The
United States Army Air Service was a forerunner of the
United States Air ForceThe United States Air Force is the aerial warfare branch of the U.S. armed forces and one of the American uniformed services. Initially part of the United States Army, the USAF was formed as a separate branch of the military on 18 September 1947 under the National Security Act of 1947 - 80 P.L....
. It was established on May 24, 1918, after U.S. entry into
World War IWorld War I , also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All Wars, was a global military conflict which involved most of the world's great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances: the Triple Entente and the Triple Alliance...
, replacing the
Aviation Section, U.S. Signal CorpsThe Aviation Section, U.S. Signal Corps, was the name of the military aviation service of the United States Army from 1914 to 1918, and a direct ancestor of the United States Air Force. It replaced the Aeronautical Division, U.S. Signal Corps and was succeeded briefly by the Division of Military...
which had been the nation's air force from 1914 to 1918.
Although the Air Service was recognized by the
Department of WarThe United States Department of War, also called the War Office, was the cabinet department originally responsible for the operation and maintenance of the US Army...
on May 24, 1918, no Director of Air Service was appointed until August 28, when President
Woodrow WilsonThomas Woodrow Wilson was the 28th President of the United States. A leading intellectual of the Progressive Era, he served as President of Princeton University from 1902 to 1910, and then as the Governor of New Jersey from 1911 to 1913...
made John D. Ryan a Second Assistant
Secretary of WarThe Secretary of War was a member of the United States President's Cabinet, beginning with George Washington's administration. A similar position, called either "Secretary at War" or "Secretary of War," was appointed to serve the Congress of the Confederation under the Articles of Confederation...
and civilian
Director of Air Service. After World War I, the Air Service was again directed by a military officer and remained so until replaced by the
United States Army Air CorpsThe United States Army Air Corps was the predecessor of the U.S. Army Air Forces from 1926-41, which in turn was the forerunner of today's U.S. Air Force , established in 1947...
on July 1, 1926.
The Air Service was the first form of the air force to have both its own unique organizational structure and identity. Prior to May 1918 its permanent personnel were part of the Signal Corps and its pilots on temporary assignment from other branches of the Army. Between May 1918 and July 1920, enlisted men were assigned to and new officers commissioned in the Air Service as either
National ArmyThe National Army was the combined conscript and volunteer force that was formed by the United States War Department in 1917 to fight in World War I...
(war-mobilized) or United States Army (Regulars). After July 1, 1920, all personnel retained by the Army were designated members of the Air Service, with officers who had been commissioned in the Signal Corps formally transferred.
Lineage of the United States Air Force
- Aeronautical Division, U.S. Signal Corps
The Aeronautical Division, U.S. Signal Corps was the first progenitor of the United States Air Force, and as such is the first military air organization. A component of the U.S. Army Signal Corps, the Aeronautical Division did not contain any subordinate units during its existence.-Lineage of the...
August 1, 1907–July 18, 1914
- Aviation Section, U.S. Signal Corps
The Aviation Section, U.S. Signal Corps, was the name of the military aviation service of the United States Army from 1914 to 1918, and a direct ancestor of the United States Air Force. It replaced the Aeronautical Division, U.S. Signal Corps and was succeeded briefly by the Division of Military...
July 18, 1914–May 20, 1918
- Division of Military Aeronautics May 20, 1918–May 24, 1918
- United States Army Air Service May 24, 1918–July 2, 1926
- United States Army Air Corps
The United States Army Air Corps was the predecessor of the U.S. Army Air Forces from 1926-41, which in turn was the forerunner of today's U.S. Air Force , established in 1947...
July 2, 1926–June 20, 1941
- United States Army Air Forces
The United States Army Air Forces was the military aviation arm of the United States of America during and immediately after World War II. It was a component of the United States Army, divided functionally by executive order in 1942 into three autonomous forces: the Army Ground Forces, the...
June 20, 1941–September 18, 1947
- United States Air Force
The United States Air Force is the aerial warfare branch of the U.S. armed forces and one of the American uniformed services. Initially part of the United States Army, the USAF was formed as a separate branch of the military on 18 September 1947 under the National Security Act of 1947 - 80 P.L....
September 18, 1947–present
Creation of the Air Service
See main articles: Aviation Section, U.S. Signal CorpsThe Aviation Section, U.S. Signal Corps, was the name of the military aviation service of the United States Army from 1914 to 1918, and a direct ancestor of the United States Air Force. It replaced the Aeronautical Division, U.S. Signal Corps and was succeeded briefly by the Division of Military...
and Division of Military Aeronautics
Although
CongressThe United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States of America, consisting of two houses, the Senate and the House of Representatives. Both senators and representatives are chosen through direct election....
had vastly increased the appropriations for the
Aviation Section of the Signal CorpsThe Aviation Section, U.S. Signal Corps, was the name of the military aviation service of the United States Army from 1914 to 1918, and a direct ancestor of the United States Air Force. It replaced the Aeronautical Division, U.S. Signal Corps and was succeeded briefly by the Division of Military...
in 1916, it had also
tabled a billIn American parliamentary procedure, the motion to table or more properly, to lay on the table, is a proposal to suspend consideration of the pending motion...
proposing an aviation department incorporating all aspects of military aviation, the first ever introduced to create a separate aviation service. The
declaration of warA declaration of war is a formal performative speech act or signing of a document by an authorized party of a government in order to initiate a state of war between two or more nations. The legality of who can declare war varies between nations and forms of government. In many nations power is...
against
GermanyGermany , officially the Federal Republic of Germany , is a country in Central Europe. It is bordered to the north by the North Sea, Denmark, and the Baltic Sea; to the east by Poland and the Czech Republic; to the south by Austria and Switzerland; and to the west by France, Luxembourg, Belgium,...
on April 6, 1917, putting the United States in
World War IWorld War I , also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All Wars, was a global military conflict which involved most of the world's great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances: the Triple Entente and the Triple Alliance...
, came too quickly to solve emerging engineering and production problems, and the reorganization of the Aviation Section had been inadequate in resolving problems in training, leaving the United States totally unprepared to fight an air war in Europe.
The administration of President
Woodrow WilsonThomas Woodrow Wilson was the 28th President of the United States. A leading intellectual of the Progressive Era, he served as President of Princeton University from 1902 to 1910, and then as the Governor of New Jersey from 1911 to 1913...
, through its
Council of National DefenseThe Council of National Defense was a United States organization formed to coordinate resources and industry for national security.-History:Established in August 24, 1916 by president Woodrow Wilson, the Council of National Defense was created because "The Country is best prepared for war when...
, created an advisory
Aircraft Production Board in May 1917, consisting of members of the Army, Navy, and industry, to study the Europeans' experience in aircraft production and the standardization of aircraft parts. The
United States CongressThe United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States of America, consisting of two houses, the Senate and the House of Representatives. Both senators and representatives are chosen through direct election....
responded to the problems by considering two new bills to create a "Department of Aeronautics" consolidating all aviation activities, including aircraft production, into a single department, and passed a series of legislation in the next three months that appropriated huge sums for development of military aviation, including the largest single
appropriationAppropriation is the act of taking possession of or assigning purpose to properties or ideas and is important in many topics, including:*Appropriation in relation to the spread of knowledge*Appropriation...
for a single purpose to that time, $640 million in the Aviation Act (40 Stat. 243), passed July 24, 1917.
Both the
Department of WarThe United States Department of War, also called the War Office, was the cabinet department originally responsible for the operation and maintenance of the US Army...
and the
Department of the NavyThe United States Department of the Navy was established by an Act of Congress on 30 April 1798, to provide administrative and technical support, and civilian leadership to the United States Navy and the United States Marine Corps...
opposed the creation of a separate air department, and on October 1, 1917, Congress instead legalized the existence of the APB and changed its name to the "
Aircraft BoardThe Aircraft Board was a United States federal government organization founded in 1917. Chaired by Howard E. Coffin, it was initially called the Aircraft Production Board before being superseded by Executive Order in October 1917. The boards, advisory in nature, gave their recommendations to the...
", transferring its functions from the Council of National Defense to the secretaries of War and the Navy. Even so, the Aircraft Board in practice had little control over procurement contracts and functioned mostly as an information clearinghouse between the various involved business, governmental, and military entities. Moreover, the airplane of World War I was not suitable to the
mass productionMass production is the production of large amounts of standardized products, including and especially on assembly lines...
methods of the
automotive industryThe automotive industry designs, develops, manufactures, markets, and sells the world's motor vehicles. In 2008, more than 70 million motor vehicles, including cars and commercial vehicles were produced worldwide....
and the priority of mass producing spare parts was neglected. Though individual areas within the aviation industry responded well, the industry as a whole failed. Efforts to mass produce European aircraft under license largely failed.
As a result, the board came under severe criticism for failure to meet goals or its own claims of aircraft production, followed by a highly-publicized personal investigation by
Gutzon Borglum Gutzon de la Mothe Borglum was an American artist and sculptor famous for creating the monumental presidents' heads at Mount Rushmore, South Dakota, the famous carving on Stone Mountain near Atlanta, as well as other public works of art.- Background :The son of Danish immigrants, Gutzon Borglum...
, a harshly vocal critic of the board. Borglum had exchanged letters with President Wilson, a personal friend, from which he assumed an appointment to investigate had been authorized, which the administration soon denied. Both the
U.S. SenateThe United States Senate is the upper house of the bicameral United States Congress, the lower house being the House of Representatives. The composition and powers of the Senate and the House are established in Article One of the U.S. Constitution . Each U.S state is represented by two senators,...
and the
Department of JusticeThe United States Department of Justice is a Cabinet department in the United States government designed to enforce the law and defend the interests of the United States according to the law and to ensure fair and impartial administration of justice for all Americans...
began investigations into possible fraudulent dealings. President Wilson also acted by appointing a Director of Aircraft Production on April 28, 1918, and creating a Division of Military Aeronautics (DMA) under
Brigadier GeneralBrigadier General is the lowest ranking General Officer in some countries, usually sitting between the ranks of Colonel and Major General.The rank can be traced back to the militaries of Europe where a brigadier general, or simply a brigadier, would command a brigade in the field...
William L. Kenley, to separate supervision of aviation from the duties of the Chief Signal Officer. However, before this took effect, Wilson used a provision of the
Overman Act of May 20, 1918Lee Slater Overman was a Democratic U.S. senator from the state of North Carolina between 1903 and 1930. He was born in Salisbury, N.C., the son of William H. and Mary E. Slater Overman. He attended Trinity College , Class of 1874, where he was a member of the Chi Phi Fraternity.In 1914, Overman...
, to issue Executive Order No. 2862 that removed the DMA entirely from the Signal Corps (reporting directly to the Secretary of War), and assigned it the function of procuring and training a combat force. In addition, the
executive orderAn executive order in the United States is an order issued by the President, the head of the executive branch of the federal government. In other countries, similar edicts may be known as decrees, or orders-in-council. Executive orders may also be issued at the state level by a state's Governor. U.S...
created a Bureau of Aircraft Production (BAP) as a separate executive bureau to provide the aircraft needed.
This arrangement lasted only four days, when the War Department issued General Order No. 51 creating the
Air Service, United States Army to consolidate the two agencies under a single director. (The term "Air Service" had been in use in France since June 13, 1917, to describe the function of aviation units attached to the American Expeditionary Force.) However, it delayed the appointment of a director as long as the BAP operated as a separate bureau. In August, the Senate completed its investigation of the Air Board, and while it found no criminal culpability, it reported that massive waste and delay in production had occurred. As a result, the Director of Aircraft Production (who was also chairman of the Aircraft Board), John D. Ryan, was appointed to the vacant position of Second Assistant Secretary of War and named Director of Air Service, in charge of both the BAP and DMA. The Department of Justice report followed two months later and also blamed the delays on administrative and organizational deficiencies in the Aviation Section. Ryan's appointment came too late for any effective consolidation of both agencies.
Following the Armistice, Ryan resigned on November 27, leaving both the BAP and DMA, as well as the original Aircraft Board, leaderless. Maj. Gen. Charles Menoher was appointed the new Director of Air Service on January 2, 1919, but the patchwork nature of laws and executive orders that had created the various parts of the Air Service prevented him from exercising all their legal powers. President Wilson issued a new executive order in March 1919 dissolving the Aircraft Board and consolidating all powers conferred into a single executive, the Director of Air Service.
By November 11, 1918, the Air Service both overseas and domestically had 195,024 personnel (20,568 officers; 174,456 enlisted men) and 7,900 aircraft, constituting five per cent of the United States Army. With an aviation cadet program modeled on
CanadaCanada is a country occupying most of northern North America, extending from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west and northward into the Arctic Ocean...
's, the Air Service commissioned over 17,000 as reserve officers. Using variants of the Curtiss Jenny, 27 flying training centers graduated nearly 8,000 pilots, and 1,600 more came from foreign schools in
Great BritainGreat Britain is an island lying to the northwest of Continental Europe. It is the ninth largest island in the world, and the largest European island. With a population of about 59.6 million people, it is the third most populated island on Earth. Great Britain is surrounded by over 1000 smaller...
,
FranceFrance , officially the French Republic , is a country located in Western Europe, with several overseas islands and territories located on other continents. Metropolitan France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, and from the Rhine to the Atlantic Ocean...
, and
ItalyItaly , officially the Italian Republic , is a country located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe and on the two largest islands in the Mediterranean Sea, Sicily and Sardinia. Italy shares its northern, Alpine boundary with France, Switzerland, Austria and Slovenia...
. 10,000 mechanics were trained to service the American aircraft fleet. Of aircraft manufactured in America, the deHavilland DH-4 (3,400) was the most numerous, although only 1,200 were shipped overseas, most used in observation units.
Assigned overseas in the
American Expeditionary ForceThe American Expeditionary Forces or AEF was the United States Armed Forces sent to Europe in World War I. During the United States campaigns in World War I the AEF fought in France along side British and French allied forces in the last year of the war, against Imperial German forces...
, the air arm totalled 78,507 (7,738 officers and 70,769 enlisted men) at the armistice. Of this total, 58,090 served in France; 20,075 in England; and 342 in Italy. Balloon troops made up approximately 17,000 of the Air Service, with 6,811 in the dangerous duty of spotting for the artillery at the front.
Air Service World War I posters
Organization
During the first year of U.S. participation in
World War IWorld War I , also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All Wars, was a global military conflict which involved most of the world's great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances: the Triple Entente and the Triple Alliance...
, aviation units had been created and deployed without organization. Upon his arrival in France in June 1917, Pershing met with
Lieutenant ColonelLieutenant colonel is a rank of commissioned officer in the armies and most marine forces and air forces of the world, typically ranking above a major and below a colonel. The rank of lieutenant colonel is often shortened to simply "colonel" in conversation and in unofficial correspondence...
Billy MitchellWilliam Lendrum "Billy" Mitchell was an American Army general who is regarded as the father of the U.S. Air Force...
, who had been sent to Europe in March 1917 as an observer, and arrived in Paris just four days after the United States declared war. Mitchell had established a "headquarters" for the American "air service" and so advised Pershing that it was ready to proceed with any project Pershing might require. Pershing's aviation officer,
MajorIn many European languages, the term Major is a military rank, implying seniority at one of usually various levels of rank. For example:*"General-Major" or "Major-General", denoting a senior ranking general officer....
Townsend Dodd, first used the term "Air Service" in a memo to the chief of staff of the AEF on 20 June 1917. The first official use of the term was in AEF General Order No. 8, 5 July 1917, in tables detailing staff organization and duties. The term became commonplace, but units organized into "air services" down to the corps level did not occur until May 1918.
Five days after the formation of the Army Air Service, separating it from the
Signal CorpsThe Signal Corps is a military branch, usually subordinate to a country's army, responsible for the military communications .Many countries have a Signal Corps, whose main function is usually communication .* Signal Corps , founded in 1860 by Major Albert J...
,
GeneralA general officer is an officer of high military rank. The term or equivalent is used by nearly every country in the world. General can be used as a generic term for all grades of general officer, or it can specifically refer to a single rank that is simply called general.-All general officer...
John J. PershingGeneral of the Armies John Joseph Pershing, Honorary GCB; September 13, 1860 – July 15, 1948, was a general officer in the United States Army. Pershing is the only person to be promoted in his own lifetime to the highest rank ever held in the United States Army—General of the Armies General of the...
, commanding the
American Expeditionary ForceThe American Expeditionary Forces or AEF was the United States Armed Forces sent to Europe in World War I. During the United States campaigns in World War I the AEF fought in France along side British and French allied forces in the last year of the war, against Imperial German forces...
(AEF), duplicated the action in Europe by creating the "Air Service of the AEF" and placing it in charge of all U.S. aviation units, personnel, and equipment in
FranceFrance , officially the French Republic , is a country located in Western Europe, with several overseas islands and territories located on other continents. Metropolitan France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, and from the Rhine to the Atlantic Ocean...
. As Chief of Air Service, AEF, he chose a West Point classmate and non-aviator,
Major GeneralMajor General or Major-General is a military rank used in many countries. It is derived from the older rank of Sergeant Major General. A Major General is a high-ranking officer, normally subordinate to the rank of Lieutenant General and senior to the ranks of Brigadier and Brigadier General...
Mason PatrickMason Mathews Patrick was a U.S. Army general and air power advocate.Patrick was born in Lewisburg, West Virginia and graduated from West Point in 1886. For three years he was at the Engineer School of Application, Willets Point, New York, graduating in 1889...
. Air Service staff planning had been inefficient, with considerable friction between its members and those of Pershing's General Staff. Aircraft and unit totals lagged far behind those promised in 1917. Considerable house-cleaning of the existing staff coincided with Patrick's appointment, bringing in experienced staff officers to administrate and tightening up lines of communication.
General Pershing had at first called for creation of 260 U.S. air combat squadrons, but slowness of the buildup reduced that to 202 on August 17, 1918. In Pershing's view, the two functions of the AEF's Air Service were to repel German aircraft and conduct observation of enemy movements. The heart of the force was its 101 observation squadrons (52 corps observation and 49 army observation), to be distributed to three armies and 16 corps. In addition, 60 pursuit squadrons, 27 night-bombardment squadrons, and 14 day-bombardment squadrons were to conduct supporting operations.
Without the time or infrastructure in the United States to equip units to send overseas using aircraft designed and built in the U.S., the AEF Air Service ordered Allied aircraft designs already in service with the French and British air services. On August 30, 1917, the American and French governments agreed to a contract in which France would provide the Air Service AEF, with 1,500
Breguet 14 B.2The Breguet 14 was a French biplane bomber and reconnaissance aircraft of World War I. It was built in very large numbers and production continued for many years after the end of the war. Apart from its widespread usage, it was noteworthy for becoming the first aircraft in mass production to use...
bombers and reconnaissance planes; 2,000 SPAD XIII fighters; and 1,500
Nieuport 28The Nieuport 28 was a French biplane fighter aircraft flown during World War I, built by Nieuport and designed by Gustave Delage. Its principal claim to fame is that it was the first aircraft to see service with an American fighter squadron....
pursuits.
The primary aircraft employed were the SPAD XIII (877 combat sorties), Nieuport 28 (181), and
SPAD VIIThe SPAD S.VII was the first of a series of highly successful biplane fighter aircraft produced by Société Pour L'Aviation et ses Dérivés during the First World War. Like its successors, the S.VII was renowned as a sturdy and rugged aircraft with good climbing and diving characteristics...
(103) as pursuit aircraft, the
DeHaviland DH-4The Airco DH.4 was a British two-seat biplane day-bomber of the First World War. It was designed by Geoffrey de Havilland for Airco, and was the first British two seat light day-bomber to have an effective defensive armament. It first flew in August 1916 and entered service with the Royal Flying...
(696) and Breguet 14 (87) for daylight bombing, and the DH-4 and
Salmson 2 A.2The Salmson 2 was a French biplane reconnaissance aircraft made by Salmson. It was developed to a 1916 requirement. Along with the Breguet 14, it was the main reconnaissance aircraft in use with the French army in 1918...
(557 sorties) for observation and photo reconnaissance. The SE-5 operated as the main trainer for the Air Service. Balloon companies operated the French Caquot Type R
hydrogenHydrogen is the chemical element with atomic number 1. It is represented by the symbol H. At standard temperature and pressure, hydrogen is a colorless, odorless, nonmetallic, tasteless, highly flammable diatomic gas with the molecular formula H
2...
-filled observation balloon, with one balloon per company.
Operations
The first U.S. aviation squadron to reach France was the 1st Aero Squadron, an observation unit, which sailed from New York in August 1917 and arrived at
Le HavreLe Havre is a city in north-western France situated on the right bank of the mouth of the Seine River as it flows into the Bay of the Seine in the English Channel. It is a commune in the Seine-Maritime department in the Haute-Normandie region. The inhabitants of the city are called Havrais or...
on September 3. A member of the squadron,
Stephen W. ThompsonStephen W. Thompson was an American aviator of World War I, and the first person in the U.S. Military to shoot down an enemy aircraft .-Early life:...
