1357, succeeding his father Uzbeg Khan.After putting two of his brothers to death, Jani Beg crowned himself in Saray-Jük. He is known to have actively interfered in the affairs of Russian principalities and of Lithuania...
.
He was the son of Toghrilcha and grandson of
Mengu-TimurMengu-Timur or Möngke Temür , Son of Toqoqan Khan and Buka Ujin of Oirat and the grandson of Batu Khan. He was a khan of the Golden Horde in 1266-1280.His name literally means "Eternal Iron" in the Mongolian language....
, who had been khan of the Golden Horde from 1267–1280.
Coronation and Islamicization of the Horde
Ozbeg's father Togrilcha was one of Genghisid princes that overthrew Tode-Mengu (r.1280–1287). Later, he was executed by Tokhta (1291–1312). Tokhta took Togrilcha's wife and sent his son Ozbeg to exile on a distant region of the Golden Horde: Khorazm or the country of
CircassiansCircassians is a term derived from the Turkic Cherkess . Generically it refers to the Caucasian peoples of northwest Caucasus. It might be understood in a narrower sense , or in a broader sense...
.
Converted to Islam by Ibn Abdul Hamid, a Bukharan sayyid and sheikh of the Yasavi order, Öz-Beg assumed the throne upon the death of his uncle Tokhta in January 1313 with the help of former khan's muslim
vizierA vizier is a high-ranking political advisor or minister, often to a Persian Empire's monarchs such as Shah and Shahenshah. It sometimes refers to ministers and advisors of the Muslim's caliph, or sultan...
Temur Qutlugh and Bulaghan (or Bayalun)
khatunKhatun is a female title of nobility and alternative to male "khan" prominently used in the First Turkish Empire and in the subsequent Mongol Empire...
. At first, Mongol nobles were against him and organized the plot to kill new khan. Uzbeg found out the plot and crushed rebels. His adoption of
IslamIslam Islam Islam ( al-’islām,
[There are ten pronunciations of Islam in English, differing in whether the first or second syllable has the stress, whether the s is or , and whether the a is pronounced as in father, as in cat, or (when the stress is on the i) as in the a of sofa...]
as a
state religionA state religion is a religious body or creed officially endorsed by the state. Practically, a state without a state religion is called a secular state. The term state church is associated with Christianity, and is sometimes used to denote a specific national branch of Christianity...
led to a conspiracy of Shamanist and Buddhist princes, which was severely subdued. Ozbeg determindely spread Islam amongst Gorde Horde he allowed missionary activities to expand in the surrounding regions. Ozbeg found out that his competitor was backed by the envoys of the Great Khan Ayurbarwada Buyantu and deteriorated his relationship with Yuan Dynasty. Last of his rebel relatives was shamanist khan Ilbasan of
White HordeThe White Horde or the Left wing princes was one of the uluses within the Mongol Empire formed around 1226, after the death of Genghis Khan and subsequent division of his empire...
and he was murdered in 1320. Uzbeg installed Mubarak Khwaja who was a muslim in throne of White Horde but he discouraged. In the long run, Islam enabled the khan to eliminate interfactional struggles in the Horde and to stabilize state institutions. Russian scholar
Lev GumilevLev Nikolayevich Gumilyov , also known as Lev Gumilev, was a Russian historian, ethnologist and anthropologist...
wrote that the
KhanateKhanate or Chanat is a Turco-Mongolian-originated word used to describe a political entity ruled by a Khan. In modern Turkish the word used is hanlık, and in modern Azeri of the republic of Azerbaijan, xanlıq. In Mongolian the word khanlig is used, as in "Khereidiin Khanlig" meaning the Khanate of...
turned into Sultanate.
He urged the Mongol elite to convert to Islam, but at the same time, he was quite tolerant toward Christians and the local pagans of his empire such as
RussiansThe Russian people are an ethnic group of the East Slavic peoples, primarily living in Russia and neighboring countries....
,
CircassiansCircassians is a term derived from the Turkic Cherkess . Generically it refers to the Caucasian peoples of northwest Caucasus. It might be understood in a narrower sense , or in a broader sense...
