In philosophy,
universalism is a doctrine or school claiming universal facts can be discovered and is therefore understood as being in opposition to
relativismRelativism is the idea that some elements or aspects of experience or culture are relative to, i.e., dependent on, other elements or aspects.Common statements that might be considered relativistic include:* "That's true for you but not for me."...
. In certain religions,
Universality is the quality ascribed to an entity whose existence is consistent throughout the universe. When used in the context of ethics, the meaning of
universal refers to that which is true for "all similarly situated individuals."
RightsRights are entitlements or permissions, usually of a legal or moral nature. Rights are of vital importance in the fields of law and ethics, especially theories of justice and deontology.-Theoretical distinctions:...
, for example in
natural rightsSome philosophers and political scientists make a distinction between natural and legal rights.Legal rights are rights conveyed by a particular polity, codified into legal statutes by some form of legislature , and as such are contingent upon local laws, customs,...
, or in the 1789
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the CitizenThe Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen is a fundamental document of the French Revolution, defining the individual and collective rights of all the estates of the realm as universal. Influenced by the doctrine of natural rights, the rights of Man are universal: valid at all times...
, for those heavily influenced by the philosophy of the
EnlightenmentThe Age of Enlightenment, or simply The Enlightenment, is a term used to describe a time in Western philosophy and cultural life, centered upon the eighteenth century, in which reason was advocated as the primary source and legitimacy for authority....
and its conception of a
human natureHuman nature is the concept that there are a set of characteristics, including ways of thinking, feeling and acting, that all 'normal' humans have in common. The branches of science associated with the study of human nature include sociology, sociobiology and psychology, particularly...
, could be considered as universal.
In philosophy,
universalism is a doctrine or school claiming universal facts can be discovered and is therefore understood as being in opposition to
relativismRelativism is the idea that some elements or aspects of experience or culture are relative to, i.e., dependent on, other elements or aspects.Common statements that might be considered relativistic include:* "That's true for you but not for me."...
. In certain religions,
Universality is the quality ascribed to an entity whose existence is consistent throughout the universe. When used in the context of ethics, the meaning of
universal refers to that which is true for "all similarly situated individuals."
RightsRights are entitlements or permissions, usually of a legal or moral nature. Rights are of vital importance in the fields of law and ethics, especially theories of justice and deontology.-Theoretical distinctions:...
, for example in
natural rightsSome philosophers and political scientists make a distinction between natural and legal rights.Legal rights are rights conveyed by a particular polity, codified into legal statutes by some form of legislature , and as such are contingent upon local laws, customs,...
, or in the 1789
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the CitizenThe Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen is a fundamental document of the French Revolution, defining the individual and collective rights of all the estates of the realm as universal. Influenced by the doctrine of natural rights, the rights of Man are universal: valid at all times...
, for those heavily influenced by the philosophy of the
EnlightenmentThe Age of Enlightenment, or simply The Enlightenment, is a term used to describe a time in Western philosophy and cultural life, centered upon the eighteenth century, in which reason was advocated as the primary source and legitimacy for authority....
and its conception of a
human natureHuman nature is the concept that there are a set of characteristics, including ways of thinking, feeling and acting, that all 'normal' humans have in common. The branches of science associated with the study of human nature include sociology, sociobiology and psychology, particularly...
, could be considered as universal. The 1948
Universal Declaration of Human RightsThe Universal Declaration of Human Rights is a declaration adopted by the United Nations General Assembly . The Guinness Book of Records describes the UDHR as the "Most Translated Document" in the world...
is inspired by such principles.
In logic, or the consideration of valid arguments, a
propositionA proposition is a sentence expressing something true or false. In philosophy, particularly in logic, a proposition is identified ontologically as an idea, concept, or abstraction whose token instances are patterns of symbols, marks, sounds, or strings of words...
is said to have universality if it can be conceived as being true in all possible contexts without creating a
contradictionIn classical logic, a contradiction consists of a logical incompatibility between two or more propositions. It occurs when the propositions, taken together, yield two conclusions which form the logical inversions of each other...
. Some philosophers have referred to such propositions as
universalizableThe concept of universalizability was set out by the 18th-century German philosopher Immanuel Kant as part of his work Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals. It is part of the first formulation of his categorical imperative, which states that the only morally acceptable maxims of our actions are...
.
TruthTruth can have a variety of meanings, from the state of being the case, being in accord with a particular fact or reality, being in accord with the body of real things, events, actuality, or fidelity to an original or to a standard. In archaic usage it could be fidelity, constancy or sincerity in...
is considered to be universal if it is valid in all times and places. In this case, it is seen as
eternalEternal can mean:* Eternity, an infinite amount of time, or a timeless state* Eternal life, or immortalityIt can also refer to:-Anime and comics:* Eternals , Marvel Comics characters created by Jack Kirby in 1976...
or as absolute. The
relativist conceptionRelativism is the idea that some elements or aspects of experience or culture are relative to, i.e., dependent on, other elements or aspects.Common statements that might be considered relativistic include:* "That's true for you but not for me."...
denies the existence of some or all universal truths, particularly ethical ones (through
moral relativismIn philosophy moral relativism is the position that moral or ethical propositions do not reflect universal moral truths . Instead, Moral Relativism makes claims relative to social, cultural, or historical circumstances. Moral relativists hold that no universal standard exists by which to assess an...
).