, on February 5, 1918, achieved the first aerial victory by the U. S. military. As other squadrons were organized at home, they too were sent overseas, where they continued their training. It was February 18, 1918, before any U.S. squadron entered combat (the 103rd Aero Squadron, a pursuit unit flying with French forces and composed largely of former members of the
Lafayette EscadrilleThe Lafayette Escadrille , was a squadron of the French Air Service, the Aéronautique militaire, during World War I composed largely of American volunteer pilots flying fighters....
). By the beginning of the
Meuse-Argonne OffensiveThe Meuse-Argonne Offensive, also called the Battle of the Argonne Forest, was a part of the final Allied offensive of World War I that stretched along the entire western front. The whole offensive was planned by Marshall Ferdinand Foch to breach the Hindenburg line and ultimately force the...
the Air Service AEF consisted of 32 squadrons (15 pursuit, 13 observation, and 4 bombing) at the front, while by November 11, 1918, 45 squadrons (20 pursuit, 18 observation, and 7 bombardment) had been assembled for combat. During the war, these squadrons played important roles in the
Third Battle of the AisneThe Third Battle of the Aisne was a battle of the German Spring Offensive during World War I that focused on capturing the Chemin des Dames Ridge before the American Expeditionary Force could arrive in France...
, the
Battle of Saint-MihielThe Battle of Saint-Mihiel was a World War I battle fought between September 12 - 15, 1918, involving the American Expeditionary Force and 48,000 French troops under the command of U.S. general John J. Pershing against German positions. The United States Army Air Service played a significant role...
, and the Meuse-Argonne Offensive. Several units, including the
94th Aero SquadronThe 94th Fighter Squadron ' is a United States Air Force unit. It is assigned to the 1st Operations Group and stationed at Langley Air Force Base, Virginia.The 94th Fighter Squadron is the second oldest fighter squadron in America's history....
,
CaptainThe army rank of Captain is an officer rank historically corresponding to command of a company of soldiers. The rank is also used by some air forces and marine forces. Today a captain is typically the commander, or second in command, of a company or squadron...
Eddie RickenbackerEdward Vernon Rickenbacker was an American fighter ace in World War I and Medal of Honor recipient. He was also a race car driver and automotive designer, a government consultant in military matters and a pioneer in air transportation, particularly as the longtime head of Eastern Air Lines.-Early...
commanding, and the 27th Aero Squadron, which had "balloon buster"
First LieutenantFirst Lieutenant is a military rank.The rank of Lieutenant has different meanings in different military formations , but the majority of cases it is common for it to be sub-divided into a senior and junior rank...
Frank LukeFrank Luke Jr. was an American fighter ace, ranking second among U.S. Air Service pilots to Eddie Rickenbacker in number of aerial victories during World War I. Frank Luke was the first airman to receive the Medal of Honor. Luke Air Force Base, a training site for Air Force aviators since WWII,...
as one of its pilots, achieved distinguished records in combat and became part of the future
United States Army Air CorpsThe United States Army Air Corps was the predecessor of the U.S. Army Air Forces from 1926-41, which in turn was the forerunner of today's U.S. Air Force , established in 1947...
.
Observation planes often operated individually, as did pursuit pilots to attack a balloon or to meet the enemy in a
dogfightA dogfight, or dog fight, is aerial combat between fighter aircraft. Dogfighting first appeared during World War I, shortly after the invention of the airplane, and has since became a component in every major war despite beliefs after World War II that increasingly greater speeds and longer range...
. However the tendency was toward formation flying, for pursuit as well as for bombardment operations, as a defensive tactic. The dispersal of squadrons among the army ground units (each corps and division had an observation squadron attached) made coordination of air activities difficult, so that squadrons were organized by functions into
groupGroup is a term used by different air forces for an element of military organization. The size of a group varies considerably between different countries...
s, the first of these being the
1st Corps Observation Group, organized in April 1918. On May 5, 1918, the
1st Pursuit GroupThe 1st Operations Group is the flying component of the 1st Fighter Wing, assigned to the USAF Air Combat Command. The group is stationed at Langley Air Force Base, Virginia....
was formed, and by the
armisticeAn armistice is a situation in a war where the warring parties agree to stop fighting. It is not necessarily the end of a war, but may be just a cessation of hostilities while an attempt is made to negotiate a lasting peace...
the AEF had 14 heavier-than-air groups (7 observation, 5 pursuit, and 2 bombardment). Of these 14 groups, only the 1st Pursuit and 1st Day Bombardment Groups would have their lineage continued into the post-war Air Service.
In July 1918, the AEF organized its first
wingA wing is a surface used to produce lift for flight through the air or another gaseous or fluid medium. The wing shape is usually an airfoil. The word originally referred only to the foremost limbs of birds, but has been extended to include the wings of insects , bats, pterosaurs, and aircraft.A...
, the 1st Pursuit Wing, made up of the 2d Pursuit, 3rd Pursuit, and 1st Day Bombardment Groups. Each Army and Corps echelon of the ground forces had a chief of air service designated to direct operations. The
Air Service, First Army was activated August 26, 1918, marking the commencement of large scale coordinated U.S. air operations. Col.
Benjamin FouloisBenjamin Delahauf Foulois , was a United States Army Officer who learned to fly the first military planes purchased from the Wright Brothers. He became the first military aviator as an airship pilot, and achieved numerous other military aviation "firsts"...
was named chief of the First Army Air Service over Col.
Billy MitchellWilliam Lendrum "Billy" Mitchell was an American Army general who is regarded as the father of the U.S. Air Force...
, who had been directing air operations as chief of the
I CorpsList of military corps — List of military corps by numberA number of countries have First, or I, Corps:*I Anzac Corps *I Corps *I Corps *I Corps *I Corps *I Corps...
Air Service since March, but Foulois voluntarily relinquished his post to Mitchell and became one of the two assistant chiefs of Air Service AEF, at Tours in charge of personnel and training. Mitchell went on to become a
brigadier generalBrigadier General is the lowest ranking General Officer in some countries, usually sitting between the ranks of Colonel and Major General.The rank can be traced back to the militaries of Europe where a brigadier general, or simply a brigadier, would command a brigade in the field...
and chief of the Army Group Air Service in mid-October 1918, succeeded at First Army by Col. Thomas Milling. The
Air Service, Second Army was activated in November just before the armistice, and the
Air Service Third Army was created immediately after the armistice to provide aviation support to the army of occupation.
Mitchell and Foulois were advocates of the formation of an "air force" to centralize control over military aviation. In the
Battle of Saint-MihielThe Battle of Saint-Mihiel was a World War I battle fought between September 12 - 15, 1918, involving the American Expeditionary Force and 48,000 French troops under the command of U.S. general John J. Pershing against German positions. The United States Army Air Service played a significant role...
, commencing September 12, 1918, the American and French offensive against the German
salientSalient may refer to:* Peninsula-like salients of political geography and Military Science.** Salient , a battlefield feature that projects an attacker's lines into enemy territory in such a way that the attacker is surrounded on three sides....
was supported by 1,481 airplanes directed by Mitchell, totalling 24 Air Service, 58 French
Aéronautique Militaire, and three
Royal Air ForceThe Royal Air Force is the United Kingdom's air force, the oldest independent air force in the world. Formed on 1 April 1918, the RAF has taken a significant role in British military history ever since, playing a large part in World War II and in more recent conflicts.The RAF operates almost 1,109...
squadrons in coordinated operations. Observation and pursuit planes supported ground forces, while the other two-thirds of the aerial force bombed and strafed behind enemy lines. Later, during the
Meuse-Argonne offensiveThe Meuse-Argonne Offensive, also called the Battle of the Argonne Forest, was a part of the final Allied offensive of World War I that stretched along the entire western front. The whole offensive was planned by Marshall Ferdinand Foch to breach the Hindenburg line and ultimately force the...
, Mitchell employed a smaller concentration of airpower, nearly all American this time, to keep the German army on the defensive.
Army of occupation duties
Immediately after the armistice, the AEF formed the Third United States Army to march immediately into Germany, occupy the Coblenz area, and be prepared to resume combat if peace treaty negotiations failed. Three corps were formed from seven of the Army's most experienced divisions, and Brig. Gen. Mitchell was appointed to command the Air Service, Third Army, on November 14, 1918.
As with the ground forces, the most veteran units of the Air Service were selected to form the new Air Service. A pursuit unit, the 94th "Hat in the Ring" Aero Squadron; a day bombardment squadron, the 166th; and four observation squadrons (1st, 12th, 88th, and 9th Night) were initially assigned. The demobilization of the AEF accelerated in December and January, and all but two of these squadrons returned to the United States. Gen. Mitchell was replaced in January as commander of the Third Army Air Service by Col. Harold Fowler, a combat veteran of the
Royal Flying CorpsThe Royal Flying Corps was the over-land air arm of the British military during most of the First World War. During the early part of the war, the RFC's responsibilities were centred on support of the British Army, via artillery cooperation and photographic reconnaissance...
and former commander of the American 17th Pursuit Squadron.
By March 1919 the U.S. Second Army in France had also closed down. Its former air units were transferred to the Third Army Air Service in Germany, which at its maximum consisted of the:
- 5th Pursuit Group (41st, 138th, 141st, and 605th Aero Squadrons) at Coblenz, the
- 3rd Corps Observation Group (1st, 24th, and 258th A.S.) at Weißenthurm
Weißenthurm is a municipality in the district of Mayen-Koblenz, in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany. It is situated on the left bank of the Rhine, opposite Neuwied, approx. 12 km north-west of Koblenz....
, the
- 4th Corps Observation Group (85th and 278th A.S. only, its other squadrons sent home before assignment) at Sinzig
Sinzig is a municipality in the district of Ahrweiler, in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany. It is situated on the river Rhine, approx. 5 km south-east of Remagen and 25 km south-east of Bonn, and it has approximately 20,000 inhabitants .- History :...
, and the
- 7th Corps Observation Group (9th, 88th, and 186th A.S.) at Trier
Trier is a city in Germany on the banks of the Moselle River. It is the oldest city in Germany, founded in or before 16 BC. Trier is not the only city claiming to be Germany's oldest, but it is the only one that bases this assertion on having the longest history as a city, as opposed to a mere...
.
The Third Army and its air service were deactivated in July 1919 after the signing of the
Treaty of VersaillesThe Treaty of Versailles was one of the peace treaties at the end of World War I. It ended the state of war between Germany and the Allied Powers. It was signed on 28 June 1919, exactly five years after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. The other Central Powers on the German side of...
.
Statistical summary, World War I
{{nofootnotes|date=March 2008}}
The
United States Army Air Service was a forerunner of the
United States Air ForceThe United States Air Force is the aerial warfare branch of the U.S. armed forces and one of the American uniformed services. Initially part of the United States Army, the USAF was formed as a separate branch of the military on 18 September 1947 under the National Security Act of 1947 - 80 P.L....
. It was established on May 24, 1918, after U.S. entry into
World War IWorld War I , also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All Wars, was a global military conflict which involved most of the world's great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances: the Triple Entente and the Triple Alliance...
, replacing the
Aviation Section, U.S. Signal CorpsThe Aviation Section, U.S. Signal Corps, was the name of the military aviation service of the United States Army from 1914 to 1918, and a direct ancestor of the United States Air Force. It replaced the Aeronautical Division, U.S. Signal Corps and was succeeded briefly by the Division of Military...
which had been the nation's air force from 1914 to 1918.
Although the Air Service was recognized by the
Department of WarThe United States Department of War, also called the War Office, was the cabinet department originally responsible for the operation and maintenance of the US Army...
on May 24, 1918, no Director of Air Service was appointed until August 28, when President
Woodrow WilsonThomas Woodrow Wilson was the 28th President of the United States. A leading intellectual of the Progressive Era, he served as President of Princeton University from 1902 to 1910, and then as the Governor of New Jersey from 1911 to 1913...
made John D. Ryan a Second Assistant
Secretary of WarThe Secretary of War was a member of the United States President's Cabinet, beginning with George Washington's administration. A similar position, called either "Secretary at War" or "Secretary of War," was appointed to serve the Congress of the Confederation under the Articles of Confederation...
and civilian
Director of Air Service. After World War I, the Air Service was again directed by a military officer and remained so until replaced by the
United States Army Air CorpsThe United States Army Air Corps was the predecessor of the U.S. Army Air Forces from 1926-41, which in turn was the forerunner of today's U.S. Air Force , established in 1947...
on July 1, 1926.
The Air Service was the first form of the air force to have both its own unique organizational structure and identity. Prior to May 1918 its permanent personnel were part of the Signal Corps and its pilots on temporary assignment from other branches of the Army. Between May 1918 and July 1920, enlisted men were assigned to and new officers commissioned in the Air Service as either
National ArmyThe National Army was the combined conscript and volunteer force that was formed by the United States War Department in 1917 to fight in World War I...
(war-mobilized) or United States Army (Regulars). After July 1, 1920, all personnel retained by the Army were designated members of the Air Service, with officers who had been commissioned in the Signal Corps formally transferred.
Lineage of the United States Air Force
- Aeronautical Division, U.S. Signal Corps
The Aeronautical Division, U.S. Signal Corps was the first progenitor of the United States Air Force, and as such is the first military air organization. A component of the U.S. Army Signal Corps, the Aeronautical Division did not contain any subordinate units during its existence.-Lineage of the...
August 1, 1907–July 18, 1914
- Aviation Section, U.S. Signal Corps
The Aviation Section, U.S. Signal Corps, was the name of the military aviation service of the United States Army from 1914 to 1918, and a direct ancestor of the United States Air Force. It replaced the Aeronautical Division, U.S. Signal Corps and was succeeded briefly by the Division of Military...
July 18, 1914–May 20, 1918
- Division of Military Aeronautics May 20, 1918–May 24, 1918
- United States Army Air Service May 24, 1918–July 2, 1926
- United States Army Air Corps
The United States Army Air Corps was the predecessor of the U.S. Army Air Forces from 1926-41, which in turn was the forerunner of today's U.S. Air Force , established in 1947...
July 2, 1926–June 20, 1941
- United States Army Air Forces
The United States Army Air Forces was the military aviation arm of the United States of America during and immediately after World War II. It was a component of the United States Army, divided functionally by executive order in 1942 into three autonomous forces: the Army Ground Forces, the...
June 20, 1941–September 18, 1947
- United States Air Force
The United States Air Force is the aerial warfare branch of the U.S. armed forces and one of the American uniformed services. Initially part of the United States Army, the USAF was formed as a separate branch of the military on 18 September 1947 under the National Security Act of 1947 - 80 P.L....
September 18, 1947–present
Creation of the Air Service
See main articles: Aviation Section, U.S. Signal CorpsThe Aviation Section, U.S. Signal Corps, was the name of the military aviation service of the United States Army from 1914 to 1918, and a direct ancestor of the United States Air Force. It replaced the Aeronautical Division, U.S. Signal Corps and was succeeded briefly by the Division of Military...
and Division of Military Aeronautics
Although
CongressThe United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States of America, consisting of two houses, the Senate and the House of Representatives. Both senators and representatives are chosen through direct election....
had vastly increased the appropriations for the
Aviation Section of the Signal CorpsThe Aviation Section, U.S. Signal Corps, was the name of the military aviation service of the United States Army from 1914 to 1918, and a direct ancestor of the United States Air Force. It replaced the Aeronautical Division, U.S. Signal Corps and was succeeded briefly by the Division of Military...
in 1916, it had also
tabled a billIn American parliamentary procedure, the motion to table or more properly, to lay on the table, is a proposal to suspend consideration of the pending motion...
proposing an aviation department incorporating all aspects of military aviation, the first ever introduced to create a separate aviation service. The
declaration of warA declaration of war is a formal performative speech act or signing of a document by an authorized party of a government in order to initiate a state of war between two or more nations. The legality of who can declare war varies between nations and forms of government. In many nations power is...
against
GermanyGermany , officially the Federal Republic of Germany , is a country in Central Europe. It is bordered to the north by the North Sea, Denmark, and the Baltic Sea; to the east by Poland and the Czech Republic; to the south by Austria and Switzerland; and to the west by France, Luxembourg, Belgium,...
on April 6, 1917, putting the United States in
World War IWorld War I , also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All Wars, was a global military conflict which involved most of the world's great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances: the Triple Entente and the Triple Alliance...
, came too quickly to solve emerging engineering and production problems, and the reorganization of the Aviation Section had been inadequate in resolving problems in training, leaving the United States totally unprepared to fight an air war in Europe.
The administration of President
Woodrow WilsonThomas Woodrow Wilson was the 28th President of the United States. A leading intellectual of the Progressive Era, he served as President of Princeton University from 1902 to 1910, and then as the Governor of New Jersey from 1911 to 1913...
, through its
Council of National DefenseThe Council of National Defense was a United States organization formed to coordinate resources and industry for national security.-History:Established in August 24, 1916 by president Woodrow Wilson, the Council of National Defense was created because "The Country is best prepared for war when...
, created an advisory
Aircraft Production Board in May 1917, consisting of members of the Army, Navy, and industry, to study the Europeans' experience in aircraft production and the standardization of aircraft parts. The
United States CongressThe United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States of America, consisting of two houses, the Senate and the House of Representatives. Both senators and representatives are chosen through direct election....
responded to the problems by considering two new bills to create a "Department of Aeronautics" consolidating all aviation activities, including aircraft production, into a single department, and passed a series of legislation in the next three months that appropriated huge sums for development of military aviation, including the largest single
appropriationAppropriation is the act of taking possession of or assigning purpose to properties or ideas and is important in many topics, including:*Appropriation in relation to the spread of knowledge*Appropriation...
for a single purpose to that time, $640 million in the Aviation Act (40 Stat. 243), passed July 24, 1917.
Both the
Department of WarThe United States Department of War, also called the War Office, was the cabinet department originally responsible for the operation and maintenance of the US Army...
and the
Department of the NavyThe United States Department of the Navy was established by an Act of Congress on 30 April 1798, to provide administrative and technical support, and civilian leadership to the United States Navy and the United States Marine Corps...
opposed the creation of a separate air department, and on October 1, 1917, Congress instead legalized the existence of the APB and changed its name to the "
Aircraft BoardThe Aircraft Board was a United States federal government organization founded in 1917. Chaired by Howard E. Coffin, it was initially called the Aircraft Production Board before being superseded by Executive Order in October 1917. The boards, advisory in nature, gave their recommendations to the...
", transferring its functions from the Council of National Defense to the secretaries of War and the Navy. Even so, the Aircraft Board in practice had little control over procurement contracts and functioned mostly as an information clearinghouse between the various involved business, governmental, and military entities. Moreover, the airplane of World War I was not suitable to the
mass productionMass production is the production of large amounts of standardized products, including and especially on assembly lines...
methods of the
automotive industryThe automotive industry designs, develops, manufactures, markets, and sells the world's motor vehicles. In 2008, more than 70 million motor vehicles, including cars and commercial vehicles were produced worldwide....
and the priority of mass producing spare parts was neglected. Though individual areas within the aviation industry responded well, the industry as a whole failed. Efforts to mass produce European aircraft under license largely failed.
As a result, the board came under severe criticism for failure to meet goals or its own claims of aircraft production, followed by a highly-publicized personal investigation by
Gutzon Borglum Gutzon de la Mothe Borglum was an American artist and sculptor famous for creating the monumental presidents' heads at Mount Rushmore, South Dakota, the famous carving on Stone Mountain near Atlanta, as well as other public works of art.- Background :The son of Danish immigrants, Gutzon Borglum...
, a harshly vocal critic of the board. Borglum had exchanged letters with President Wilson, a personal friend, from which he assumed an appointment to investigate had been authorized, which the administration soon denied. Both the
U.S. SenateThe United States Senate is the upper house of the bicameral United States Congress, the lower house being the House of Representatives. The composition and powers of the Senate and the House are established in Article One of the U.S. Constitution . Each U.S state is represented by two senators,...
and the
Department of JusticeThe United States Department of Justice is a Cabinet department in the United States government designed to enforce the law and defend the interests of the United States according to the law and to ensure fair and impartial administration of justice for all Americans...
began investigations into possible fraudulent dealings. President Wilson also acted by appointing a Director of Aircraft Production on April 28, 1918, and creating a Division of Military Aeronautics (DMA) under
Brigadier GeneralBrigadier General is the lowest ranking General Officer in some countries, usually sitting between the ranks of Colonel and Major General.The rank can be traced back to the militaries of Europe where a brigadier general, or simply a brigadier, would command a brigade in the field...