,
AlanAlan can refer to:*Alan , the given name*Alan , a short-lived German automobile*Alan , a crater on the Moon*Alan , a race of winged spirits from Tinguian folklorePeople*Alan , Mexican boy-band singer...
s,
BulgarBulgar may refer to:*Bulgars, an ancient group of peoples from Central Asia*Bulgar language, the extinct language of the Bulgars*Bulgarians, a contemporary nation in Eastern Europe*Bolghar, a capital city of the Volga Bulgaria...
s,
Finno-UgricFinno-Ugric can refer to:* Finno-Ugric languages* Finno-Ugric peoples...
people, Turks and
CrimeaCrimea or the Autonomous Republic of Crimea is the only autonomous republic of Ukraine. It is located on the northern coast of the Black Sea, occupying a peninsula of the same name.The territory of Crimea was conquered and controlled many times throughout its history...
n
GreeksThe Greeks , also known as Hellenes, are a nation and ethnic group native to Greece, Cyprus and neighbouring regions, who can also be found in diaspora communities around the world....
as long as they continued to pay the jizyah.
Military and Politics
Öz-Beg maintained one of the largest armies in the world, which exceeded 300,000 warriors. He employed his military clout to conduct campaigns against the
IlkhanateThe Ilkhanate, also spelled Il-khanate or Il Khanate , was a Mongol khanate established in Persia in the 13th century, considered a part of the Mongol Empire...
in
ArranArran , also known as Aran, Ardhan , Al-Ran , Aghvank and Alvank , Ran-i or Caucasian Albania , was a geographical name used in ancient and medieval times to signify the territory which lies within the triangle of land, lowland in the east and mountainous in the west, formed by the...
in 1319, 1325 and 1335. Ilkhanid commander
ChupanAmir Chupan, also known as Choban or Coban , , was a Chupanid prince of the Ilkhanate, and the eponym of the dynasty. His father was named Malek of Mongol Suldus clan...
repulsed one of his first two attempts and even invaded deep into Jochid Ulus in 1325. After he found an ally against the Ilkhanids in the shape of
MamlukA mamluk was a soldier who converted to Islam and served the Muslim Arab caliphs from the 9th to the 16th centuries. They were of mixed ancestry but mainly Kipchak Turks...
EgyptEgypt , officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a country mainly in North Africa, with the Sinai Peninsula forming a land bridge in Western Asia...
, one of
CairoCairo is the capital of Egypt and the largest city in the Arab World. Nicknamed "The City of a Thousand Minarets" for its preponderance of Islamic architecture, Cairo has long been a center of the region's political and cultural life...
squares was named after him. The khan had the daughter of previous khan's sister, princess Tulunbuya, married with Mamluk sultan. But she died soon after and Uzbek was disappointed. In 1323, a peace treaty was signed between Egypt and Ilkhanate. The situation relieved the alliance and Mamluks refused mannerly to invade Ilkhanate. Ozbeg's next incursion was coincided with Abu Said's death. However, the weather turned bad and new Ilkhan
Arpa Ke'unArpa Ke'un was an Ilkhan during the disintegration of the Mongol state in Persia. He was a member of the house of Tolui. His lineage traced back to Arik Boke who was a youngest brother of Mongke, Kublai and Hulegu....
came with a large force to face full of his army. His army had to withdrew for those reasons.
Chagatai KhanThe Chagatai Khanate was a Mongol, and later linguistically Turkicized, khanate that comprised the lands ruled by Chagatai Khan , second son of the Great Khan Genghis Khan, and his descendents and successors...
Esen Buqa IEsen Buqa I was Khan of the Chagatai Khanate . He was the son of Duwa.In 1309 Esen Buqa's brother Kebek ordered a meeting to determine the future of the khanate following his seizure of power...
attempted to gain the support of Uzbeg Khan against Buyantu, the Great Khan of the Mongol Empire and the Emperor of the
Yuan DynastyThe Yuan Dynasty , or Great Yuan Empire was both the continuation of the Mongol Empire and the Mongol founded historical state in Mongolia and China, lasting officially from 1271 to 1368. Although the dynasty was established by Kublai Khan, he had his grandfather Genghis Khan placed on the...