MathematicsMathematics is the science and study of quantity, structure, space, and change. Mathematicians seek out patterns, formulate new conjectures, and establish truth by rigorous deduction from appropriately chosen axioms and definitions....
is a field in which those truths discovered, in relation to the field of mathematics, are typically considerered of universal scope. Usage of the word
truth has various domains of application, relativism does not necessarily apply to all of them. This is not to say that universality is limited to mathematics for there exists a large number of people who apply the standard to philosophy, theology and beyond.
Universality in metaphysics
In
metaphysicsMetaphysics investigates principles of reality transcending those of any particular science. Cosmology and ontology are traditional branches of metaphysics. It is concerned with explaining the fundamental nature of being and the world...
, a
universal is a
typeIn metaphysics, a type is a category of being. Human is a type of thing; cloud is a type of thing ; and so on. A particular instance of a type is called a token of that thing; so Socrates was a token of a human being, but is not any longer since he is dead...
, a property, or a relation. The noun
universal contrasts with
individualAs commonly used, individual refers to a person or to any specific object in a collection. In the 15th century and earlier, and also today within the fields of statistics and metaphysics, individual means "indivisible", typically describing any numerically singular thing, but sometimes meaning "a...
, while the adjective
universal contrasts with
particularIn philosophy, particulars are concrete entities existing in space and time as opposed to abstractions. There are, however, theories of abstract particulars or tropes. For example, Socrates is a particular...
or sometimes with
concrete. The latter meaning, however, may be confusing since Hegelian and neo-Hegelian (e.g.
British idealistA species of absolute idealism, British idealism was a philosophical movement that was influential in Britain from the mid-nineteenth century to the early twentieth century. The leading figures in the movement were T.H. Green , F.H. Bradley , and Bernard Bosanquet . They were succeeded by the...
) philosophies speak of
concrete universals.
A universal may have instances, known as its
particulars. For example, the type
dog (or
doghood) is a universal, as are the property
red (or
redness) and the relation
betweenness (or
being between). Any particular dog, red thing, or object that is between other things is not a universal, however, but is an
instance of a universal. That is, a universal type (
doghood), property (
redness), or relation (
betweenness)
inheres a particular object (a specific dog, red thing, or object between other things).
Platonic realismPlatonic realism is a philosophical term usually used to refer to the idea of realism regarding the existence of universals after the Greek philosopher Plato , a student of Socrates, and the teacher of Aristotle...
holds universals to be the referents of general terms, i.e. the
abstractAbstraction is the process or result of generalization by reducing the information content of a concept or an observable phenomenon, typically to retain only information which is relevant for a particular purpose. For example, abstracting a leather soccer ball to a ball retains only the information...
, nonphysical entities to which words like "doghood", "redness", and "betweenness" refer. By contrast, particulars are the referents of proper names, like "Fido", or of definite descriptions that identify single objects, like the phrase, "that apple on the table". By contrast, other metaphysical theories merely use the terminology of universals to describe physical entities.
The problem of universalsThe problem of universals is an ancient problem in metaphysics about whether universals exist. Universals are general or abstract qualities, characteristics, properties, kinds or relations, such as being male/female, solid/liquid/gas or a certain colour, that can be predicated of individuals or...
is an ancient problem in metaphysics concerning the nature of universals, or whether they exist. Part of the problem involves the implications of language use and the complexity of relating language to
ontologicalOntology is the philosophical study of the nature of being, existence or reality in general, as well as of the basic categories of being and their relations...
theory.
Most ontological frameworks do not consider
classesPhilosophers sometimes distinguish classes from types and kinds. We can talk about the class of human beings, just as we can talk about the type , human being, or humanity...
to be universals, although some prominent philosophers, such as John Bigelow, do.
Quotes
"What is absolutely true is always correct, everywhere, all the time, under any condition. An entity's ability to discern these things is irrelevant to that state of truth." - Steven Robiner
Others
The term
universality also refers to the
medievalThe Middle Ages of European history is a period of European history covering roughly a millennium in the 5th century through 16th centuries. More specific starting and ending points are sometimes adopted by scholars to suit their respective specializations or current focus...
concept of an absolute, all-encompassing morality that justified a universal secular rule by one all-powerful
Holy Roman EmperorThe Holy Roman Emperor is a term used by historians to denote a Middle Ages ruler, who as German King had in addition received the title of "Emperor of the Romans" from the Pope of the Holy Roman Church, and after the 16th century, the elected monarch governing the Holy Roman Empire, a Central...
, and also justified as universal the religious rule by one all-powerful all-encompassing (hence the term
catholicThe word Catholic is derived from the Greek adjective , meaning "universal". In the context of Christian ecclesiology, it has a rich history and several usages. For some, the term "Catholic Church" refers to the church in full communion with the Bishop of Rome, made up of the Latin Rite and the 22...
) church. In the 17th century, the doctrine of universality gave way to the doctrine of
raison d'état or
national interestThe national interest, often referred to by the French term raison d'État, is a country's goals and ambitions whether economic, military, or cultural. The notion is an important one in international relations where pursuit of the national interest is the foundation of the realist school.The...
. Universality is comparable, but not equivalent, to the concept of the
Mandate of HeavenThe Mandate of Heaven is a traditional Chinese philosophical concept. Tian would bless the authority of a just ruler, but would be displeased with a despotic ruler and would withdraw its mandate...
in Chinese history.