William L. Kenley, to separate supervision of aviation from the duties of the Chief Signal Officer. However, before this took effect, Wilson used a provision of the
Overman Act of May 20, 1918Lee Slater Overman was a Democratic U.S. senator from the state of North Carolina between 1903 and 1930. He was born in Salisbury, N.C., the son of William H. and Mary E. Slater Overman. He attended Trinity College , Class of 1874, where he was a member of the Chi Phi Fraternity.In 1914, Overman...
, to issue Executive Order No. 2862 that removed the DMA entirely from the Signal Corps (reporting directly to the Secretary of War), and assigned it the function of procuring and training a combat force. In addition, the
executive orderAn executive order in the United States is an order issued by the President, the head of the executive branch of the federal government. In other countries, similar edicts may be known as decrees, or orders-in-council. Executive orders may also be issued at the state level by a state's Governor. U.S...
created a Bureau of Aircraft Production (BAP) as a separate executive bureau to provide the aircraft needed.
This arrangement lasted only four days, when the War Department issued General Order No. 51 creating the
Air Service, United States Army to consolidate the two agencies under a single director. (The term "Air Service" had been in use in France since June 13, 1917, to describe the function of aviation units attached to the American Expeditionary Force.) However, it delayed the appointment of a director as long as the BAP operated as a separate bureau. In August, the Senate completed its investigation of the Air Board, and while it found no criminal culpability, it reported that massive waste and delay in production had occurred. As a result, the Director of Aircraft Production (who was also chairman of the Aircraft Board), John D. Ryan, was appointed to the vacant position of Second Assistant Secretary of War and named Director of Air Service, in charge of both the BAP and DMA. The Department of Justice report followed two months later and also blamed the delays on administrative and organizational deficiencies in the Aviation Section. Ryan's appointment came too late for any effective consolidation of both agencies.
Following the Armistice, Ryan resigned on November 27, leaving both the BAP and DMA, as well as the original Aircraft Board, leaderless. Maj. Gen. Charles Menoher was appointed the new Director of Air Service on January 2, 1919, but the patchwork nature of laws and executive orders that had created the various parts of the Air Service prevented him from exercising all their legal powers. President Wilson issued a new executive order in March 1919 dissolving the Aircraft Board and consolidating all powers conferred into a single executive, the Director of Air Service.
By November 11, 1918, the Air Service both overseas and domestically had 195,024 personnel (20,568 officers; 174,456 enlisted men) and 7,900 aircraft, constituting five per cent of the United States Army. With an aviation cadet program modeled on
CanadaCanada is a country occupying most of northern North America, extending from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west and northward into the Arctic Ocean...
's, the Air Service commissioned over 17,000 as reserve officers. Using variants of the Curtiss Jenny, 27 flying training centers graduated nearly 8,000 pilots, and 1,600 more came from foreign schools in
Great BritainGreat Britain is an island lying to the northwest of Continental Europe. It is the ninth largest island in the world, and the largest European island. With a population of about 59.6 million people, it is the third most populated island on Earth. Great Britain is surrounded by over 1000 smaller...
,
FranceFrance , officially the French Republic , is a country located in Western Europe, with several overseas islands and territories located on other continents. Metropolitan France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, and from the Rhine to the Atlantic Ocean...
, and
ItalyItaly , officially the Italian Republic , is a country located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe and on the two largest islands in the Mediterranean Sea, Sicily and Sardinia. Italy shares its northern, Alpine boundary with France, Switzerland, Austria and Slovenia...
. 10,000 mechanics were trained to service the American aircraft fleet. Of aircraft manufactured in America, the deHavilland DH-4 (3,400) was the most numerous, although only 1,200 were shipped overseas, most used in observation units.
Assigned overseas in the
American Expeditionary ForceThe American Expeditionary Forces or AEF was the United States Armed Forces sent to Europe in World War I. During the United States campaigns in World War I the AEF fought in France along side British and French allied forces in the last year of the war, against Imperial German forces...
, the air arm totalled 78,507 (7,738 officers and 70,769 enlisted men) at the armistice. Of this total, 58,090 served in France; 20,075 in England; and 342 in Italy. Balloon troops made up approximately 17,000 of the Air Service, with 6,811 in the dangerous duty of spotting for the artillery at the front.
Air Service World War I posters
Organization
During the first year of U.S. participation in
World War IWorld War I , also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All Wars, was a global military conflict which involved most of the world's great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances: the Triple Entente and the Triple Alliance...
, aviation units had been created and deployed without organization. Upon his arrival in France in June 1917, Pershing met with
Lieutenant ColonelLieutenant colonel is a rank of commissioned officer in the armies and most marine forces and air forces of the world, typically ranking above a major and below a colonel. The rank of lieutenant colonel is often shortened to simply "colonel" in conversation and in unofficial correspondence...
Billy MitchellWilliam Lendrum "Billy" Mitchell was an American Army general who is regarded as the father of the U.S. Air Force...
, who had been sent to Europe in March 1917 as an observer, and arrived in Paris just four days after the United States declared war. Mitchell had established a "headquarters" for the American "air service" and so advised Pershing that it was ready to proceed with any project Pershing might require. Pershing's aviation officer,
MajorIn many European languages, the term Major is a military rank, implying seniority at one of usually various levels of rank. For example:*"General-Major" or "Major-General", denoting a senior ranking general officer....
Townsend Dodd, first used the term "Air Service" in a memo to the chief of staff of the AEF on 20 June 1917. The first official use of the term was in AEF General Order No. 8, 5 July 1917, in tables detailing staff organization and duties. The term became commonplace, but units organized into "air services" down to the corps level did not occur until May 1918.
Five days after the formation of the Army Air Service, separating it from the
Signal CorpsThe Signal Corps is a military branch, usually subordinate to a country's army, responsible for the military communications .Many countries have a Signal Corps, whose main function is usually communication .* Signal Corps , founded in 1860 by Major Albert J...
,
GeneralA general officer is an officer of high military rank. The term or equivalent is used by nearly every country in the world. General can be used as a generic term for all grades of general officer, or it can specifically refer to a single rank that is simply called general.-All general officer...
John J. PershingGeneral of the Armies John Joseph Pershing, Honorary GCB; September 13, 1860 – July 15, 1948, was a general officer in the United States Army. Pershing is the only person to be promoted in his own lifetime to the highest rank ever held in the United States Army—General of the Armies General of the...
, commanding the
American Expeditionary ForceThe American Expeditionary Forces or AEF was the United States Armed Forces sent to Europe in World War I. During the United States campaigns in World War I the AEF fought in France along side British and French allied forces in the last year of the war, against Imperial German forces...
(AEF), duplicated the action in Europe by creating the "Air Service of the AEF" and placing it in charge of all U.S. aviation units, personnel, and equipment in
FranceFrance , officially the French Republic , is a country located in Western Europe, with several overseas islands and territories located on other continents. Metropolitan France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, and from the Rhine to the Atlantic Ocean...
. As Chief of Air Service, AEF, he chose a West Point classmate and non-aviator,
Major GeneralMajor General or Major-General is a military rank used in many countries. It is derived from the older rank of Sergeant Major General. A Major General is a high-ranking officer, normally subordinate to the rank of Lieutenant General and senior to the ranks of Brigadier and Brigadier General...
Mason PatrickMason Mathews Patrick was a U.S. Army general and air power advocate.Patrick was born in Lewisburg, West Virginia and graduated from West Point in 1886. For three years he was at the Engineer School of Application, Willets Point, New York, graduating in 1889...
. Air Service staff planning had been inefficient, with considerable friction between its members and those of Pershing's General Staff. Aircraft and unit totals lagged far behind those promised in 1917. Considerable house-cleaning of the existing staff coincided with Patrick's appointment, bringing in experienced staff officers to administrate and tightening up lines of communication.
General Pershing had at first called for creation of 260 U.S. air combat squadrons, but slowness of the buildup reduced that to 202 on August 17, 1918. In Pershing's view, the two functions of the AEF's Air Service were to repel German aircraft and conduct observation of enemy movements. The heart of the force was its 101 observation squadrons (52 corps observation and 49 army observation), to be distributed to three armies and 16 corps. In addition, 60 pursuit squadrons, 27 night-bombardment squadrons, and 14 day-bombardment squadrons were to conduct supporting operations.
Without the time or infrastructure in the United States to equip units to send overseas using aircraft designed and built in the U.S., the AEF Air Service ordered Allied aircraft designs already in service with the French and British air services. On August 30, 1917, the American and French governments agreed to a contract in which France would provide the Air Service AEF, with 1,500
Breguet 14 B.2The Breguet 14 was a French biplane bomber and reconnaissance aircraft of World War I. It was built in very large numbers and production continued for many years after the end of the war. Apart from its widespread usage, it was noteworthy for becoming the first aircraft in mass production to use...
bombers and reconnaissance planes; 2,000 SPAD XIII fighters; and 1,500
Nieuport 28The Nieuport 28 was a French biplane fighter aircraft flown during World War I, built by Nieuport and designed by Gustave Delage. Its principal claim to fame is that it was the first aircraft to see service with an American fighter squadron....
pursuits.
The primary aircraft employed were the SPAD XIII (877 combat sorties), Nieuport 28 (181), and
SPAD VIIThe SPAD S.VII was the first of a series of highly successful biplane fighter aircraft produced by Société Pour L'Aviation et ses Dérivés during the First World War. Like its successors, the S.VII was renowned as a sturdy and rugged aircraft with good climbing and diving characteristics...
(103) as pursuit aircraft, the
DeHaviland DH-4The Airco DH.4 was a British two-seat biplane day-bomber of the First World War. It was designed by Geoffrey de Havilland for Airco, and was the first British two seat light day-bomber to have an effective defensive armament. It first flew in August 1916 and entered service with the Royal Flying...
(696) and Breguet 14 (87) for daylight bombing, and the DH-4 and
Salmson 2 A.2The Salmson 2 was a French biplane reconnaissance aircraft made by Salmson. It was developed to a 1916 requirement. Along with the Breguet 14, it was the main reconnaissance aircraft in use with the French army in 1918...
(557 sorties) for observation and photo reconnaissance. The SE-5 operated as the main trainer for the Air Service. Balloon companies operated the French Caquot Type R
hydrogenHydrogen is the chemical element with atomic number 1. It is represented by the symbol H. At standard temperature and pressure, hydrogen is a colorless, odorless, nonmetallic, tasteless, highly flammable diatomic gas with the molecular formula H
2...
-filled observation balloon, with one balloon per company.
Operations
The first U.S. aviation squadron to reach France was the 1st Aero Squadron, an observation unit, which sailed from New York in August 1917 and arrived at
Le HavreLe Havre is a city in north-western France situated on the right bank of the mouth of the Seine River as it flows into the Bay of the Seine in the English Channel. It is a commune in the Seine-Maritime department in the Haute-Normandie region. The inhabitants of the city are called Havrais or...
on September 3. A member of the squadron,
Stephen W. ThompsonStephen W. Thompson was an American aviator of World War I, and the first person in the U.S. Military to shoot down an enemy aircraft .-Early life:...
, on February 5, 1918, achieved the first aerial victory by the U. S. military. As other squadrons were organized at home, they too were sent overseas, where they continued their training. It was February 18, 1918, before any U.S. squadron entered combat (the 103rd Aero Squadron, a pursuit unit flying with French forces and composed largely of former members of the
Lafayette EscadrilleThe Lafayette Escadrille , was a squadron of the French Air Service, the Aéronautique militaire, during World War I composed largely of American volunteer pilots flying fighters....
). By the beginning of the
Meuse-Argonne OffensiveThe Meuse-Argonne Offensive, also called the Battle of the Argonne Forest, was a part of the final Allied offensive of World War I that stretched along the entire western front. The whole offensive was planned by Marshall Ferdinand Foch to breach the Hindenburg line and ultimately force the...
the Air Service AEF consisted of 32 squadrons (15 pursuit, 13 observation, and 4 bombing) at the front, while by November 11, 1918, 45 squadrons (20 pursuit, 18 observation, and 7 bombardment) had been assembled for combat. During the war, these squadrons played important roles in the
Third Battle of the AisneThe Third Battle of the Aisne was a battle of the German Spring Offensive during World War I that focused on capturing the Chemin des Dames Ridge before the American Expeditionary Force could arrive in France...
, the
Battle of Saint-MihielThe Battle of Saint-Mihiel was a World War I battle fought between September 12 - 15, 1918, involving the American Expeditionary Force and 48,000 French troops under the command of U.S. general John J. Pershing against German positions. The United States Army Air Service played a significant role...
, and the Meuse-Argonne Offensive. Several units, including the
94th Aero SquadronThe 94th Fighter Squadron ' is a United States Air Force unit. It is assigned to the 1st Operations Group and stationed at Langley Air Force Base, Virginia.The 94th Fighter Squadron is the second oldest fighter squadron in America's history....
,
CaptainThe army rank of Captain is an officer rank historically corresponding to command of a company of soldiers. The rank is also used by some air forces and marine forces. Today a captain is typically the commander, or second in command, of a company or squadron...
Eddie RickenbackerEdward Vernon Rickenbacker was an American fighter ace in World War I and Medal of Honor recipient. He was also a race car driver and automotive designer, a government consultant in military matters and a pioneer in air transportation, particularly as the longtime head of Eastern Air Lines.-Early...
commanding, and the 27th Aero Squadron, which had "balloon buster"
First LieutenantFirst Lieutenant is a military rank.The rank of Lieutenant has different meanings in different military formations , but the majority of cases it is common for it to be sub-divided into a senior and junior rank...
Frank LukeFrank Luke Jr. was an American fighter ace, ranking second among U.S. Air Service pilots to Eddie Rickenbacker in number of aerial victories during World War I. Frank Luke was the first airman to receive the Medal of Honor. Luke Air Force Base, a training site for Air Force aviators since WWII,...
as one of its pilots, achieved distinguished records in combat and became part of the future
United States Army Air CorpsThe United States Army Air Corps was the predecessor of the U.S. Army Air Forces from 1926-41, which in turn was the forerunner of today's U.S. Air Force , established in 1947...
.
Observation planes often operated individually, as did pursuit pilots to attack a balloon or to meet the enemy in a
dogfightA dogfight, or dog fight, is aerial combat between fighter aircraft. Dogfighting first appeared during World War I, shortly after the invention of the airplane, and has since became a component in every major war despite beliefs after World War II that increasingly greater speeds and longer range...
. However the tendency was toward formation flying, for pursuit as well as for bombardment operations, as a defensive tactic. The dispersal of squadrons among the army ground units (each corps and division had an observation squadron attached) made coordination of air activities difficult, so that squadrons were organized by functions into
groupGroup is a term used by different air forces for an element of military organization. The size of a group varies considerably between different countries...
s, the first of these being the
1st Corps Observation Group, organized in April 1918. On May 5, 1918, the
1st Pursuit GroupThe 1st Operations Group is the flying component of the 1st Fighter Wing, assigned to the USAF Air Combat Command. The group is stationed at Langley Air Force Base, Virginia....
was formed, and by the
armisticeAn armistice is a situation in a war where the warring parties agree to stop fighting. It is not necessarily the end of a war, but may be just a cessation of hostilities while an attempt is made to negotiate a lasting peace...
the AEF had 14 heavier-than-air groups (7 observation, 5 pursuit, and 2 bombardment). Of these 14 groups, only the 1st Pursuit and 1st Day Bombardment Groups would have their lineage continued into the post-war Air Service.
In July 1918, the AEF organized its first
wingA wing is a surface used to produce lift for flight through the air or another gaseous or fluid medium. The wing shape is usually an airfoil. The word originally referred only to the foremost limbs of birds, but has been extended to include the wings of insects , bats, pterosaurs, and aircraft.A...
, the 1st Pursuit Wing, made up of the 2d Pursuit, 3rd Pursuit, and 1st Day Bombardment Groups. Each Army and Corps echelon of the ground forces had a chief of air service designated to direct operations. The
Air Service, First Army was activated August 26, 1918, marking the commencement of large scale coordinated U.S. air operations. Col.
Benjamin FouloisBenjamin Delahauf Foulois , was a United States Army Officer who learned to fly the first military planes purchased from the Wright Brothers. He became the first military aviator as an airship pilot, and achieved numerous other military aviation "firsts"...
was named chief of the First Army Air Service over Col.
Billy MitchellWilliam Lendrum "Billy" Mitchell was an American Army general who is regarded as the father of the U.S. Air Force...
, who had been directing air operations as chief of the
I CorpsList of military corps — List of military corps by numberA number of countries have First, or I, Corps:*I Anzac Corps *I Corps *I Corps *I Corps *I Corps *I Corps...
Air Service since March, but Foulois voluntarily relinquished his post to Mitchell and became one of the two assistant chiefs of Air Service AEF, at Tours in charge of personnel and training. Mitchell went on to become a
brigadier generalBrigadier General is the lowest ranking General Officer in some countries, usually sitting between the ranks of Colonel and Major General.The rank can be traced back to the militaries of Europe where a brigadier general, or simply a brigadier, would command a brigade in the field...
and chief of the Army Group Air Service in mid-October 1918, succeeded at First Army by Col. Thomas Milling. The
Air Service, Second Army was activated in November just before the armistice, and the
Air Service Third Army was created immediately after the armistice to provide aviation support to the army of occupation.
Mitchell and Foulois were advocates of the formation of an "air force" to centralize control over military aviation. In the
Battle of Saint-MihielThe Battle of Saint-Mihiel was a World War I battle fought between September 12 - 15, 1918, involving the American Expeditionary Force and 48,000 French troops under the command of U.S. general John J. Pershing against German positions. The United States Army Air Service played a significant role...
, commencing September 12, 1918, the American and French offensive against the German
salientSalient may refer to:* Peninsula-like salients of political geography and Military Science.** Salient , a battlefield feature that projects an attacker's lines into enemy territory in such a way that the attacker is surrounded on three sides....
was supported by 1,481 airplanes directed by Mitchell, totalling 24 Air Service, 58 French
Aéronautique Militaire, and three
Royal Air ForceThe Royal Air Force is the United Kingdom's air force, the oldest independent air force in the world. Formed on 1 April 1918, the RAF has taken a significant role in British military history ever since, playing a large part in World War II and in more recent conflicts.The RAF operates almost 1,109...
squadrons in coordinated operations. Observation and pursuit planes supported ground forces, while the other two-thirds of the aerial force bombed and strafed behind enemy lines. Later, during the
Meuse-Argonne offensiveThe Meuse-Argonne Offensive, also called the Battle of the Argonne Forest, was a part of the final Allied offensive of World War I that stretched along the entire western front. The whole offensive was planned by Marshall Ferdinand Foch to breach the Hindenburg line and ultimately force the...
, Mitchell employed a smaller concentration of airpower, nearly all American this time, to keep the German army on the defensive.
Army of occupation duties
Immediately after the armistice, the AEF formed the Third United States Army to march immediately into Germany, occupy the Coblenz area, and be prepared to resume combat if peace treaty negotiations failed. Three corps were formed from seven of the Army's most experienced divisions, and Brig. Gen. Mitchell was appointed to command the Air Service, Third Army, on November 14, 1918.
As with the ground forces, the most veteran units of the Air Service were selected to form the new Air Service. A pursuit unit, the 94th "Hat in the Ring" Aero Squadron; a day bombardment squadron, the 166th; and four observation squadrons (1st, 12th, 88th, and 9th Night) were initially assigned. The demobilization of the AEF accelerated in December and January, and all but two of these squadrons returned to the United States. Gen. Mitchell was replaced in January as commander of the Third Army Air Service by Col. Harold Fowler, a combat veteran of the
Royal Flying CorpsThe Royal Flying Corps was the over-land air arm of the British military during most of the First World War. During the early part of the war, the RFC's responsibilities were centred on support of the British Army, via artillery cooperation and photographic reconnaissance...
and former commander of the American 17th Pursuit Squadron.
By March 1919 the U.S. Second Army in France had also closed down. Its former air units were transferred to the Third Army Air Service in Germany, which at its maximum consisted of the:
- 5th Pursuit Group (41st, 138th, 141st, and 605th Aero Squadrons) at Coblenz, the
- 3rd Corps Observation Group (1st, 24th, and 258th A.S.) at Weißenthurm
Weißenthurm is a municipality in the district of Mayen-Koblenz, in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany. It is situated on the left bank of the Rhine, opposite Neuwied, approx. 12 km north-west of Koblenz....
, the
- 4th Corps Observation Group (85th and 278th A.S. only, its other squadrons sent home before assignment) at Sinzig
Sinzig is a municipality in the district of Ahrweiler, in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany. It is situated on the river Rhine, approx. 5 km south-east of Remagen and 25 km south-east of Bonn, and it has approximately 20,000 inhabitants .- History :...