, in 1313 and 1316. Esen buqa warned Uzbek that the Great Khan would overthrow him from the throne of the Horde and install another khan from the Jochids instead. But Uzbek's vizier convinced him not to believe his words and the Khan refused to help him. Although, he tried his best to eliminate every influence and inspiration of Yuan Dynasty on Golden Horde. The Khan's diplomatic relationship with the Yuan improved in 1324. By 1330s, Ozbeg had begun sending tributes to Mongol Yuan Emperors and received his share from Jochid possessions in
ChinaChina is a cultural region, an ancient civilization, and, depending on perspective, a national or multinational entity extending over a large area in East Asia....
and
MongoliaMongolia is a landlocked country in East and Central Asia. It borders Russia to the north and the People's Republic of China to the south, east and west. Although Mongolia does not share a border with Kazakhstan, its western-most point is only 24 miles from Kazakhstan's eastern tip. Ulan Bator,...
in exchange.
Öz-Beg was engaged in wars with
BulgariaBulgaria , officially the Republic of Bulgaria , is a country in the Balkans in south-eastern Europe. Bulgaria borders five other countries: Romania to the north , Serbia and the Republic of Macedonia to the west, and Greece and Turkey to the south...
and
ByzantineThe word Byzantine may refer to:Topics directly related to the Byzantine Empire* A citizen of The Byzantine Empire, or native Greek during the Middle Ages...
from 1320 to 1332. Ozbeg khan (1313–1341) repeatedly raided Thrace, partly in service of Bulgaria's war against both Byzantium and
SerbiaSerbia , officially the Republic of Serbia , is a country located in both Central and Southeastern Europe. Its territory covers the southern part of the Pannonian Plain and central part of the Balkans...
from 1319. His armies pillaged Thrace for 40 days in 1324 and for 15 days in 1337,taking 300,000 captives. After Ozbeg's death in 1341, his successors did not continue his aggressive policy and contacts with Bulgaria lapsed. His attempt to reassert Mongol control over
SerbiaSerbia , officially the Republic of Serbia , is a country located in both Central and Southeastern Europe. Its territory covers the southern part of the Pannonian Plain and central part of the Balkans...
was unsuccessful in 1330. Emperor Andronikos III gave his illegitimate daughter in marriage to Uzbek but relations turned sour at the end of Andonicus's reign and the Mongols mounted raids on
ThraceThrace is a historical and geographic area in southeast Europe. As a geographical concept, Thrace designates a region bounded on the north by the Balkan Mountains, on the south by the Rhodope Mountains and the Aegean Sea and on the east by the Black Sea and the Sea of Marmara...
between 1320 to 1324, until the
ByzantineThe word Byzantine may refer to:Topics directly related to the Byzantine Empire* A citizen of The Byzantine Empire, or native Greek during the Middle Ages...
port of Vicina Macaria was occupied by the Mongols. Andonicus's daughter, who adopted the name Bayalun, managed to escape to Byzantine Empire due to fearing islamic conversion.
Ozbeg allowed
GenoeseThe Most Serene Republic of Genoa was an independent state in Liguria on the northwestern Italian coast from 1005 to 1797, when it was invaded by armies of Revolutionary France under Napoleon. It was then succeeded by the Ligurian Republic, which existed until 1805 before being annexed by the...
, who harassed by Tokhta, to settle in
CrimeaCrimea or the Autonomous Republic of Crimea is the only autonomous republic of Ukraine. It is located on the northern coast of the Black Sea, occupying a peninsula of the same name.The territory of Crimea was conquered and controlled many times throughout its history...
. But the Mongols sacked
SudakSudak or Sudaq is a small historic town located in Crimea, Ukraine situated to the west of Feodosiya and to the east of Simferopol, the capital of Crimea...
under Khan Ozbeg in 1322 as a result of a clash between Christians and Muslims in the city. The Genoese merchants in the other towns were not molested in 1322. The
PopeThe pope is the Bishop of Rome and, as such, is leader of the worldwide Catholic Church...
intervened and asked Ozbeg to restore Roman Catholic churches destroyed. Ozbeg was friendly towards the Pope and exchanged letters and gifts. Khan Ozbeg signed a new trade treaty with the Genoese in 1339 and allowed them to rebuild the walls of
KaffaKaffa is the name of several geographical entities:*Crimean city of Kaffa or Caffa is currently known as Theodosia ;*The Kingdom of Kaffa in Ethiopia;*hence former Ethiopian province of Kaffa*The Kaffa people of Ethiopia....