, and the
- 7th Corps Observation Group (9th, 88th, and 186th A.S.) at Trier
Trier is a city in Germany on the banks of the Moselle River. It is the oldest city in Germany, founded in or before 16 BC. Trier is not the only city claiming to be Germany's oldest, but it is the only one that bases this assertion on having the longest history as a city, as opposed to a mere...
.
The Third Army and its air service were deactivated in July 1919 after the signing of the
Treaty of VersaillesThe Treaty of Versailles was one of the peace treaties at the end of World War I. It ended the state of war between Germany and the Allied Powers. It was signed on 28 June 1919, exactly five years after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. The other Central Powers on the German side of...
.
Statistical summary, World War I
{{nofootnotes|date=March 2008}}
The
United States Army Air Service was a forerunner of the
United States Air ForceThe United States Air Force is the aerial warfare branch of the U.S. armed forces and one of the American uniformed services. Initially part of the United States Army, the USAF was formed as a separate branch of the military on 18 September 1947 under the National Security Act of 1947 - 80 P.L....
. It was established on May 24, 1918, after U.S. entry into
World War IWorld War I , also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All Wars, was a global military conflict which involved most of the world's great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances: the Triple Entente and the Triple Alliance...
, replacing the
Aviation Section, U.S. Signal CorpsThe Aviation Section, U.S. Signal Corps, was the name of the military aviation service of the United States Army from 1914 to 1918, and a direct ancestor of the United States Air Force. It replaced the Aeronautical Division, U.S. Signal Corps and was succeeded briefly by the Division of Military...
which had been the nation's air force from 1914 to 1918.
Although the Air Service was recognized by the
Department of WarThe United States Department of War, also called the War Office, was the cabinet department originally responsible for the operation and maintenance of the US Army...
on May 24, 1918, no Director of Air Service was appointed until August 28, when President
Woodrow WilsonThomas Woodrow Wilson was the 28th President of the United States. A leading intellectual of the Progressive Era, he served as President of Princeton University from 1902 to 1910, and then as the Governor of New Jersey from 1911 to 1913...
made John D. Ryan a Second Assistant
Secretary of WarThe Secretary of War was a member of the United States President's Cabinet, beginning with George Washington's administration. A similar position, called either "Secretary at War" or "Secretary of War," was appointed to serve the Congress of the Confederation under the Articles of Confederation...
and civilian
Director of Air Service. After World War I, the Air Service was again directed by a military officer and remained so until replaced by the
United States Army Air CorpsThe United States Army Air Corps was the predecessor of the U.S. Army Air Forces from 1926-41, which in turn was the forerunner of today's U.S. Air Force , established in 1947...
on July 1, 1926.
The Air Service was the first form of the air force to have both its own unique organizational structure and identity. Prior to May 1918 its permanent personnel were part of the Signal Corps and its pilots on temporary assignment from other branches of the Army. Between May 1918 and July 1920, enlisted men were assigned to and new officers commissioned in the Air Service as either
National ArmyThe National Army was the combined conscript and volunteer force that was formed by the United States War Department in 1917 to fight in World War I...
(war-mobilized) or United States Army (Regulars). After July 1, 1920, all personnel retained by the Army were designated members of the Air Service, with officers who had been commissioned in the Signal Corps formally transferred.
Lineage of the United States Air Force
- Aeronautical Division, U.S. Signal Corps
The Aeronautical Division, U.S. Signal Corps was the first progenitor of the United States Air Force, and as such is the first military air organization. A component of the U.S. Army Signal Corps, the Aeronautical Division did not contain any subordinate units during its existence.-Lineage of the...
August 1, 1907–July 18, 1914
- Aviation Section, U.S. Signal Corps
The Aviation Section, U.S. Signal Corps, was the name of the military aviation service of the United States Army from 1914 to 1918, and a direct ancestor of the United States Air Force. It replaced the Aeronautical Division, U.S. Signal Corps and was succeeded briefly by the Division of Military...
July 18, 1914–May 20, 1918
- Division of Military Aeronautics May 20, 1918–May 24, 1918
- United States Army Air Service May 24, 1918–July 2, 1926
- United States Army Air Corps
The United States Army Air Corps was the predecessor of the U.S. Army Air Forces from 1926-41, which in turn was the forerunner of today's U.S. Air Force , established in 1947...
July 2, 1926–June 20, 1941
- United States Army Air Forces
The United States Army Air Forces was the military aviation arm of the United States of America during and immediately after World War II. It was a component of the United States Army, divided functionally by executive order in 1942 into three autonomous forces: the Army Ground Forces, the...
June 20, 1941–September 18, 1947
- United States Air Force
The United States Air Force is the aerial warfare branch of the U.S. armed forces and one of the American uniformed services. Initially part of the United States Army, the USAF was formed as a separate branch of the military on 18 September 1947 under the National Security Act of 1947 - 80 P.L....
September 18, 1947–present
Creation of the Air Service
See main articles: Aviation Section, U.S. Signal CorpsThe Aviation Section, U.S. Signal Corps, was the name of the military aviation service of the United States Army from 1914 to 1918, and a direct ancestor of the United States Air Force. It replaced the Aeronautical Division, U.S. Signal Corps and was succeeded briefly by the Division of Military...
and Division of Military Aeronautics
Although
CongressThe United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States of America, consisting of two houses, the Senate and the House of Representatives. Both senators and representatives are chosen through direct election....
had vastly increased the appropriations for the
Aviation Section of the Signal CorpsThe Aviation Section, U.S. Signal Corps, was the name of the military aviation service of the United States Army from 1914 to 1918, and a direct ancestor of the United States Air Force. It replaced the Aeronautical Division, U.S. Signal Corps and was succeeded briefly by the Division of Military...
in 1916, it had also
tabled a billIn American parliamentary procedure, the motion to table or more properly, to lay on the table, is a proposal to suspend consideration of the pending motion...
proposing an aviation department incorporating all aspects of military aviation, the first ever introduced to create a separate aviation service. The
declaration of warA declaration of war is a formal performative speech act or signing of a document by an authorized party of a government in order to initiate a state of war between two or more nations. The legality of who can declare war varies between nations and forms of government. In many nations power is...
against
GermanyGermany , officially the Federal Republic of Germany , is a country in Central Europe. It is bordered to the north by the North Sea, Denmark, and the Baltic Sea; to the east by Poland and the Czech Republic; to the south by Austria and Switzerland; and to the west by France, Luxembourg, Belgium,...
on April 6, 1917, putting the United States in
World War IWorld War I , also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All Wars, was a global military conflict which involved most of the world's great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances: the Triple Entente and the Triple Alliance...
, came too quickly to solve emerging engineering and production problems, and the reorganization of the Aviation Section had been inadequate in resolving problems in training, leaving the United States totally unprepared to fight an air war in Europe.
The administration of President
Woodrow WilsonThomas Woodrow Wilson was the 28th President of the United States. A leading intellectual of the Progressive Era, he served as President of Princeton University from 1902 to 1910, and then as the Governor of New Jersey from 1911 to 1913...
, through its
Council of National DefenseThe Council of National Defense was a United States organization formed to coordinate resources and industry for national security.-History:Established in August 24, 1916 by president Woodrow Wilson, the Council of National Defense was created because "The Country is best prepared for war when...
, created an advisory
Aircraft Production Board in May 1917, consisting of members of the Army, Navy, and industry, to study the Europeans' experience in aircraft production and the standardization of aircraft parts. The
United States CongressThe United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States of America, consisting of two houses, the Senate and the House of Representatives. Both senators and representatives are chosen through direct election....
responded to the problems by considering two new bills to create a "Department of Aeronautics" consolidating all aviation activities, including aircraft production, into a single department, and passed a series of legislation in the next three months that appropriated huge sums for development of military aviation, including the largest single
appropriationAppropriation is the act of taking possession of or assigning purpose to properties or ideas and is important in many topics, including:*Appropriation in relation to the spread of knowledge*Appropriation...
for a single purpose to that time, $640 million in the Aviation Act (40 Stat. 243), passed July 24, 1917.
Both the
Department of WarThe United States Department of War, also called the War Office, was the cabinet department originally responsible for the operation and maintenance of the US Army...
and the
Department of the NavyThe United States Department of the Navy was established by an Act of Congress on 30 April 1798, to provide administrative and technical support, and civilian leadership to the United States Navy and the United States Marine Corps...
opposed the creation of a separate air department, and on October 1, 1917, Congress instead legalized the existence of the APB and changed its name to the "
Aircraft BoardThe Aircraft Board was a United States federal government organization founded in 1917. Chaired by Howard E. Coffin, it was initially called the Aircraft Production Board before being superseded by Executive Order in October 1917. The boards, advisory in nature, gave their recommendations to the...
", transferring its functions from the Council of National Defense to the secretaries of War and the Navy. Even so, the Aircraft Board in practice had little control over procurement contracts and functioned mostly as an information clearinghouse between the various involved business, governmental, and military entities. Moreover, the airplane of World War I was not suitable to the
mass productionMass production is the production of large amounts of standardized products, including and especially on assembly lines...
methods of the
automotive industryThe automotive industry designs, develops, manufactures, markets, and sells the world's motor vehicles. In 2008, more than 70 million motor vehicles, including cars and commercial vehicles were produced worldwide....
and the priority of mass producing spare parts was neglected. Though individual areas within the aviation industry responded well, the industry as a whole failed. Efforts to mass produce European aircraft under license largely failed.
As a result, the board came under severe criticism for failure to meet goals or its own claims of aircraft production, followed by a highly-publicized personal investigation by
Gutzon Borglum Gutzon de la Mothe Borglum was an American artist and sculptor famous for creating the monumental presidents' heads at Mount Rushmore, South Dakota, the famous carving on Stone Mountain near Atlanta, as well as other public works of art.- Background :The son of Danish immigrants, Gutzon Borglum...
, a harshly vocal critic of the board. Borglum had exchanged letters with President Wilson, a personal friend, from which he assumed an appointment to investigate had been authorized, which the administration soon denied. Both the
U.S. SenateThe United States Senate is the upper house of the bicameral United States Congress, the lower house being the House of Representatives. The composition and powers of the Senate and the House are established in Article One of the U.S. Constitution . Each U.S state is represented by two senators,...
and the
Department of JusticeThe United States Department of Justice is a Cabinet department in the United States government designed to enforce the law and defend the interests of the United States according to the law and to ensure fair and impartial administration of justice for all Americans...
began investigations into possible fraudulent dealings. President Wilson also acted by appointing a Director of Aircraft Production on April 28, 1918, and creating a Division of Military Aeronautics (DMA) under
Brigadier GeneralBrigadier General is the lowest ranking General Officer in some countries, usually sitting between the ranks of Colonel and Major General.The rank can be traced back to the militaries of Europe where a brigadier general, or simply a brigadier, would command a brigade in the field...
William L. Kenley, to separate supervision of aviation from the duties of the Chief Signal Officer. However, before this took effect, Wilson used a provision of the
Overman Act of May 20, 1918Lee Slater Overman was a Democratic U.S. senator from the state of North Carolina between 1903 and 1930. He was born in Salisbury, N.C., the son of William H. and Mary E. Slater Overman. He attended Trinity College , Class of 1874, where he was a member of the Chi Phi Fraternity.In 1914, Overman...
, to issue Executive Order No. 2862 that removed the DMA entirely from the Signal Corps (reporting directly to the Secretary of War), and assigned it the function of procuring and training a combat force. In addition, the
executive orderAn executive order in the United States is an order issued by the President, the head of the executive branch of the federal government. In other countries, similar edicts may be known as decrees, or orders-in-council. Executive orders may also be issued at the state level by a state's Governor. U.S...
created a Bureau of Aircraft Production (BAP) as a separate executive bureau to provide the aircraft needed.
This arrangement lasted only four days, when the War Department issued General Order No. 51 creating the
Air Service, United States Army to consolidate the two agencies under a single director. (The term "Air Service" had been in use in France since June 13, 1917, to describe the function of aviation units attached to the American Expeditionary Force.) However, it delayed the appointment of a director as long as the BAP operated as a separate bureau. In August, the Senate completed its investigation of the Air Board, and while it found no criminal culpability, it reported that massive waste and delay in production had occurred. As a result, the Director of Aircraft Production (who was also chairman of the Aircraft Board), John D. Ryan, was appointed to the vacant position of Second Assistant Secretary of War and named Director of Air Service, in charge of both the BAP and DMA. The Department of Justice report followed two months later and also blamed the delays on administrative and organizational deficiencies in the Aviation Section. Ryan's appointment came too late for any effective consolidation of both agencies.
Following the Armistice, Ryan resigned on November 27, leaving both the BAP and DMA, as well as the original Aircraft Board, leaderless. Maj. Gen. Charles Menoher was appointed the new Director of Air Service on January 2, 1919, but the patchwork nature of laws and executive orders that had created the various parts of the Air Service prevented him from exercising all their legal powers. President Wilson issued a new executive order in March 1919 dissolving the Aircraft Board and consolidating all powers conferred into a single executive, the Director of Air Service.
By November 11, 1918, the Air Service both overseas and domestically had 195,024 personnel (20,568 officers; 174,456 enlisted men) and 7,900 aircraft, constituting five per cent of the United States Army. With an aviation cadet program modeled on
CanadaCanada is a country occupying most of northern North America, extending from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west and northward into the Arctic Ocean...
's, the Air Service commissioned over 17,000 as reserve officers. Using variants of the Curtiss Jenny, 27 flying training centers graduated nearly 8,000 pilots, and 1,600 more came from foreign schools in
Great BritainGreat Britain is an island lying to the northwest of Continental Europe. It is the ninth largest island in the world, and the largest European island. With a population of about 59.6 million people, it is the third most populated island on Earth. Great Britain is surrounded by over 1000 smaller...
,
FranceFrance , officially the French Republic , is a country located in Western Europe, with several overseas islands and territories located on other continents. Metropolitan France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, and from the Rhine to the Atlantic Ocean...
, and
ItalyItaly , officially the Italian Republic , is a country located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe and on the two largest islands in the Mediterranean Sea, Sicily and Sardinia. Italy shares its northern, Alpine boundary with France, Switzerland, Austria and Slovenia...
. 10,000 mechanics were trained to service the American aircraft fleet. Of aircraft manufactured in America, the deHavilland DH-4 (3,400) was the most numerous, although only 1,200 were shipped overseas, most used in observation units.
Assigned overseas in the
American Expeditionary ForceThe American Expeditionary Forces or AEF was the United States Armed Forces sent to Europe in World War I. During the United States campaigns in World War I the AEF fought in France along side British and French allied forces in the last year of the war, against Imperial German forces...
, the air arm totalled 78,507 (7,738 officers and 70,769 enlisted men) at the armistice. Of this total, 58,090 served in France; 20,075 in England; and 342 in Italy. Balloon troops made up approximately 17,000 of the Air Service, with 6,811 in the dangerous duty of spotting for the artillery at the front.
Air Service World War I posters
Organization
During the first year of U.S. participation in
World War IWorld War I , also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All Wars, was a global military conflict which involved most of the world's great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances: the Triple Entente and the Triple Alliance...
, aviation units had been created and deployed without organization. Upon his arrival in France in June 1917, Pershing met with
Lieutenant ColonelLieutenant colonel is a rank of commissioned officer in the armies and most marine forces and air forces of the world, typically ranking above a major and below a colonel. The rank of lieutenant colonel is often shortened to simply "colonel" in conversation and in unofficial correspondence...
Billy MitchellWilliam Lendrum "Billy" Mitchell was an American Army general who is regarded as the father of the U.S. Air Force...
, who had been sent to Europe in March 1917 as an observer, and arrived in Paris just four days after the United States declared war. Mitchell had established a "headquarters" for the American "air service" and so advised Pershing that it was ready to proceed with any project Pershing might require. Pershing's aviation officer,
MajorIn many European languages, the term Major is a military rank, implying seniority at one of usually various levels of rank. For example:*"General-Major" or "Major-General", denoting a senior ranking general officer....
Townsend Dodd, first used the term "Air Service" in a memo to the chief of staff of the AEF on 20 June 1917. The first official use of the term was in AEF General Order No. 8, 5 July 1917, in tables detailing staff organization and duties. The term became commonplace, but units organized into "air services" down to the corps level did not occur until May 1918.
Five days after the formation of the Army Air Service, separating it from the
Signal CorpsThe Signal Corps is a military branch, usually subordinate to a country's army, responsible for the military communications .Many countries have a Signal Corps, whose main function is usually communication .* Signal Corps , founded in 1860 by Major Albert J...
,
GeneralA general officer is an officer of high military rank. The term or equivalent is used by nearly every country in the world. General can be used as a generic term for all grades of general officer, or it can specifically refer to a single rank that is simply called general.-All general officer...
John J. PershingGeneral of the Armies John Joseph Pershing, Honorary GCB; September 13, 1860 – July 15, 1948, was a general officer in the United States Army. Pershing is the only person to be promoted in his own lifetime to the highest rank ever held in the United States Army—General of the Armies General of the...
, commanding the
American Expeditionary ForceThe American Expeditionary Forces or AEF was the United States Armed Forces sent to Europe in World War I. During the United States campaigns in World War I the AEF fought in France along side British and French allied forces in the last year of the war, against Imperial German forces...
(AEF), duplicated the action in Europe by creating the "Air Service of the AEF" and placing it in charge of all U.S. aviation units, personnel, and equipment in
FranceFrance , officially the French Republic , is a country located in Western Europe, with several overseas islands and territories located on other continents. Metropolitan France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, and from the Rhine to the Atlantic Ocean...
. As Chief of Air Service, AEF, he chose a West Point classmate and non-aviator,
Major GeneralMajor General or Major-General is a military rank used in many countries. It is derived from the older rank of Sergeant Major General. A Major General is a high-ranking officer, normally subordinate to the rank of Lieutenant General and senior to the ranks of Brigadier and Brigadier General...
Mason PatrickMason Mathews Patrick was a U.S. Army general and air power advocate.Patrick was born in Lewisburg, West Virginia and graduated from West Point in 1886. For three years he was at the Engineer School of Application, Willets Point, New York, graduating in 1889...
. Air Service staff planning had been inefficient, with considerable friction between its members and those of Pershing's General Staff. Aircraft and unit totals lagged far behind those promised in 1917. Considerable house-cleaning of the existing staff coincided with Patrick's appointment, bringing in experienced staff officers to administrate and tightening up lines of communication.
General Pershing had at first called for creation of 260 U.S. air combat squadrons, but slowness of the buildup reduced that to 202 on August 17, 1918. In Pershing's view, the two functions of the AEF's Air Service were to repel German aircraft and conduct observation of enemy movements. The heart of the force was its 101 observation squadrons (52 corps observation and 49 army observation), to be distributed to three armies and 16 corps. In addition, 60 pursuit squadrons, 27 night-bombardment squadrons, and 14 day-bombardment squadrons were to conduct supporting operations.
Without the time or infrastructure in the United States to equip units to send overseas using aircraft designed and built in the U.S., the AEF Air Service ordered Allied aircraft designs already in service with the French and British air services. On August 30, 1917, the American and French governments agreed to a contract in which France would provide the Air Service AEF, with 1,500
Breguet 14 B.2The Breguet 14 was a French biplane bomber and reconnaissance aircraft of World War I. It was built in very large numbers and production continued for many years after the end of the war. Apart from its widespread usage, it was noteworthy for becoming the first aircraft in mass production to use...
bombers and reconnaissance planes; 2,000 SPAD XIII fighters; and 1,500
Nieuport 28The Nieuport 28 was a French biplane fighter aircraft flown during World War I, built by Nieuport and designed by Gustave Delage. Its principal claim to fame is that it was the first aircraft to see service with an American fighter squadron....
pursuits.
The primary aircraft employed were the SPAD XIII (877 combat sorties), Nieuport 28 (181), and
SPAD VIIThe SPAD S.VII was the first of a series of highly successful biplane fighter aircraft produced by Société Pour L'Aviation et ses Dérivés during the First World War. Like its successors, the S.VII was renowned as a sturdy and rugged aircraft with good climbing and diving characteristics...
(103) as pursuit aircraft, the
DeHaviland DH-4The Airco DH.4 was a British two-seat biplane day-bomber of the First World War. It was designed by Geoffrey de Havilland for Airco, and was the first British two seat light day-bomber to have an effective defensive armament. It first flew in August 1916 and entered service with the Royal Flying...
(696) and Breguet 14 (87) for daylight bombing, and the DH-4 and
Salmson 2 A.2The Salmson 2 was a French biplane reconnaissance aircraft made by Salmson. It was developed to a 1916 requirement. Along with the Breguet 14, it was the main reconnaissance aircraft in use with the French army in 1918...
(557 sorties) for observation and photo reconnaissance. The SE-5 operated as the main trainer for the Air Service. Balloon companies operated the French Caquot Type R
hydrogenHydrogen is the chemical element with atomic number 1. It is represented by the symbol H. At standard temperature and pressure, hydrogen is a colorless, odorless, nonmetallic, tasteless, highly flammable diatomic gas with the molecular formula H
2...
-filled observation balloon, with one balloon per company.
Operations
The first U.S. aviation squadron to reach France was the 1st Aero Squadron, an observation unit, which sailed from New York in August 1917 and arrived at
Le HavreLe Havre is a city in north-western France situated on the right bank of the mouth of the Seine River as it flows into the Bay of the Seine in the English Channel. It is a commune in the Seine-Maritime department in the Haute-Normandie region. The inhabitants of the city are called Havrais or...
on September 3. A member of the squadron,
Stephen W. ThompsonStephen W. Thompson was an American aviator of World War I, and the first person in the U.S. Military to shoot down an enemy aircraft .-Early life:...
, on February 5, 1918, achieved the first aerial victory by the U. S. military. As other squadrons were organized at home, they too were sent overseas, where they continued their training. It was February 18, 1918, before any U.S. squadron entered combat (the 103rd Aero Squadron, a pursuit unit flying with French forces and composed largely of former members of the
Lafayette EscadrilleThe Lafayette Escadrille , was a squadron of the French Air Service, the Aéronautique militaire, during World War I composed largely of American volunteer pilots flying fighters....
). By the beginning of the
Meuse-Argonne OffensiveThe Meuse-Argonne Offensive, also called the Battle of the Argonne Forest, was a part of the final Allied offensive of World War I that stretched along the entire western front. The whole offensive was planned by Marshall Ferdinand Foch to breach the Hindenburg line and ultimately force the...
the Air Service AEF consisted of 32 squadrons (15 pursuit, 13 observation, and 4 bombing) at the front, while by November 11, 1918, 45 squadrons (20 pursuit, 18 observation, and 7 bombardment) had been assembled for combat. During the war, these squadrons played important roles in the
Third Battle of the AisneThe Third Battle of the Aisne was a battle of the German Spring Offensive during World War I that focused on capturing the Chemin des Dames Ridge before the American Expeditionary Force could arrive in France...
, the
Battle of Saint-MihielThe Battle of Saint-Mihiel was a World War I battle fought between September 12 - 15, 1918, involving the American Expeditionary Force and 48,000 French troops under the command of U.S. general John J. Pershing against German positions. The United States Army Air Service played a significant role...
, and the Meuse-Argonne Offensive. Several units, including the
94th Aero SquadronThe 94th Fighter Squadron ' is a United States Air Force unit. It is assigned to the 1st Operations Group and stationed at Langley Air Force Base, Virginia.The 94th Fighter Squadron is the second oldest fighter squadron in America's history....
,
CaptainThe army rank of Captain is an officer rank historically corresponding to command of a company of soldiers. The rank is also used by some air forces and marine forces. Today a captain is typically the commander, or second in command, of a company or squadron...
Eddie RickenbackerEdward Vernon Rickenbacker was an American fighter ace in World War I and Medal of Honor recipient. He was also a race car driver and automotive designer, a government consultant in military matters and a pioneer in air transportation, particularly as the longtime head of Eastern Air Lines.-Early...
commanding, and the 27th Aero Squadron, which had "balloon buster"
First LieutenantFirst Lieutenant is a military rank.The rank of Lieutenant has different meanings in different military formations , but the majority of cases it is common for it to be sub-divided into a senior and junior rank...
Frank LukeFrank Luke Jr. was an American fighter ace, ranking second among U.S. Air Service pilots to Eddie Rickenbacker in number of aerial victories during World War I. Frank Luke was the first airman to receive the Medal of Honor. Luke Air Force Base, a training site for Air Force aviators since WWII,...
as one of its pilots, achieved distinguished records in combat and became part of the future
United States Army Air CorpsThe United States Army Air Corps was the predecessor of the U.S. Army Air Forces from 1926-41, which in turn was the forerunner of today's U.S. Air Force , established in 1947...
.
Observation planes often operated individually, as did pursuit pilots to attack a balloon or to meet the enemy in a
dogfightA dogfight, or dog fight, is aerial combat between fighter aircraft. Dogfighting first appeared during World War I, shortly after the invention of the airplane, and has since became a component in every major war despite beliefs after World War II that increasingly greater speeds and longer range...
. However the tendency was toward formation flying, for pursuit as well as for bombardment operations, as a defensive tactic. The dispersal of squadrons among the army ground units (each corps and division had an observation squadron attached) made coordination of air activities difficult, so that squadrons were organized by functions into
groupGroup is a term used by different air forces for an element of military organization. The size of a group varies considerably between different countries...
s, the first of these being the
1st Corps Observation Group, organized in April 1918. On May 5, 1918, the
1st Pursuit GroupThe 1st Operations Group is the flying component of the 1st Fighter Wing, assigned to the USAF Air Combat Command. The group is stationed at Langley Air Force Base, Virginia....
was formed, and by the
armisticeAn armistice is a situation in a war where the warring parties agree to stop fighting. It is not necessarily the end of a war, but may be just a cessation of hostilities while an attempt is made to negotiate a lasting peace...
the AEF had 14 heavier-than-air groups (7 observation, 5 pursuit, and 2 bombardment). Of these 14 groups, only the 1st Pursuit and 1st Day Bombardment Groups would have their lineage continued into the post-war Air Service.
In July 1918, the AEF organized its first
wingA wing is a surface used to produce lift for flight through the air or another gaseous or fluid medium. The wing shape is usually an airfoil. The word originally referred only to the foremost limbs of birds, but has been extended to include the wings of insects , bats, pterosaurs, and aircraft.A...
, the 1st Pursuit Wing, made up of the 2d Pursuit, 3rd Pursuit, and 1st Day Bombardment Groups. Each Army and Corps echelon of the ground forces had a chief of air service designated to direct operations. The
Air Service, First Army was activated August 26, 1918, marking the commencement of large scale coordinated U.S. air operations. Col.
Benjamin FouloisBenjamin Delahauf Foulois , was a United States Army Officer who learned to fly the first military planes purchased from the Wright Brothers. He became the first military aviator as an airship pilot, and achieved numerous other military aviation "firsts"...
was named chief of the First Army Air Service over Col.
Billy MitchellWilliam Lendrum "Billy" Mitchell was an American Army general who is regarded as the father of the U.S. Air Force...
, who had been directing air operations as chief of the
I CorpsList of military corps — List of military corps by numberA number of countries have First, or I, Corps:*I Anzac Corps *I Corps *I Corps *I Corps *I Corps *I Corps...
Air Service since March, but Foulois voluntarily relinquished his post to Mitchell and became one of the two assistant chiefs of Air Service AEF, at Tours in charge of personnel and training. Mitchell went on to become a
brigadier generalBrigadier General is the lowest ranking General Officer in some countries, usually sitting between the ranks of Colonel and Major General.The rank can be traced back to the militaries of Europe where a brigadier general, or simply a brigadier, would command a brigade in the field...
and chief of the Army Group Air Service in mid-October 1918, succeeded at First Army by Col. Thomas Milling. The
Air Service, Second Army was activated in November just before the armistice, and the
Air Service Third Army was created immediately after the armistice to provide aviation support to the army of occupation.
Mitchell and Foulois were advocates of the formation of an "air force" to centralize control over military aviation. In the
Battle of Saint-MihielThe Battle of Saint-Mihiel was a World War I battle fought between September 12 - 15, 1918, involving the American Expeditionary Force and 48,000 French troops under the command of U.S. general John J. Pershing against German positions. The United States Army Air Service played a significant role...
, commencing September 12, 1918, the American and French offensive against the German
salientSalient may refer to:* Peninsula-like salients of political geography and Military Science.** Salient , a battlefield feature that projects an attacker's lines into enemy territory in such a way that the attacker is surrounded on three sides....
was supported by 1,481 airplanes directed by Mitchell, totalling 24 Air Service, 58 French
Aéronautique Militaire, and three
Royal Air ForceThe Royal Air Force is the United Kingdom's air force, the oldest independent air force in the world. Formed on 1 April 1918, the RAF has taken a significant role in British military history ever since, playing a large part in World War II and in more recent conflicts.The RAF operates almost 1,109...
squadrons in coordinated operations. Observation and pursuit planes supported ground forces, while the other two-thirds of the aerial force bombed and strafed behind enemy lines. Later, during the
Meuse-Argonne offensiveThe Meuse-Argonne Offensive, also called the Battle of the Argonne Forest, was a part of the final Allied offensive of World War I that stretched along the entire western front. The whole offensive was planned by Marshall Ferdinand Foch to breach the Hindenburg line and ultimately force the...
, Mitchell employed a smaller concentration of airpower, nearly all American this time, to keep the German army on the defensive.
Army of occupation duties
Immediately after the armistice, the AEF formed the Third United States Army to march immediately into Germany, occupy the Coblenz area, and be prepared to resume combat if peace treaty negotiations failed. Three corps were formed from seven of the Army's most experienced divisions, and Brig. Gen. Mitchell was appointed to command the Air Service, Third Army, on November 14, 1918.
As with the ground forces, the most veteran units of the Air Service were selected to form the new Air Service. A pursuit unit, the 94th "Hat in the Ring" Aero Squadron; a day bombardment squadron, the 166th; and four observation squadrons (1st, 12th, 88th, and 9th Night) were initially assigned. The demobilization of the AEF accelerated in December and January, and all but two of these squadrons returned to the United States. Gen. Mitchell was replaced in January as commander of the Third Army Air Service by Col. Harold Fowler, a combat veteran of the
Royal Flying CorpsThe Royal Flying Corps was the over-land air arm of the British military during most of the First World War. During the early part of the war, the RFC's responsibilities were centred on support of the British Army, via artillery cooperation and photographic reconnaissance...
and former commander of the American 17th Pursuit Squadron.
By March 1919 the U.S. Second Army in France had also closed down. Its former air units were transferred to the Third Army Air Service in Germany, which at its maximum consisted of the:
- 5th Pursuit Group (41st, 138th, 141st, and 605th Aero Squadrons) at Coblenz, the
- 3rd Corps Observation Group (1st, 24th, and 258th A.S.) at Weißenthurm
Weißenthurm is a municipality in the district of Mayen-Koblenz, in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany. It is situated on the left bank of the Rhine, opposite Neuwied, approx. 12 km north-west of Koblenz....
, the
- 4th Corps Observation Group (85th and 278th A.S. only, its other squadrons sent home before assignment) at Sinzig
Sinzig is a municipality in the district of Ahrweiler, in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany. It is situated on the river Rhine, approx. 5 km south-east of Remagen and 25 km south-east of Bonn, and it has approximately 20,000 inhabitants .- History :...
, and the
- 7th Corps Observation Group (9th, 88th, and 186th A.S.) at Trier
Trier is a city in Germany on the banks of the Moselle River. It is the oldest city in Germany, founded in or before 16 BC. Trier is not the only city claiming to be Germany's oldest, but it is the only one that bases this assertion on having the longest history as a city, as opposed to a mere...
.
The Third Army and its air service were deactivated in July 1919 after the signing of the
Treaty of VersaillesThe Treaty of Versailles was one of the peace treaties at the end of World War I. It ended the state of war between Germany and the Allied Powers. It was signed on 28 June 1919, exactly five years after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. The other Central Powers on the German side of...
.
Statistical summary, World War I
{{quote box |width=30em | bgcolor=#B0C4DE |align=left|halign=left |quote=
{{nofootnotes|date=March 2008}}
The
United States Army Air Service was a forerunner of the
United States Air ForceThe United States Air Force is the aerial warfare branch of the U.S. armed forces and one of the American uniformed services. Initially part of the United States Army, the USAF was formed as a separate branch of the military on 18 September 1947 under the National Security Act of 1947 - 80 P.L....
. It was established on May 24, 1918, after U.S. entry into
World War IWorld War I , also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All Wars, was a global military conflict which involved most of the world's great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances: the Triple Entente and the Triple Alliance...
, replacing the
Aviation Section, U.S. Signal CorpsThe Aviation Section, U.S. Signal Corps, was the name of the military aviation service of the United States Army from 1914 to 1918, and a direct ancestor of the United States Air Force. It replaced the Aeronautical Division, U.S. Signal Corps and was succeeded briefly by the Division of Military...
which had been the nation's air force from 1914 to 1918.
Although the Air Service was recognized by the
Department of WarThe United States Department of War, also called the War Office, was the cabinet department originally responsible for the operation and maintenance of the US Army...
on May 24, 1918, no Director of Air Service was appointed until August 28, when President
Woodrow WilsonThomas Woodrow Wilson was the 28th President of the United States. A leading intellectual of the Progressive Era, he served as President of Princeton University from 1902 to 1910, and then as the Governor of New Jersey from 1911 to 1913...
made John D. Ryan a Second Assistant
Secretary of WarThe Secretary of War was a member of the United States President's Cabinet, beginning with George Washington's administration. A similar position, called either "Secretary at War" or "Secretary of War," was appointed to serve the Congress of the Confederation under the Articles of Confederation...
and civilian
Director of Air Service. After World War I, the Air Service was again directed by a military officer and remained so until replaced by the
United States Army Air CorpsThe United States Army Air Corps was the predecessor of the U.S. Army Air Forces from 1926-41, which in turn was the forerunner of today's U.S. Air Force , established in 1947...
on July 1, 1926.
The Air Service was the first form of the air force to have both its own unique organizational structure and identity. Prior to May 1918 its permanent personnel were part of the Signal Corps and its pilots on temporary assignment from other branches of the Army. Between May 1918 and July 1920, enlisted men were assigned to and new officers commissioned in the Air Service as either
National ArmyThe National Army was the combined conscript and volunteer force that was formed by the United States War Department in 1917 to fight in World War I...
(war-mobilized) or United States Army (Regulars). After July 1, 1920, all personnel retained by the Army were designated members of the Air Service, with officers who had been commissioned in the Signal Corps formally transferred.
Lineage of the United States Air Force
- Aeronautical Division, U.S. Signal Corps
The Aeronautical Division, U.S. Signal Corps was the first progenitor of the United States Air Force, and as such is the first military air organization. A component of the U.S. Army Signal Corps, the Aeronautical Division did not contain any subordinate units during its existence.-Lineage of the...
August 1, 1907–July 18, 1914
- Aviation Section, U.S. Signal Corps
The Aviation Section, U.S. Signal Corps, was the name of the military aviation service of the United States Army from 1914 to 1918, and a direct ancestor of the United States Air Force. It replaced the Aeronautical Division, U.S. Signal Corps and was succeeded briefly by the Division of Military...
July 18, 1914–May 20, 1918
- Division of Military Aeronautics May 20, 1918–May 24, 1918
- United States Army Air Service May 24, 1918–July 2, 1926
- United States Army Air Corps
The United States Army Air Corps was the predecessor of the U.S. Army Air Forces from 1926-41, which in turn was the forerunner of today's U.S. Air Force , established in 1947...
July 2, 1926–June 20, 1941
- United States Army Air Forces
The United States Army Air Forces was the military aviation arm of the United States of America during and immediately after World War II. It was a component of the United States Army, divided functionally by executive order in 1942 into three autonomous forces: the Army Ground Forces, the...
June 20, 1941–September 18, 1947
- United States Air Force
The United States Air Force is the aerial warfare branch of the U.S. armed forces and one of the American uniformed services. Initially part of the United States Army, the USAF was formed as a separate branch of the military on 18 September 1947 under the National Security Act of 1947 - 80 P.L....
September 18, 1947–present
Creation of the Air Service
See main articles: Aviation Section, U.S. Signal CorpsThe Aviation Section, U.S. Signal Corps, was the name of the military aviation service of the United States Army from 1914 to 1918, and a direct ancestor of the United States Air Force. It replaced the Aeronautical Division, U.S. Signal Corps and was succeeded briefly by the Division of Military...
and Division of Military Aeronautics
Although
CongressThe United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States of America, consisting of two houses, the Senate and the House of Representatives. Both senators and representatives are chosen through direct election....
had vastly increased the appropriations for the
Aviation Section of the Signal CorpsThe Aviation Section, U.S. Signal Corps, was the name of the military aviation service of the United States Army from 1914 to 1918, and a direct ancestor of the United States Air Force. It replaced the Aeronautical Division, U.S. Signal Corps and was succeeded briefly by the Division of Military...
in 1916, it had also
tabled a billIn American parliamentary procedure, the motion to table or more properly, to lay on the table, is a proposal to suspend consideration of the pending motion...
proposing an aviation department incorporating all aspects of military aviation, the first ever introduced to create a separate aviation service. The
declaration of warA declaration of war is a formal performative speech act or signing of a document by an authorized party of a government in order to initiate a state of war between two or more nations. The legality of who can declare war varies between nations and forms of government. In many nations power is...
against
GermanyGermany , officially the Federal Republic of Germany , is a country in Central Europe. It is bordered to the north by the North Sea, Denmark, and the Baltic Sea; to the east by Poland and the Czech Republic; to the south by Austria and Switzerland; and to the west by France, Luxembourg, Belgium,...
on April 6, 1917, putting the United States in
World War IWorld War I , also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All Wars, was a global military conflict which involved most of the world's great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances: the Triple Entente and the Triple Alliance...
, came too quickly to solve emerging engineering and production problems, and the reorganization of the Aviation Section had been inadequate in resolving problems in training, leaving the United States totally unprepared to fight an air war in Europe.
The administration of President
Woodrow WilsonThomas Woodrow Wilson was the 28th President of the United States. A leading intellectual of the Progressive Era, he served as President of Princeton University from 1902 to 1910, and then as the Governor of New Jersey from 1911 to 1913...
, through its
Council of National DefenseThe Council of National Defense was a United States organization formed to coordinate resources and industry for national security.-History:Established in August 24, 1916 by president Woodrow Wilson, the Council of National Defense was created because "The Country is best prepared for war when...
, created an advisory
Aircraft Production Board in May 1917, consisting of members of the Army, Navy, and industry, to study the Europeans' experience in aircraft production and the standardization of aircraft parts. The
United States CongressThe United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States of America, consisting of two houses, the Senate and the House of Representatives. Both senators and representatives are chosen through direct election....
responded to the problems by considering two new bills to create a "Department of Aeronautics" consolidating all aviation activities, including aircraft production, into a single department, and passed a series of legislation in the next three months that appropriated huge sums for development of military aviation, including the largest single
appropriationAppropriation is the act of taking possession of or assigning purpose to properties or ideas and is important in many topics, including:*Appropriation in relation to the spread of knowledge*Appropriation...
for a single purpose to that time, $640 million in the Aviation Act (40 Stat. 243), passed July 24, 1917.
Both the
Department of WarThe United States Department of War, also called the War Office, was the cabinet department originally responsible for the operation and maintenance of the US Army...
and the
Department of the NavyThe United States Department of the Navy was established by an Act of Congress on 30 April 1798, to provide administrative and technical support, and civilian leadership to the United States Navy and the United States Marine Corps...
opposed the creation of a separate air department, and on October 1, 1917, Congress instead legalized the existence of the APB and changed its name to the "
Aircraft BoardThe Aircraft Board was a United States federal government organization founded in 1917. Chaired by Howard E. Coffin, it was initially called the Aircraft Production Board before being superseded by Executive Order in October 1917. The boards, advisory in nature, gave their recommendations to the...
", transferring its functions from the Council of National Defense to the secretaries of War and the Navy. Even so, the Aircraft Board in practice had little control over procurement contracts and functioned mostly as an information clearinghouse between the various involved business, governmental, and military entities. Moreover, the airplane of World War I was not suitable to the
mass productionMass production is the production of large amounts of standardized products, including and especially on assembly lines...
methods of the
automotive industryThe automotive industry designs, develops, manufactures, markets, and sells the world's motor vehicles. In 2008, more than 70 million motor vehicles, including cars and commercial vehicles were produced worldwide....
and the priority of mass producing spare parts was neglected. Though individual areas within the aviation industry responded well, the industry as a whole failed. Efforts to mass produce European aircraft under license largely failed.
As a result, the board came under severe criticism for failure to meet goals or its own claims of aircraft production, followed by a highly-publicized personal investigation by
Gutzon Borglum Gutzon de la Mothe Borglum was an American artist and sculptor famous for creating the monumental presidents' heads at Mount Rushmore, South Dakota, the famous carving on Stone Mountain near Atlanta, as well as other public works of art.- Background :The son of Danish immigrants, Gutzon Borglum...