. In 1332 he had allowed the
VenetiansThe Most Serene Republic of Venice or Venetian Republic was a state originating from the city of Venice in Northeastern Italy. It existed for over a millennium, from the late 7th century AD until the year 1797...
to establish a colony at
TanaisTanais is the ancient name for the River Don in Russia. Strabo regarded it as the boundary between Europe and Asia....
on the
DonThe Don is one of the major rivers of Russia. It rises in the town of Novomoskovsk 60 kilometres southeast from Tula, southeast of Moscow, and flows for a distance of about 1,950 kilometres to the Sea of Azov....
.
New Sarai
During the reign of Uzbeg,
Sarai-Places:*Sarai , the capital city of the Golden Horde*Sarai Alamgir, a town in northern Pakistan*Sarai , an urban-type settlement in Ryazan Oblast, Russia*Saraj municipality, a municipality in Greater Skopje, Republic of Macedonia...
was more quickly becoming a main commercial center and industrial trading center of the country than just a political center. The expression of Mongol camp mentality, following Ash and the nearby absence of some structures.
For successfully expanding
IslamIslam Islam Islam ( al-’islām,
[There are ten pronunciations of Islam in English, differing in whether the first or second syllable has the stress, whether the s is or , and whether the a is pronounced as in father, as in cat, or (when the stress is on the i) as in the a of sofa...]
, it was necessary to build a
mosqueA mosque is a place of worship for followers of Islam. Muslims often refer to the mosque by its Arabic name, masjid, —...
and other "elaborate places;" requiring baths—an important element of
Muslim:A Muslim , , is an adherent of the religion of Islam. The feminine form is Muslimah . Literally, the word means "one who submits ". Muslim is the participle of the same verb of which Islam is the infinitive. Muslims believe that there is only one God, translated in Arabic as Allah...
culture. Sarai attracted merchants from
EuropeEurope is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally divided from Asia to its east by the water divide of the Ural Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian Sea, the Caucasus Mountains , and the Black Sea to the southeast...
an,
AsiaAsia is the world's largest and most populous continent, located in the eastern and northern hemispheres. It covers 8.6% of the earth's total surface area and with approximately 4 billion people, it hosts 60% of the world's current human population.Asia is traditionally defined as part of the...
n and Islamic countries as well as
Middle EastThe Middle East is a region that spans southwestern Asia, southeastern Europe, and northeastern Africa. It has no clear boundaries, often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East...
. Slave trade flourished due to strengthening ties with Mamluk Sultanate. Successful commercial revolutions require new markets, caravans, a "place where merchants find their way." Growth of wealth and increasing needs of production always produce population growth, this did not passover Sarai. Dwelling places of the region increased. This transformed the capital into a center of a large Muslim government, giving it the appropriate aspect and status. Uzbeg actually came to build a new city, which received the official name Saray al-Jedid or New Sarai.
Relationship with Russian princes
As regards
RussiaRussia , officially known as both Russia and the Russian Federation , is a country in northern Eurasia . It is a semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects...
n politics, Öz-Beg supported the earliest princes of Muscovy - his brother-in-law
Yury of MoscowYuriy Danilovich, also known as Georgiy Danilovich was Prince of Moscow and Grand Prince of Vladimir ....
and Yury's successor Ivan Kalita - against the westward-leaning Princes of
TverTver is a city in Russia, the administrative center of Tver Oblast. Population: 405,500 ; 408,903 . Tver, which is located north of Moscow, was formerly the capital of a powerful medieval state and a model provincial town in Imperial Russia with population of 60,000 onJanuary 14, 1913...
. Three of these - Mikhail of Tver, his son Alexander and grandson Theodor - were killed in
SaraiSarai Batu was a capital city of the Golden Horde and one of the largest cities of the medieval world, with a population estimated by the 2005 Britannica at 600,000....
at Öz-Beg's behest.
In 1317,
Mikhail YaroslavichMikhail Yaroslavich , also known as Michael of Tver, was a Prince of Tver who ruled as Grand Prince of Vladimir from 1304 until 1314 and again from 1315-1318...
defeated Yuri at a village called Bortenevo. Mikhail captured Yuri's wife, who was the Khan's sister. Unluckily, Yuri's wife died when she was in the custody of Mikhael. He was summoned to the court of Golden Horde and beheaded in December of 1318.