, a harshly vocal critic of the board. Borglum had exchanged letters with President Wilson, a personal friend, from which he assumed an appointment to investigate had been authorized, which the administration soon denied. Both the
U.S. SenateThe United States Senate is the upper house of the bicameral United States Congress, the lower house being the House of Representatives. The composition and powers of the Senate and the House are established in Article One of the U.S. Constitution . Each U.S state is represented by two senators,...
and the
Department of JusticeThe United States Department of Justice is a Cabinet department in the United States government designed to enforce the law and defend the interests of the United States according to the law and to ensure fair and impartial administration of justice for all Americans...
began investigations into possible fraudulent dealings. President Wilson also acted by appointing a Director of Aircraft Production on April 28, 1918, and creating a Division of Military Aeronautics (DMA) under
Brigadier GeneralBrigadier General is the lowest ranking General Officer in some countries, usually sitting between the ranks of Colonel and Major General.The rank can be traced back to the militaries of Europe where a brigadier general, or simply a brigadier, would command a brigade in the field...
William L. Kenley, to separate supervision of aviation from the duties of the Chief Signal Officer. However, before this took effect, Wilson used a provision of the
Overman Act of May 20, 1918Lee Slater Overman was a Democratic U.S. senator from the state of North Carolina between 1903 and 1930. He was born in Salisbury, N.C., the son of William H. and Mary E. Slater Overman. He attended Trinity College , Class of 1874, where he was a member of the Chi Phi Fraternity.In 1914, Overman...
, to issue Executive Order No. 2862 that removed the DMA entirely from the Signal Corps (reporting directly to the Secretary of War), and assigned it the function of procuring and training a combat force. In addition, the
executive orderAn executive order in the United States is an order issued by the President, the head of the executive branch of the federal government. In other countries, similar edicts may be known as decrees, or orders-in-council. Executive orders may also be issued at the state level by a state's Governor. U.S...
created a Bureau of Aircraft Production (BAP) as a separate executive bureau to provide the aircraft needed.
This arrangement lasted only four days, when the War Department issued General Order No. 51 creating the
Air Service, United States Army to consolidate the two agencies under a single director. (The term "Air Service" had been in use in France since June 13, 1917, to describe the function of aviation units attached to the American Expeditionary Force.) However, it delayed the appointment of a director as long as the BAP operated as a separate bureau. In August, the Senate completed its investigation of the Air Board, and while it found no criminal culpability, it reported that massive waste and delay in production had occurred. As a result, the Director of Aircraft Production (who was also chairman of the Aircraft Board), John D. Ryan, was appointed to the vacant position of Second Assistant Secretary of War and named Director of Air Service, in charge of both the BAP and DMA. The Department of Justice report followed two months later and also blamed the delays on administrative and organizational deficiencies in the Aviation Section. Ryan's appointment came too late for any effective consolidation of both agencies.
Following the Armistice, Ryan resigned on November 27, leaving both the BAP and DMA, as well as the original Aircraft Board, leaderless. Maj. Gen. Charles Menoher was appointed the new Director of Air Service on January 2, 1919, but the patchwork nature of laws and executive orders that had created the various parts of the Air Service prevented him from exercising all their legal powers. President Wilson issued a new executive order in March 1919 dissolving the Aircraft Board and consolidating all powers conferred into a single executive, the Director of Air Service.
By November 11, 1918, the Air Service both overseas and domestically had 195,024 personnel (20,568 officers; 174,456 enlisted men) and 7,900 aircraft, constituting five per cent of the United States Army. With an aviation cadet program modeled on
CanadaCanada is a country occupying most of northern North America, extending from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west and northward into the Arctic Ocean...
's, the Air Service commissioned over 17,000 as reserve officers. Using variants of the Curtiss Jenny, 27 flying training centers graduated nearly 8,000 pilots, and 1,600 more came from foreign schools in
Great BritainGreat Britain is an island lying to the northwest of Continental Europe. It is the ninth largest island in the world, and the largest European island. With a population of about 59.6 million people, it is the third most populated island on Earth. Great Britain is surrounded by over 1000 smaller...
,
FranceFrance , officially the French Republic , is a country located in Western Europe, with several overseas islands and territories located on other continents. Metropolitan France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, and from the Rhine to the Atlantic Ocean...
, and
ItalyItaly , officially the Italian Republic , is a country located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe and on the two largest islands in the Mediterranean Sea, Sicily and Sardinia. Italy shares its northern, Alpine boundary with France, Switzerland, Austria and Slovenia...
. 10,000 mechanics were trained to service the American aircraft fleet. Of aircraft manufactured in America, the deHavilland DH-4 (3,400) was the most numerous, although only 1,200 were shipped overseas, most used in observation units.
Assigned overseas in the
American Expeditionary ForceThe American Expeditionary Forces or AEF was the United States Armed Forces sent to Europe in World War I. During the United States campaigns in World War I the AEF fought in France along side British and French allied forces in the last year of the war, against Imperial German forces...
, the air arm totalled 78,507 (7,738 officers and 70,769 enlisted men) at the armistice. Of this total, 58,090 served in France; 20,075 in England; and 342 in Italy. Balloon troops made up approximately 17,000 of the Air Service, with 6,811 in the dangerous duty of spotting for the artillery at the front.
Air Service World War I posters
Organization
During the first year of U.S. participation in
World War IWorld War I , also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All Wars, was a global military conflict which involved most of the world's great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances: the Triple Entente and the Triple Alliance...
, aviation units had been created and deployed without organization. Upon his arrival in France in June 1917, Pershing met with
Lieutenant ColonelLieutenant colonel is a rank of commissioned officer in the armies and most marine forces and air forces of the world, typically ranking above a major and below a colonel. The rank of lieutenant colonel is often shortened to simply "colonel" in conversation and in unofficial correspondence...
Billy MitchellWilliam Lendrum "Billy" Mitchell was an American Army general who is regarded as the father of the U.S. Air Force...
, who had been sent to Europe in March 1917 as an observer, and arrived in Paris just four days after the United States declared war. Mitchell had established a "headquarters" for the American "air service" and so advised Pershing that it was ready to proceed with any project Pershing might require. Pershing's aviation officer,
MajorIn many European languages, the term Major is a military rank, implying seniority at one of usually various levels of rank. For example:*"General-Major" or "Major-General", denoting a senior ranking general officer....
Townsend Dodd, first used the term "Air Service" in a memo to the chief of staff of the AEF on 20 June 1917. The first official use of the term was in AEF General Order No. 8, 5 July 1917, in tables detailing staff organization and duties. The term became commonplace, but units organized into "air services" down to the corps level did not occur until May 1918.
Five days after the formation of the Army Air Service, separating it from the
Signal CorpsThe Signal Corps is a military branch, usually subordinate to a country's army, responsible for the military communications .Many countries have a Signal Corps, whose main function is usually communication .* Signal Corps , founded in 1860 by Major Albert J...
,
GeneralA general officer is an officer of high military rank. The term or equivalent is used by nearly every country in the world. General can be used as a generic term for all grades of general officer, or it can specifically refer to a single rank that is simply called general.-All general officer...
John J. PershingGeneral of the Armies John Joseph Pershing, Honorary GCB; September 13, 1860 – July 15, 1948, was a general officer in the United States Army. Pershing is the only person to be promoted in his own lifetime to the highest rank ever held in the United States Army—General of the Armies General of the...
, commanding the
American Expeditionary ForceThe American Expeditionary Forces or AEF was the United States Armed Forces sent to Europe in World War I. During the United States campaigns in World War I the AEF fought in France along side British and French allied forces in the last year of the war, against Imperial German forces...
(AEF), duplicated the action in Europe by creating the "Air Service of the AEF" and placing it in charge of all U.S. aviation units, personnel, and equipment in
FranceFrance , officially the French Republic , is a country located in Western Europe, with several overseas islands and territories located on other continents. Metropolitan France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, and from the Rhine to the Atlantic Ocean...
. As Chief of Air Service, AEF, he chose a West Point classmate and non-aviator,
Major GeneralMajor General or Major-General is a military rank used in many countries. It is derived from the older rank of Sergeant Major General. A Major General is a high-ranking officer, normally subordinate to the rank of Lieutenant General and senior to the ranks of Brigadier and Brigadier General...
Mason PatrickMason Mathews Patrick was a U.S. Army general and air power advocate.Patrick was born in Lewisburg, West Virginia and graduated from West Point in 1886. For three years he was at the Engineer School of Application, Willets Point, New York, graduating in 1889...
. Air Service staff planning had been inefficient, with considerable friction between its members and those of Pershing's General Staff. Aircraft and unit totals lagged far behind those promised in 1917. Considerable house-cleaning of the existing staff coincided with Patrick's appointment, bringing in experienced staff officers to administrate and tightening up lines of communication.
General Pershing had at first called for creation of 260 U.S. air combat squadrons, but slowness of the buildup reduced that to 202 on August 17, 1918. In Pershing's view, the two functions of the AEF's Air Service were to repel German aircraft and conduct observation of enemy movements. The heart of the force was its 101 observation squadrons (52 corps observation and 49 army observation), to be distributed to three armies and 16 corps. In addition, 60 pursuit squadrons, 27 night-bombardment squadrons, and 14 day-bombardment squadrons were to conduct supporting operations.
Without the time or infrastructure in the United States to equip units to send overseas using aircraft designed and built in the U.S., the AEF Air Service ordered Allied aircraft designs already in service with the French and British air services. On August 30, 1917, the American and French governments agreed to a contract in which France would provide the Air Service AEF, with 1,500
Breguet 14 B.2The Breguet 14 was a French biplane bomber and reconnaissance aircraft of World War I. It was built in very large numbers and production continued for many years after the end of the war. Apart from its widespread usage, it was noteworthy for becoming the first aircraft in mass production to use...
bombers and reconnaissance planes; 2,000 SPAD XIII fighters; and 1,500
Nieuport 28The Nieuport 28 was a French biplane fighter aircraft flown during World War I, built by Nieuport and designed by Gustave Delage. Its principal claim to fame is that it was the first aircraft to see service with an American fighter squadron....
pursuits.
The primary aircraft employed were the SPAD XIII (877 combat sorties), Nieuport 28 (181), and
SPAD VIIThe SPAD S.VII was the first of a series of highly successful biplane fighter aircraft produced by Société Pour L'Aviation et ses Dérivés during the First World War. Like its successors, the S.VII was renowned as a sturdy and rugged aircraft with good climbing and diving characteristics...
(103) as pursuit aircraft, the
DeHaviland DH-4The Airco DH.4 was a British two-seat biplane day-bomber of the First World War. It was designed by Geoffrey de Havilland for Airco, and was the first British two seat light day-bomber to have an effective defensive armament. It first flew in August 1916 and entered service with the Royal Flying...
(696) and Breguet 14 (87) for daylight bombing, and the DH-4 and
Salmson 2 A.2The Salmson 2 was a French biplane reconnaissance aircraft made by Salmson. It was developed to a 1916 requirement. Along with the Breguet 14, it was the main reconnaissance aircraft in use with the French army in 1918...
(557 sorties) for observation and photo reconnaissance. The SE-5 operated as the main trainer for the Air Service. Balloon companies operated the French Caquot Type R
hydrogenHydrogen is the chemical element with atomic number 1. It is represented by the symbol H. At standard temperature and pressure, hydrogen is a colorless, odorless, nonmetallic, tasteless, highly flammable diatomic gas with the molecular formula H
2...
-filled observation balloon, with one balloon per company.
Operations
The first U.S. aviation squadron to reach France was the 1st Aero Squadron, an observation unit, which sailed from New York in August 1917 and arrived at
Le HavreLe Havre is a city in north-western France situated on the right bank of the mouth of the Seine River as it flows into the Bay of the Seine in the English Channel. It is a commune in the Seine-Maritime department in the Haute-Normandie region. The inhabitants of the city are called Havrais or...
on September 3. A member of the squadron,
Stephen W. ThompsonStephen W. Thompson was an American aviator of World War I, and the first person in the U.S. Military to shoot down an enemy aircraft .-Early life:...
, on February 5, 1918, achieved the first aerial victory by the U. S. military. As other squadrons were organized at home, they too were sent overseas, where they continued their training. It was February 18, 1918, before any U.S. squadron entered combat (the 103rd Aero Squadron, a pursuit unit flying with French forces and composed largely of former members of the
Lafayette EscadrilleThe Lafayette Escadrille , was a squadron of the French Air Service, the Aéronautique militaire, during World War I composed largely of American volunteer pilots flying fighters....
). By the beginning of the
Meuse-Argonne OffensiveThe Meuse-Argonne Offensive, also called the Battle of the Argonne Forest, was a part of the final Allied offensive of World War I that stretched along the entire western front. The whole offensive was planned by Marshall Ferdinand Foch to breach the Hindenburg line and ultimately force the...
the Air Service AEF consisted of 32 squadrons (15 pursuit, 13 observation, and 4 bombing) at the front, while by November 11, 1918, 45 squadrons (20 pursuit, 18 observation, and 7 bombardment) had been assembled for combat. During the war, these squadrons played important roles in the
Third Battle of the AisneThe Third Battle of the Aisne was a battle of the German Spring Offensive during World War I that focused on capturing the Chemin des Dames Ridge before the American Expeditionary Force could arrive in France...
, the
Battle of Saint-MihielThe Battle of Saint-Mihiel was a World War I battle fought between September 12 - 15, 1918, involving the American Expeditionary Force and 48,000 French troops under the command of U.S. general John J. Pershing against German positions. The United States Army Air Service played a significant role...
, and the Meuse-Argonne Offensive. Several units, including the
94th Aero SquadronThe 94th Fighter Squadron ' is a United States Air Force unit. It is assigned to the 1st Operations Group and stationed at Langley Air Force Base, Virginia.The 94th Fighter Squadron is the second oldest fighter squadron in America's history....
,
CaptainThe army rank of Captain is an officer rank historically corresponding to command of a company of soldiers. The rank is also used by some air forces and marine forces. Today a captain is typically the commander, or second in command, of a company or squadron...
Eddie RickenbackerEdward Vernon Rickenbacker was an American fighter ace in World War I and Medal of Honor recipient. He was also a race car driver and automotive designer, a government consultant in military matters and a pioneer in air transportation, particularly as the longtime head of Eastern Air Lines.-Early...
commanding, and the 27th Aero Squadron, which had "balloon buster"
First LieutenantFirst Lieutenant is a military rank.The rank of Lieutenant has different meanings in different military formations , but the majority of cases it is common for it to be sub-divided into a senior and junior rank...
Frank LukeFrank Luke Jr. was an American fighter ace, ranking second among U.S. Air Service pilots to Eddie Rickenbacker in number of aerial victories during World War I. Frank Luke was the first airman to receive the Medal of Honor. Luke Air Force Base, a training site for Air Force aviators since WWII,...
as one of its pilots, achieved distinguished records in combat and became part of the future
United States Army Air CorpsThe United States Army Air Corps was the predecessor of the U.S. Army Air Forces from 1926-41, which in turn was the forerunner of today's U.S. Air Force , established in 1947...
.
Observation planes often operated individually, as did pursuit pilots to attack a balloon or to meet the enemy in a
dogfightA dogfight, or dog fight, is aerial combat between fighter aircraft. Dogfighting first appeared during World War I, shortly after the invention of the airplane, and has since became a component in every major war despite beliefs after World War II that increasingly greater speeds and longer range...
. However the tendency was toward formation flying, for pursuit as well as for bombardment operations, as a defensive tactic. The dispersal of squadrons among the army ground units (each corps and division had an observation squadron attached) made coordination of air activities difficult, so that squadrons were organized by functions into
groupGroup is a term used by different air forces for an element of military organization. The size of a group varies considerably between different countries...
s, the first of these being the
1st Corps Observation Group, organized in April 1918. On May 5, 1918, the
1st Pursuit GroupThe 1st Operations Group is the flying component of the 1st Fighter Wing, assigned to the USAF Air Combat Command. The group is stationed at Langley Air Force Base, Virginia....
was formed, and by the
armisticeAn armistice is a situation in a war where the warring parties agree to stop fighting. It is not necessarily the end of a war, but may be just a cessation of hostilities while an attempt is made to negotiate a lasting peace...
the AEF had 14 heavier-than-air groups (7 observation, 5 pursuit, and 2 bombardment). Of these 14 groups, only the 1st Pursuit and 1st Day Bombardment Groups would have their lineage continued into the post-war Air Service.
In July 1918, the AEF organized its first
wingA wing is a surface used to produce lift for flight through the air or another gaseous or fluid medium. The wing shape is usually an airfoil. The word originally referred only to the foremost limbs of birds, but has been extended to include the wings of insects , bats, pterosaurs, and aircraft.A...
, the 1st Pursuit Wing, made up of the 2d Pursuit, 3rd Pursuit, and 1st Day Bombardment Groups. Each Army and Corps echelon of the ground forces had a chief of air service designated to direct operations. The
Air Service, First Army was activated August 26, 1918, marking the commencement of large scale coordinated U.S. air operations. Col.
Benjamin FouloisBenjamin Delahauf Foulois , was a United States Army Officer who learned to fly the first military planes purchased from the Wright Brothers. He became the first military aviator as an airship pilot, and achieved numerous other military aviation "firsts"...
was named chief of the First Army Air Service over Col.
Billy MitchellWilliam Lendrum "Billy" Mitchell was an American Army general who is regarded as the father of the U.S. Air Force...
, who had been directing air operations as chief of the
I CorpsList of military corps — List of military corps by numberA number of countries have First, or I, Corps:*I Anzac Corps *I Corps *I Corps *I Corps *I Corps *I Corps...
Air Service since March, but Foulois voluntarily relinquished his post to Mitchell and became one of the two assistant chiefs of Air Service AEF, at Tours in charge of personnel and training. Mitchell went on to become a
brigadier generalBrigadier General is the lowest ranking General Officer in some countries, usually sitting between the ranks of Colonel and Major General.The rank can be traced back to the militaries of Europe where a brigadier general, or simply a brigadier, would command a brigade in the field...
and chief of the Army Group Air Service in mid-October 1918, succeeded at First Army by Col. Thomas Milling. The
Air Service, Second Army was activated in November just before the armistice, and the
Air Service Third Army was created immediately after the armistice to provide aviation support to the army of occupation.
Mitchell and Foulois were advocates of the formation of an "air force" to centralize control over military aviation. In the
Battle of Saint-MihielThe Battle of Saint-Mihiel was a World War I battle fought between September 12 - 15, 1918, involving the American Expeditionary Force and 48,000 French troops under the command of U.S. general John J. Pershing against German positions. The United States Army Air Service played a significant role...
, commencing September 12, 1918, the American and French offensive against the German
salientSalient may refer to:* Peninsula-like salients of political geography and Military Science.** Salient , a battlefield feature that projects an attacker's lines into enemy territory in such a way that the attacker is surrounded on three sides....
was supported by 1,481 airplanes directed by Mitchell, totalling 24 Air Service, 58 French
Aéronautique Militaire, and three
Royal Air ForceThe Royal Air Force is the United Kingdom's air force, the oldest independent air force in the world. Formed on 1 April 1918, the RAF has taken a significant role in British military history ever since, playing a large part in World War II and in more recent conflicts.The RAF operates almost 1,109...
squadrons in coordinated operations. Observation and pursuit planes supported ground forces, while the other two-thirds of the aerial force bombed and strafed behind enemy lines. Later, during the
Meuse-Argonne offensiveThe Meuse-Argonne Offensive, also called the Battle of the Argonne Forest, was a part of the final Allied offensive of World War I that stretched along the entire western front. The whole offensive was planned by Marshall Ferdinand Foch to breach the Hindenburg line and ultimately force the...
, Mitchell employed a smaller concentration of airpower, nearly all American this time, to keep the German army on the defensive.
Army of occupation duties
Immediately after the armistice, the AEF formed the Third United States Army to march immediately into Germany, occupy the Coblenz area, and be prepared to resume combat if peace treaty negotiations failed. Three corps were formed from seven of the Army's most experienced divisions, and Brig. Gen. Mitchell was appointed to command the Air Service, Third Army, on November 14, 1918.
As with the ground forces, the most veteran units of the Air Service were selected to form the new Air Service. A pursuit unit, the 94th "Hat in the Ring" Aero Squadron; a day bombardment squadron, the 166th; and four observation squadrons (1st, 12th, 88th, and 9th Night) were initially assigned. The demobilization of the AEF accelerated in December and January, and all but two of these squadrons returned to the United States. Gen. Mitchell was replaced in January as commander of the Third Army Air Service by Col. Harold Fowler, a combat veteran of the
Royal Flying CorpsThe Royal Flying Corps was the over-land air arm of the British military during most of the First World War. During the early part of the war, the RFC's responsibilities were centred on support of the British Army, via artillery cooperation and photographic reconnaissance...
and former commander of the American 17th Pursuit Squadron.
By March 1919 the U.S. Second Army in France had also closed down. Its former air units were transferred to the Third Army Air Service in Germany, which at its maximum consisted of the:
- 5th Pursuit Group (41st, 138th, 141st, and 605th Aero Squadrons) at Coblenz, the
- 3rd Corps Observation Group (1st, 24th, and 258th A.S.) at Weißenthurm
Weißenthurm is a municipality in the district of Mayen-Koblenz, in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany. It is situated on the left bank of the Rhine, opposite Neuwied, approx. 12 km north-west of Koblenz....
, the
- 4th Corps Observation Group (85th and 278th A.S. only, its other squadrons sent home before assignment) at Sinzig
Sinzig is a municipality in the district of Ahrweiler, in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany. It is situated on the river Rhine, approx. 5 km south-east of Remagen and 25 km south-east of Bonn, and it has approximately 20,000 inhabitants .- History :...
, and the
- 7th Corps Observation Group (9th, 88th, and 186th A.S.) at Trier
Trier is a city in Germany on the banks of the Moselle River. It is the oldest city in Germany, founded in or before 16 BC. Trier is not the only city claiming to be Germany's oldest, but it is the only one that bases this assertion on having the longest history as a city, as opposed to a mere...
.
The Third Army and its air service were deactivated in July 1919 after the signing of the
Treaty of VersaillesThe Treaty of Versailles was one of the peace treaties at the end of World War I. It ended the state of war between Germany and the Allied Powers. It was signed on 28 June 1919, exactly five years after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. The other Central Powers on the German side of...
.
Statistical summary, World War I
{{quote box |width=30em | bgcolor=#B0C4DE |align=left|halign=left |quote=
{{nofootnotes|date=March 2008}}
The
United States Army Air Service was a forerunner of the
United States Air ForceThe United States Air Force is the aerial warfare branch of the U.S. armed forces and one of the American uniformed services. Initially part of the United States Army, the USAF was formed as a separate branch of the military on 18 September 1947 under the National Security Act of 1947 - 80 P.L....
. It was established on May 24, 1918, after U.S. entry into
World War IWorld War I , also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All Wars, was a global military conflict which involved most of the world's great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances: the Triple Entente and the Triple Alliance...
, replacing the
Aviation Section, U.S. Signal CorpsThe Aviation Section, U.S. Signal Corps, was the name of the military aviation service of the United States Army from 1914 to 1918, and a direct ancestor of the United States Air Force. It replaced the Aeronautical Division, U.S. Signal Corps and was succeeded briefly by the Division of Military...
which had been the nation's air force from 1914 to 1918.
Although the Air Service was recognized by the
Department of WarThe United States Department of War, also called the War Office, was the cabinet department originally responsible for the operation and maintenance of the US Army...
on May 24, 1918, no Director of Air Service was appointed until August 28, when President
Woodrow WilsonThomas Woodrow Wilson was the 28th President of the United States. A leading intellectual of the Progressive Era, he served as President of Princeton University from 1902 to 1910, and then as the Governor of New Jersey from 1911 to 1913...
made John D. Ryan a Second Assistant
Secretary of WarThe Secretary of War was a member of the United States President's Cabinet, beginning with George Washington's administration. A similar position, called either "Secretary at War" or "Secretary of War," was appointed to serve the Congress of the Confederation under the Articles of Confederation...
and civilian
Director of Air Service. After World War I, the Air Service was again directed by a military officer and remained so until replaced by the
United States Army Air CorpsThe United States Army Air Corps was the predecessor of the U.S. Army Air Forces from 1926-41, which in turn was the forerunner of today's U.S. Air Force , established in 1947...
on July 1, 1926.
The Air Service was the first form of the air force to have both its own unique organizational structure and identity. Prior to May 1918 its permanent personnel were part of the Signal Corps and its pilots on temporary assignment from other branches of the Army. Between May 1918 and July 1920, enlisted men were assigned to and new officers commissioned in the Air Service as either
National ArmyThe National Army was the combined conscript and volunteer force that was formed by the United States War Department in 1917 to fight in World War I...
(war-mobilized) or United States Army (Regulars). After July 1, 1920, all personnel retained by the Army were designated members of the Air Service, with officers who had been commissioned in the Signal Corps formally transferred.
Lineage of the United States Air Force
- Aeronautical Division, U.S. Signal Corps
The Aeronautical Division, U.S. Signal Corps was the first progenitor of the United States Air Force, and as such is the first military air organization. A component of the U.S. Army Signal Corps, the Aeronautical Division did not contain any subordinate units during its existence.-Lineage of the...
August 1, 1907–July 18, 1914
- Aviation Section, U.S. Signal Corps
The Aviation Section, U.S. Signal Corps, was the name of the military aviation service of the United States Army from 1914 to 1918, and a direct ancestor of the United States Air Force. It replaced the Aeronautical Division, U.S. Signal Corps and was succeeded briefly by the Division of Military...
July 18, 1914–May 20, 1918
- Division of Military Aeronautics May 20, 1918–May 24, 1918
- United States Army Air Service May 24, 1918–July 2, 1926
- United States Army Air Corps
The United States Army Air Corps was the predecessor of the U.S. Army Air Forces from 1926-41, which in turn was the forerunner of today's U.S. Air Force , established in 1947...
July 2, 1926–June 20, 1941
- United States Army Air Forces
The United States Army Air Forces was the military aviation arm of the United States of America during and immediately after World War II. It was a component of the United States Army, divided functionally by executive order in 1942 into three autonomous forces: the Army Ground Forces, the...
June 20, 1941–September 18, 1947
- United States Air Force
The United States Air Force is the aerial warfare branch of the U.S. armed forces and one of the American uniformed services. Initially part of the United States Army, the USAF was formed as a separate branch of the military on 18 September 1947 under the National Security Act of 1947 - 80 P.L....
September 18, 1947–present
Creation of the Air Service
See main articles: Aviation Section, U.S. Signal CorpsThe Aviation Section, U.S. Signal Corps, was the name of the military aviation service of the United States Army from 1914 to 1918, and a direct ancestor of the United States Air Force. It replaced the Aeronautical Division, U.S. Signal Corps and was succeeded briefly by the Division of Military...
and Division of Military Aeronautics
Although
CongressThe United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States of America, consisting of two houses, the Senate and the House of Representatives. Both senators and representatives are chosen through direct election....
had vastly increased the appropriations for the
Aviation Section of the Signal CorpsThe Aviation Section, U.S. Signal Corps, was the name of the military aviation service of the United States Army from 1914 to 1918, and a direct ancestor of the United States Air Force. It replaced the Aeronautical Division, U.S. Signal Corps and was succeeded briefly by the Division of Military...
in 1916, it had also
tabled a billIn American parliamentary procedure, the motion to table or more properly, to lay on the table, is a proposal to suspend consideration of the pending motion...
proposing an aviation department incorporating all aspects of military aviation, the first ever introduced to create a separate aviation service. The
declaration of warA declaration of war is a formal performative speech act or signing of a document by an authorized party of a government in order to initiate a state of war between two or more nations. The legality of who can declare war varies between nations and forms of government. In many nations power is...
against
GermanyGermany , officially the Federal Republic of Germany , is a country in Central Europe. It is bordered to the north by the North Sea, Denmark, and the Baltic Sea; to the east by Poland and the Czech Republic; to the south by Austria and Switzerland; and to the west by France, Luxembourg, Belgium,...
on April 6, 1917, putting the United States in
World War IWorld War I , also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All Wars, was a global military conflict which involved most of the world's great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances: the Triple Entente and the Triple Alliance...
, came too quickly to solve emerging engineering and production problems, and the reorganization of the Aviation Section had been inadequate in resolving problems in training, leaving the United States totally unprepared to fight an air war in Europe.
The administration of President
Woodrow WilsonThomas Woodrow Wilson was the 28th President of the United States. A leading intellectual of the Progressive Era, he served as President of Princeton University from 1902 to 1910, and then as the Governor of New Jersey from 1911 to 1913...
, through its
Council of National DefenseThe Council of National Defense was a United States organization formed to coordinate resources and industry for national security.-History:Established in August 24, 1916 by president Woodrow Wilson, the Council of National Defense was created because "The Country is best prepared for war when...
, created an advisory
Aircraft Production Board in May 1917, consisting of members of the Army, Navy, and industry, to study the Europeans' experience in aircraft production and the standardization of aircraft parts. The
United States CongressThe United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States of America, consisting of two houses, the Senate and the House of Representatives. Both senators and representatives are chosen through direct election....
responded to the problems by considering two new bills to create a "Department of Aeronautics" consolidating all aviation activities, including aircraft production, into a single department, and passed a series of legislation in the next three months that appropriated huge sums for development of military aviation, including the largest single
appropriationAppropriation is the act of taking possession of or assigning purpose to properties or ideas and is important in many topics, including:*Appropriation in relation to the spread of knowledge*Appropriation...
for a single purpose to that time, $640 million in the Aviation Act (40 Stat. 243), passed July 24, 1917.
Both the
Department of WarThe United States Department of War, also called the War Office, was the cabinet department originally responsible for the operation and maintenance of the US Army...
and the
Department of the NavyThe United States Department of the Navy was established by an Act of Congress on 30 April 1798, to provide administrative and technical support, and civilian leadership to the United States Navy and the United States Marine Corps...
opposed the creation of a separate air department, and on October 1, 1917, Congress instead legalized the existence of the APB and changed its name to the "
Aircraft BoardThe Aircraft Board was a United States federal government organization founded in 1917. Chaired by Howard E. Coffin, it was initially called the Aircraft Production Board before being superseded by Executive Order in October 1917. The boards, advisory in nature, gave their recommendations to the...
", transferring its functions from the Council of National Defense to the secretaries of War and the Navy. Even so, the Aircraft Board in practice had little control over procurement contracts and functioned mostly as an information clearinghouse between the various involved business, governmental, and military entities. Moreover, the airplane of World War I was not suitable to the
mass productionMass production is the production of large amounts of standardized products, including and especially on assembly lines...
methods of the
automotive industryThe automotive industry designs, develops, manufactures, markets, and sells the world's motor vehicles. In 2008, more than 70 million motor vehicles, including cars and commercial vehicles were produced worldwide....
and the priority of mass producing spare parts was neglected. Though individual areas within the aviation industry responded well, the industry as a whole failed. Efforts to mass produce European aircraft under license largely failed.
As a result, the board came under severe criticism for failure to meet goals or its own claims of aircraft production, followed by a highly-publicized personal investigation by
Gutzon Borglum Gutzon de la Mothe Borglum was an American artist and sculptor famous for creating the monumental presidents' heads at Mount Rushmore, South Dakota, the famous carving on Stone Mountain near Atlanta, as well as other public works of art.- Background :The son of Danish immigrants, Gutzon Borglum...
, a harshly vocal critic of the board. Borglum had exchanged letters with President Wilson, a personal friend, from which he assumed an appointment to investigate had been authorized, which the administration soon denied. Both the
U.S. SenateThe United States Senate is the upper house of the bicameral United States Congress, the lower house being the House of Representatives. The composition and powers of the Senate and the House are established in Article One of the U.S. Constitution . Each U.S state is represented by two senators,...
and the
Department of JusticeThe United States Department of Justice is a Cabinet department in the United States government designed to enforce the law and defend the interests of the United States according to the law and to ensure fair and impartial administration of justice for all Americans...
began investigations into possible fraudulent dealings. President Wilson also acted by appointing a Director of Aircraft Production on April 28, 1918, and creating a Division of Military Aeronautics (DMA) under
Brigadier GeneralBrigadier General is the lowest ranking General Officer in some countries, usually sitting between the ranks of Colonel and Major General.The rank can be traced back to the militaries of Europe where a brigadier general, or simply a brigadier, would command a brigade in the field...
William L. Kenley, to separate supervision of aviation from the duties of the Chief Signal Officer. However, before this took effect, Wilson used a provision of the
Overman Act of May 20, 1918Lee Slater Overman was a Democratic U.S. senator from the state of North Carolina between 1903 and 1930. He was born in Salisbury, N.C., the son of William H. and Mary E. Slater Overman. He attended Trinity College , Class of 1874, where he was a member of the Chi Phi Fraternity.In 1914, Overman...
, to issue Executive Order No. 2862 that removed the DMA entirely from the Signal Corps (reporting directly to the Secretary of War), and assigned it the function of procuring and training a combat force. In addition, the
executive orderAn executive order in the United States is an order issued by the President, the head of the executive branch of the federal government. In other countries, similar edicts may be known as decrees, or orders-in-council. Executive orders may also be issued at the state level by a state's Governor. U.S...
created a Bureau of Aircraft Production (BAP) as a separate executive bureau to provide the aircraft needed.
This arrangement lasted only four days, when the War Department issued General Order No. 51 creating the
Air Service, United States Army to consolidate the two agencies under a single director. (The term "Air Service" had been in use in France since June 13, 1917, to describe the function of aviation units attached to the American Expeditionary Force.) However, it delayed the appointment of a director as long as the BAP operated as a separate bureau. In August, the Senate completed its investigation of the Air Board, and while it found no criminal culpability, it reported that massive waste and delay in production had occurred. As a result, the Director of Aircraft Production (who was also chairman of the Aircraft Board), John D. Ryan, was appointed to the vacant position of Second Assistant Secretary of War and named Director of Air Service, in charge of both the BAP and DMA. The Department of Justice report followed two months later and also blamed the delays on administrative and organizational deficiencies in the Aviation Section. Ryan's appointment came too late for any effective consolidation of both agencies.
Following the Armistice, Ryan resigned on November 27, leaving both the BAP and DMA, as well as the original Aircraft Board, leaderless. Maj. Gen. Charles Menoher was appointed the new Director of Air Service on January 2, 1919, but the patchwork nature of laws and executive orders that had created the various parts of the Air Service prevented him from exercising all their legal powers. President Wilson issued a new executive order in March 1919 dissolving the Aircraft Board and consolidating all powers conferred into a single executive, the Director of Air Service.
By November 11, 1918, the Air Service both overseas and domestically had 195,024 personnel (20,568 officers; 174,456 enlisted men) and 7,900 aircraft, constituting five per cent of the United States Army. With an aviation cadet program modeled on
CanadaCanada is a country occupying most of northern North America, extending from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west and northward into the Arctic Ocean...
's, the Air Service commissioned over 17,000 as reserve officers. Using variants of the Curtiss Jenny, 27 flying training centers graduated nearly 8,000 pilots, and 1,600 more came from foreign schools in
Great BritainGreat Britain is an island lying to the northwest of Continental Europe. It is the ninth largest island in the world, and the largest European island. With a population of about 59.6 million people, it is the third most populated island on Earth. Great Britain is surrounded by over 1000 smaller...
,
FranceFrance , officially the French Republic , is a country located in Western Europe, with several overseas islands and territories located on other continents. Metropolitan France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, and from the Rhine to the Atlantic Ocean...
, and
ItalyItaly , officially the Italian Republic , is a country located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe and on the two largest islands in the Mediterranean Sea, Sicily and Sardinia. Italy shares its northern, Alpine boundary with France, Switzerland, Austria and Slovenia...
. 10,000 mechanics were trained to service the American aircraft fleet. Of aircraft manufactured in America, the deHavilland DH-4 (3,400) was the most numerous, although only 1,200 were shipped overseas, most used in observation units.
Assigned overseas in the
American Expeditionary ForceThe American Expeditionary Forces or AEF was the United States Armed Forces sent to Europe in World War I. During the United States campaigns in World War I the AEF fought in France along side British and French allied forces in the last year of the war, against Imperial German forces...
, the air arm totalled 78,507 (7,738 officers and 70,769 enlisted men) at the armistice. Of this total, 58,090 served in France; 20,075 in England; and 342 in Italy. Balloon troops made up approximately 17,000 of the Air Service, with 6,811 in the dangerous duty of spotting for the artillery at the front.
Air Service World War I posters
Organization
During the first year of U.S. participation in
World War IWorld War I , also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All Wars, was a global military conflict which involved most of the world's great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances: the Triple Entente and the Triple Alliance...
, aviation units had been created and deployed without organization. Upon his arrival in France in June 1917, Pershing met with
Lieutenant ColonelLieutenant colonel is a rank of commissioned officer in the armies and most marine forces and air forces of the world, typically ranking above a major and below a colonel. The rank of lieutenant colonel is often shortened to simply "colonel" in conversation and in unofficial correspondence...
Billy MitchellWilliam Lendrum "Billy" Mitchell was an American Army general who is regarded as the father of the U.S. Air Force...
, who had been sent to Europe in March 1917 as an observer, and arrived in Paris just four days after the United States declared war. Mitchell had established a "headquarters" for the American "air service" and so advised Pershing that it was ready to proceed with any project Pershing might require. Pershing's aviation officer,
MajorIn many European languages, the term Major is a military rank, implying seniority at one of usually various levels of rank. For example:*"General-Major" or "Major-General", denoting a senior ranking general officer....
Townsend Dodd, first used the term "Air Service" in a memo to the chief of staff of the AEF on 20 June 1917. The first official use of the term was in AEF General Order No. 8, 5 July 1917, in tables detailing staff organization and duties. The term became commonplace, but units organized into "air services" down to the corps level did not occur until May 1918.
Five days after the formation of the Army Air Service, separating it from the
Signal CorpsThe Signal Corps is a military branch, usually subordinate to a country's army, responsible for the military communications .Many countries have a Signal Corps, whose main function is usually communication .* Signal Corps , founded in 1860 by Major Albert J...
,
GeneralA general officer is an officer of high military rank. The term or equivalent is used by nearly every country in the world. General can be used as a generic term for all grades of general officer, or it can specifically refer to a single rank that is simply called general.-All general officer...
John J. PershingGeneral of the Armies John Joseph Pershing, Honorary GCB; September 13, 1860 – July 15, 1948, was a general officer in the United States Army. Pershing is the only person to be promoted in his own lifetime to the highest rank ever held in the United States Army—General of the Armies General of the...
, commanding the
American Expeditionary ForceThe American Expeditionary Forces or AEF was the United States Armed Forces sent to Europe in World War I. During the United States campaigns in World War I the AEF fought in France along side British and French allied forces in the last year of the war, against Imperial German forces...
(AEF), duplicated the action in Europe by creating the "Air Service of the AEF" and placing it in charge of all U.S. aviation units, personnel, and equipment in
FranceFrance , officially the French Republic , is a country located in Western Europe, with several overseas islands and territories located on other continents. Metropolitan France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, and from the Rhine to the Atlantic Ocean...
. As Chief of Air Service, AEF, he chose a West Point classmate and non-aviator,
Major GeneralMajor General or Major-General is a military rank used in many countries. It is derived from the older rank of Sergeant Major General. A Major General is a high-ranking officer, normally subordinate to the rank of Lieutenant General and senior to the ranks of Brigadier and Brigadier General...
Mason PatrickMason Mathews Patrick was a U.S. Army general and air power advocate.Patrick was born in Lewisburg, West Virginia and graduated from West Point in 1886. For three years he was at the Engineer School of Application, Willets Point, New York, graduating in 1889...
. Air Service staff planning had been inefficient, with considerable friction between its members and those of Pershing's General Staff. Aircraft and unit totals lagged far behind those promised in 1917. Considerable house-cleaning of the existing staff coincided with Patrick's appointment, bringing in experienced staff officers to administrate and tightening up lines of communication.
General Pershing had at first called for creation of 260 U.S. air combat squadrons, but slowness of the buildup reduced that to 202 on August 17, 1918. In Pershing's view, the two functions of the AEF's Air Service were to repel German aircraft and conduct observation of enemy movements. The heart of the force was its 101 observation squadrons (52 corps observation and 49 army observation), to be distributed to three armies and 16 corps. In addition, 60 pursuit squadrons, 27 night-bombardment squadrons, and 14 day-bombardment squadrons were to conduct supporting operations.
Without the time or infrastructure in the United States to equip units to send overseas using aircraft designed and built in the U.S., the AEF Air Service ordered Allied aircraft designs already in service with the French and British air services. On August 30, 1917, the American and French governments agreed to a contract in which France would provide the Air Service AEF, with 1,500
Breguet 14 B.2The Breguet 14 was a French biplane bomber and reconnaissance aircraft of World War I. It was built in very large numbers and production continued for many years after the end of the war. Apart from its widespread usage, it was noteworthy for becoming the first aircraft in mass production to use...
bombers and reconnaissance planes; 2,000 SPAD XIII fighters; and 1,500
Nieuport 28The Nieuport 28 was a French biplane fighter aircraft flown during World War I, built by Nieuport and designed by Gustave Delage. Its principal claim to fame is that it was the first aircraft to see service with an American fighter squadron....
pursuits.
The primary aircraft employed were the SPAD XIII (877 combat sorties), Nieuport 28 (181), and
SPAD VIIThe SPAD S.VII was the first of a series of highly successful biplane fighter aircraft produced by Société Pour L'Aviation et ses Dérivés during the First World War. Like its successors, the S.VII was renowned as a sturdy and rugged aircraft with good climbing and diving characteristics...