Following Yury's machinations which led the khan to grant the yarlik to
MoscowMoscow is the capital and the largest city of Russia. It is also the largest metropolitan area in Europe, and ranks among the largest urban areas in the world. Moscow is a major political, economic, cultural, religious, financial, educational, and transportation centre of Russia and the world, a...
and their father's execution at the Horde,
DmitryDmitry Mikhaylovich of Tver , nicknamed The Terrible Eyes , was a Grand Prince of Vladimir and Grand Prince of Tver...
killed Yuri in Sarai four years later. Ozbeg waited to punish Dmitri, however, he arrested the prince of Tver for the murder and executed him in 1326.
When the Khan's cousin, the Baskak Shevkal and his Tatars were killed in Tver and a rebellion erupted there, Alexander Mikhailovich fled to
PskovPskov is an ancient city located in the north-west of Russia about east from the Estonian border, on the Velikaya River. The city of Pskov serves as the administrative center of Pskov Oblast...
to escape a
punitive expeditionA punitive expedition is a military journey undertaken to punish a state or any group of persons. It is usually undertaken in response to percieved disobedient or morally wrong behavior, but may be also be a covered revenge. provides the following definition:...
of 50,000 Mongol-tatars , which was headed by his cousin Ivan Daniilovich. Tver's uprising against the Horde was bloodily suppressed by Muscovite and Tatar forces in 1327. But Aleksandr traveled to the horde with tribute and was given the yarlik to Tver in 1337. The Khan pardoned him. Unfortunately, his enemy Ivan again set the Horde's Khan against him with the aid of intrigue. Alexander Mikhailovich was summoned to the Horde again and was executed at the hand of Khan Uzbek. Tver, was pillaged and many of its citizens massacred and Ozbeg appointed Ivan the
Grand DukeThe title grand duke is used in Western Europe and particularly in Germanic countries for provincial sovereigns. Grand duke is of a protocolary rank below a king but higher than a sovereign duke. Grand duke is also the usual and established translation of grand prince in languages which do not...
of
VladimirVladimir is a city in Russia, located on the Klyazma River, to the east of Moscow along the M7 motorway. It is the administrative center of Vladimir Oblast. Population: Vladimir was one of the medieval capitals of Russia, and two of its cathedrals are a World Heritage Site...
. That was the beginning of the rise of Muscotives.
Ozbeg welcomed Ivan's sons and made Simeon Grand prince (duke) in 1340. Simeon was given more powers by the Khan to counter Lithuania's growing power. And Ozbeg launched military expeditions into Lithuania that threatened Mongol dominance in Russia.
Relationship with Ukrainian Princes
Although, Ozbeg's army killed
Lev IILev Yurevich or Lev II of Galicia was the last Rus'ian king of Galicia-Volhynia in 1308–1323 . He was the son of Yuri I of Galicia whom he succeeded on the royal throne of Galicia. After the death of his father, he ruled the kingdom together with his brother Andrey...
and
Andrew of GaliciaAndriy Yuriyevych or Andrew of Galicia was the last Rus' king of Galicia-Volhynia in 1308–1323 . He was the son of Yuriy I whom he succeeded on the royal throne of Galicia. After the death of his father, he ruled the kingdom together with his brother Lev II...
in 1323, the
Grand Duchy of LithuaniaThe Grand Duchy of Lithuania was an Eastern and Central European state from the 12th /13th century until 1795. It was founded by the Lithuanians, one of the pagan Baltic tribes from Aukštaitija...
and the Kingdom of Poland had a great influence on Galicia-Volhynia. Lithuanians defeated rus' boyards and occupied
KievKiev or Kyiv , is the capital and the largest city of Ukraine, located in the north central part of the country on the Dnieper River. The population as of the 2001 census was 2,611,300...
and its surrounding areas in 1330. As a result of losing direct rule over Kiev,
WallachiaWallachia or Walachia is a historical and geographical region of Romania. It is situated north of the Danube and south of the Southern Carpathians...
and its ruler Basarab I had become
de factoDe facto is a Latin expression that means "by [the] fact". In law, it is meant to mean "in practice but not necessarily ordained by law" or "in practice or actuality, but without being officially established"...
independent from Ozbeg since 1324. But Ozbeg was still able to threaten Byzantine, Lithuania and Bulgaria.
See also