(103) as pursuit aircraft, the
DeHaviland DH-4The Airco DH.4 was a British two-seat biplane day-bomber of the First World War. It was designed by Geoffrey de Havilland for Airco, and was the first British two seat light day-bomber to have an effective defensive armament. It first flew in August 1916 and entered service with the Royal Flying...
(696) and Breguet 14 (87) for daylight bombing, and the DH-4 and
Salmson 2 A.2The Salmson 2 was a French biplane reconnaissance aircraft made by Salmson. It was developed to a 1916 requirement. Along with the Breguet 14, it was the main reconnaissance aircraft in use with the French army in 1918...
(557 sorties) for observation and photo reconnaissance. The SE-5 operated as the main trainer for the Air Service. Balloon companies operated the French Caquot Type R
hydrogenHydrogen is the chemical element with atomic number 1. It is represented by the symbol H. At standard temperature and pressure, hydrogen is a colorless, odorless, nonmetallic, tasteless, highly flammable diatomic gas with the molecular formula H
2...
-filled observation balloon, with one balloon per company.
Operations
The first U.S. aviation squadron to reach France was the 1st Aero Squadron, an observation unit, which sailed from New York in August 1917 and arrived at
Le HavreLe Havre is a city in north-western France situated on the right bank of the mouth of the Seine River as it flows into the Bay of the Seine in the English Channel. It is a commune in the Seine-Maritime department in the Haute-Normandie region. The inhabitants of the city are called Havrais or...
on September 3. A member of the squadron,
Stephen W. ThompsonStephen W. Thompson was an American aviator of World War I, and the first person in the U.S. Military to shoot down an enemy aircraft .-Early life:...
, on February 5, 1918, achieved the first aerial victory by the U. S. military. As other squadrons were organized at home, they too were sent overseas, where they continued their training. It was February 18, 1918, before any U.S. squadron entered combat (the 103rd Aero Squadron, a pursuit unit flying with French forces and composed largely of former members of the
Lafayette EscadrilleThe Lafayette Escadrille , was a squadron of the French Air Service, the Aéronautique militaire, during World War I composed largely of American volunteer pilots flying fighters....
). By the beginning of the
Meuse-Argonne OffensiveThe Meuse-Argonne Offensive, also called the Battle of the Argonne Forest, was a part of the final Allied offensive of World War I that stretched along the entire western front. The whole offensive was planned by Marshall Ferdinand Foch to breach the Hindenburg line and ultimately force the...
the Air Service AEF consisted of 32 squadrons (15 pursuit, 13 observation, and 4 bombing) at the front, while by November 11, 1918, 45 squadrons (20 pursuit, 18 observation, and 7 bombardment) had been assembled for combat. During the war, these squadrons played important roles in the
Third Battle of the AisneThe Third Battle of the Aisne was a battle of the German Spring Offensive during World War I that focused on capturing the Chemin des Dames Ridge before the American Expeditionary Force could arrive in France...
, the
Battle of Saint-MihielThe Battle of Saint-Mihiel was a World War I battle fought between September 12 - 15, 1918, involving the American Expeditionary Force and 48,000 French troops under the command of U.S. general John J. Pershing against German positions. The United States Army Air Service played a significant role...
, and the Meuse-Argonne Offensive. Several units, including the
94th Aero SquadronThe 94th Fighter Squadron ' is a United States Air Force unit. It is assigned to the 1st Operations Group and stationed at Langley Air Force Base, Virginia.The 94th Fighter Squadron is the second oldest fighter squadron in America's history....
,
CaptainThe army rank of Captain is an officer rank historically corresponding to command of a company of soldiers. The rank is also used by some air forces and marine forces. Today a captain is typically the commander, or second in command, of a company or squadron...
Eddie RickenbackerEdward Vernon Rickenbacker was an American fighter ace in World War I and Medal of Honor recipient. He was also a race car driver and automotive designer, a government consultant in military matters and a pioneer in air transportation, particularly as the longtime head of Eastern Air Lines.-Early...
commanding, and the 27th Aero Squadron, which had "balloon buster"
First LieutenantFirst Lieutenant is a military rank.The rank of Lieutenant has different meanings in different military formations , but the majority of cases it is common for it to be sub-divided into a senior and junior rank...
Frank LukeFrank Luke Jr. was an American fighter ace, ranking second among U.S. Air Service pilots to Eddie Rickenbacker in number of aerial victories during World War I. Frank Luke was the first airman to receive the Medal of Honor. Luke Air Force Base, a training site for Air Force aviators since WWII,...
as one of its pilots, achieved distinguished records in combat and became part of the future
United States Army Air CorpsThe United States Army Air Corps was the predecessor of the U.S. Army Air Forces from 1926-41, which in turn was the forerunner of today's U.S. Air Force , established in 1947...
.
Observation planes often operated individually, as did pursuit pilots to attack a balloon or to meet the enemy in a
dogfightA dogfight, or dog fight, is aerial combat between fighter aircraft. Dogfighting first appeared during World War I, shortly after the invention of the airplane, and has since became a component in every major war despite beliefs after World War II that increasingly greater speeds and longer range...
. However the tendency was toward formation flying, for pursuit as well as for bombardment operations, as a defensive tactic. The dispersal of squadrons among the army ground units (each corps and division had an observation squadron attached) made coordination of air activities difficult, so that squadrons were organized by functions into
groupGroup is a term used by different air forces for an element of military organization. The size of a group varies considerably between different countries...
s, the first of these being the
1st Corps Observation Group, organized in April 1918. On May 5, 1918, the
1st Pursuit GroupThe 1st Operations Group is the flying component of the 1st Fighter Wing, assigned to the USAF Air Combat Command. The group is stationed at Langley Air Force Base, Virginia....
was formed, and by the
armisticeAn armistice is a situation in a war where the warring parties agree to stop fighting. It is not necessarily the end of a war, but may be just a cessation of hostilities while an attempt is made to negotiate a lasting peace...
the AEF had 14 heavier-than-air groups (7 observation, 5 pursuit, and 2 bombardment). Of these 14 groups, only the 1st Pursuit and 1st Day Bombardment Groups would have their lineage continued into the post-war Air Service.
In July 1918, the AEF organized its first
wingA wing is a surface used to produce lift for flight through the air or another gaseous or fluid medium. The wing shape is usually an airfoil. The word originally referred only to the foremost limbs of birds, but has been extended to include the wings of insects , bats, pterosaurs, and aircraft.A...
, the 1st Pursuit Wing, made up of the 2d Pursuit, 3rd Pursuit, and 1st Day Bombardment Groups. Each Army and Corps echelon of the ground forces had a chief of air service designated to direct operations. The
Air Service, First Army was activated August 26, 1918, marking the commencement of large scale coordinated U.S. air operations. Col.
Benjamin FouloisBenjamin Delahauf Foulois , was a United States Army Officer who learned to fly the first military planes purchased from the Wright Brothers. He became the first military aviator as an airship pilot, and achieved numerous other military aviation "firsts"...
was named chief of the First Army Air Service over Col.
Billy MitchellWilliam Lendrum "Billy" Mitchell was an American Army general who is regarded as the father of the U.S. Air Force...
, who had been directing air operations as chief of the
I CorpsList of military corps — List of military corps by numberA number of countries have First, or I, Corps:*I Anzac Corps *I Corps *I Corps *I Corps *I Corps *I Corps...
Air Service since March, but Foulois voluntarily relinquished his post to Mitchell and became one of the two assistant chiefs of Air Service AEF, at Tours in charge of personnel and training. Mitchell went on to become a
brigadier generalBrigadier General is the lowest ranking General Officer in some countries, usually sitting between the ranks of Colonel and Major General.The rank can be traced back to the militaries of Europe where a brigadier general, or simply a brigadier, would command a brigade in the field...
and chief of the Army Group Air Service in mid-October 1918, succeeded at First Army by Col. Thomas Milling. The
Air Service, Second Army was activated in November just before the armistice, and the
Air Service Third Army was created immediately after the armistice to provide aviation support to the army of occupation.
Mitchell and Foulois were advocates of the formation of an "air force" to centralize control over military aviation. In the
Battle of Saint-MihielThe Battle of Saint-Mihiel was a World War I battle fought between September 12 - 15, 1918, involving the American Expeditionary Force and 48,000 French troops under the command of U.S. general John J. Pershing against German positions. The United States Army Air Service played a significant role...
, commencing September 12, 1918, the American and French offensive against the German
salientSalient may refer to:* Peninsula-like salients of political geography and Military Science.** Salient , a battlefield feature that projects an attacker's lines into enemy territory in such a way that the attacker is surrounded on three sides....
was supported by 1,481 airplanes directed by Mitchell, totalling 24 Air Service, 58 French
Aéronautique Militaire, and three
Royal Air ForceThe Royal Air Force is the United Kingdom's air force, the oldest independent air force in the world. Formed on 1 April 1918, the RAF has taken a significant role in British military history ever since, playing a large part in World War II and in more recent conflicts.The RAF operates almost 1,109...
squadrons in coordinated operations. Observation and pursuit planes supported ground forces, while the other two-thirds of the aerial force bombed and strafed behind enemy lines. Later, during the
Meuse-Argonne offensiveThe Meuse-Argonne Offensive, also called the Battle of the Argonne Forest, was a part of the final Allied offensive of World War I that stretched along the entire western front. The whole offensive was planned by Marshall Ferdinand Foch to breach the Hindenburg line and ultimately force the...
, Mitchell employed a smaller concentration of airpower, nearly all American this time, to keep the German army on the defensive.
Army of occupation duties
Immediately after the armistice, the AEF formed the Third United States Army to march immediately into Germany, occupy the Coblenz area, and be prepared to resume combat if peace treaty negotiations failed. Three corps were formed from seven of the Army's most experienced divisions, and Brig. Gen. Mitchell was appointed to command the Air Service, Third Army, on November 14, 1918.
As with the ground forces, the most veteran units of the Air Service were selected to form the new Air Service. A pursuit unit, the 94th "Hat in the Ring" Aero Squadron; a day bombardment squadron, the 166th; and four observation squadrons (1st, 12th, 88th, and 9th Night) were initially assigned. The demobilization of the AEF accelerated in December and January, and all but two of these squadrons returned to the United States. Gen. Mitchell was replaced in January as commander of the Third Army Air Service by Col. Harold Fowler, a combat veteran of the
Royal Flying CorpsThe Royal Flying Corps was the over-land air arm of the British military during most of the First World War. During the early part of the war, the RFC's responsibilities were centred on support of the British Army, via artillery cooperation and photographic reconnaissance...
and former commander of the American 17th Pursuit Squadron.
By March 1919 the U.S. Second Army in France had also closed down. Its former air units were transferred to the Third Army Air Service in Germany, which at its maximum consisted of the:
- 5th Pursuit Group (41st, 138th, 141st, and 605th Aero Squadrons) at Coblenz, the
- 3rd Corps Observation Group (1st, 24th, and 258th A.S.) at Weißenthurm
Weißenthurm is a municipality in the district of Mayen-Koblenz, in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany. It is situated on the left bank of the Rhine, opposite Neuwied, approx. 12 km north-west of Koblenz....
, the
- 4th Corps Observation Group (85th and 278th A.S. only, its other squadrons sent home before assignment) at Sinzig
Sinzig is a municipality in the district of Ahrweiler, in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany. It is situated on the river Rhine, approx. 5 km south-east of Remagen and 25 km south-east of Bonn, and it has approximately 20,000 inhabitants .- History :...
, and the
- 7th Corps Observation Group (9th, 88th, and 186th A.S.) at Trier
Trier is a city in Germany on the banks of the Moselle River. It is the oldest city in Germany, founded in or before 16 BC. Trier is not the only city claiming to be Germany's oldest, but it is the only one that bases this assertion on having the longest history as a city, as opposed to a mere...
.
The Third Army and its air service were deactivated in July 1919 after the signing of the
Treaty of VersaillesThe Treaty of Versailles was one of the peace treaties at the end of World War I. It ended the state of war between Germany and the Allied Powers. It was signed on 28 June 1919, exactly five years after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. The other Central Powers on the German side of...
.
Statistical summary, World War I
{{quote box |width=30em | bgcolor=#B0C4DE |align=left|halign=left |quote=
Though the casualties in the air force were small compared with the total strength, the casualty rate of the flying personnel at the front was somewhat above the Artillery and Infantry rates... The results of allied and American experience at the front indicate that two aviators lose their lives in accidents for each aviator killed in battle.
|source= Report of the Secretary of War, 1919
}}
The 740 airplanes equipping the AEF on November 11, 1918, were approximately 10% of the total aircraft strength of the Allied forces. The 45 squadrons in the Zone of Advance had 767 pilots, 481 observers, and 23 aerial gunners, covering 137 kilometers of front from
Pont-à-MoussonPont-à-Mousson is a commune in the Meurthe-et-Moselle department in north-eastern France.Population : 14,592 . It is an industrial town , situated on the Moselle River...
to
SedanSedan is a town and commune in France, a sub-prefecture of the Ardennes department in northern France.-Geography:The historic centre is built on a peninsula formed by an arc of the Meuse River. It is around from the Belgian border, and around from Paris.-History:Sedan was founded in 1424...
. 35 balloon companies also deployed in France, 17 at the front and six en route to the Second Army, and made 1,642 combat ascensions. 13 photographic sections were assigned to observation squadrons. 43 flying training, air park (supply), depot, and construction squadrons supported the air services. In all, 211 squadrons of all types trained in Great Britain, with 71 arriving in France before the Armistice. A major air depot at
Colombey-les-BellesColombey-les-Belles is a commune in the Meurthe-et-Moselle department in north-eastern France.-See also:*Communes of the Meurthe-et-Moselle department...
; three other maintenance depots at
Behonne Behonne is a commune in the Meuse department in the Lorraine region in north-eastern France....
,
LaTreceyLatrecey-Ormoy-sur-Aube is a commune in the Haute-Marne department in north-eastern France.-See also:*Communes of the Haute-Marne department...
, and
Vinets Vinets is a village and commune in the Aube département of northern-central France....
; four supply depots at
ClichyClichy is the name or part of the name of several communes in France:* Clichy , also called Clichy-la-Garenne or Clichy-sur-Seine, in the Hauts-de-Seine département** See also Place de Clichy** See also Boulevard de Clichy...
,
RomorantinRomorantin is a traditional French variety of white wine grape, that is a sibling of Chardonnay. Once quite widely grown in the Loire, it has now only seen in the Cour-Cheverny AOC. It produces intense, minerally wines somewhat reminiscent of Chablis....
,
ToursTours is a city in central France, the capital of the Indre-et-Loire department.It is located on the lower reaches of the river Loire, between Orléans and the Atlantic coast. Touraine, the region around Tours, is known for its wines, the alleged perfection of its local spoken French, and for the...
, and
Is-sur-Tille Is-sur-Tille is a commune in the Côte-d'Or department in eastern France.-See also:*Communes of the Côte-d'Or department...
; and 17 air park squadrons maintained the combat and training forces. At its peak establishment in November 1918, the Air Service was based at 31 stations in the Service of Supply and 78 aerodromes in the Zone of Advance.
A large training establishment was also set up in France. The Air Service Concentration Barracks at
Saint-MaixentSaint-Maixent is a commune in the Sarthe department in the region of Pays-de-la-Loire in north-western France.-References:*...
received all Air Service troops arriving in France, distributing them to 26 training centers and schools throughout central and western France. Flying training schools, equipped with 2,948 airplanes, supplied 1,674 fully-trained pilots and 851 observers to the Air Service, with 1,402 pilots and 769 observers serving at the front. The observers trained in France included 825 artillery officers from the infantry divisions who volunteered to fill a critical shortage in 1918. After the Armistice, the schools graduated 675 additional pilots and 357 observers to serve with the Third Army Air Service in the
Army of OccupationThe Army of Occupation was the name of the U.S. Army commanded by Zachary Taylor during the Mexican-American War.-Creation:On April 23, 1845 General Zachary Taylor was appointed to command the 1st Military District along the Texas/Louisiana border. On April 27 Taylor received orders to move with a...
. The 3rd Aviation Instruction Center at
IssoudunIssoudun is a commune in the Indre department in central France. It is also referred to as Issoundun, which is the ancient name.-History:...
provided 766 pursuit pilots. 169 students and 49 instructors died in training accidents. Balloon candidates made 4,224 practice ascensions while training.
The Air Service conducted 150 bombing missions, the longest 160 miles behind German lines, and dropped 138 tons (125 kg) of bombs. Its squadrons had 756 confirmed destruction of German aircraft and 76 German balloons destroyed, creating 71 Air Service
aceA flying ace or fighter ace is a military aviator credited with shooting down several enemy aircraft during aerial combat. The actual number of air victories required to officially qualify as an "ace" has varied, but is usually considered to be five or more.It is said that fighter aces are a dying...
s. Air Service combat losses were 289 airplanes and 48 balloons (35 shot by German fighters, 12 by antiaircraft guns, and 1 that drifted across the lines), with 235 airmen killed in action, 130 wounded, 145 captured, and 654 Air Service members of all ranks dead of illness or accidents. Air Service personnel were awarded 611 decorations in combat, including 4
Medals of HonorThe Medal of Honor is the highest military decoration awarded by the United States government. It is bestowed on a member of the United States armed forces who distinguishes themselves "conspicuously by gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty while...
and 312
Distinguished Service CrossThe Distinguished Service Cross is the second highest military decoration that can be awarded to a member of the United States Army, awarded for extreme gallantry and risk of life in actual combat with an armed enemy force. Actions that merit the Distinguished Service Cross must be of such a high...
es (54 were
oak leaf clusterAn oak leaf cluster or oakleaves is a common device which is placed on U.S. military awards and decorations to denote those who have received more than one bestowal of a particular decoration...
s). 210 decorations were awarded to aviators by France, 22 by Great Britain, and 69 by other nations.
Air Service of the AEF, 11 November 1918
SOURCES: Order of battle and commanders, The U.S. Air Service in World War I, Vol. I, pp.391-392; locations and aircraft Combat Squadrons of the Air Force, World War II under individual unit entries
Chief of Air Service, AEF - Maj.Gen.
Mason PatrickMason Mathews Patrick was a U.S. Army general and air power advocate.Patrick was born in Lewisburg, West Virginia and graduated from West Point in 1886. For three years he was at the Engineer School of Application, Willets Point, New York, graduating in 1889...
(
ChaumontChaumont is the name or part of the name of several communes in France, as well as a town in New YorkFrance:* Chaumont, Cher, in the Cher département* Chaumont, Haute-Marne, in the Haute-Marne département* Chaumont, Orne, in the Orne département...
)
- Chief of Air Service, Group of Armies - Brig. Gen. William L. Mitchell
William Lendrum "Billy" Mitchell was an American Army general who is regarded as the father of the U.S. Air Force...
Air Service, First Army
Col.
Thomas D. MillingThomas DeWitt Milling was a pioneer of military aviation and a brigadier general in the U.S. Army Air Corps. He was the first rated pilot in the history of the United States Air Force....
, (
Souilly Souilly is a commune in the Meuse department in Lorraine in north-eastern France....
)
- 1st Pursuit Group
The 1st Operations Group is the flying component of the 1st Fighter Wing, assigned to the USAF Air Combat Command. The group is stationed at Langley Air Force Base, Virginia....
- (Rembercourt Rembercourt-Sommaisne is a commune in the Meuse department in Lorraine in north-eastern France.-Geography:The Chée forms part of the commune's southern border.The Aisne rises near Sommaisne, a hamlet in the northern part of the commune....
, Maj. Harold E. Hartney)
- 27th
The 27th Fighter Squadron ' is a United States Air Force unit. It is assigned to the 1st Operations Group and stationed at Langley Air Force Base, Virginia.The 27th Fighter Squadron is the oldest fighter squadron in the United States Air Force....
, 94thThe 94th Fighter Squadron ' is a United States Air Force unit. It is assigned to the 1st Operations Group and stationed at Langley Air Force Base, Virginia.The 94th Fighter Squadron is the second oldest fighter squadron in America's history....
, 95th, & 147th Aero SquadronsThe United States Air Force 17th Weapons Squadron is a unit of the United States Air Force Weapons School stationed at Nellis Air Force Base, Nevada. It is part of Air Combat Command.-Overview:...
(Spad XIII)
- 1st Pursuit Wing - (Chaumont-sur-Aire
Chaumont-sur-Aire is a commune in the Meuse department in Lorraine in north-eastern France.-See also:*Communes of the Meuse department...
, Maj. Burt M. Atkinson)
- 2d Pursuit Group - (Souilly, Maj. Davenport Johnson)
- 13th
The 13th Bomb Squadron is an active United States Air Force organization assigned to the 509th Operations Group, stationed at Whiteman Air Force Base, Missouri...
, 22d, 99thThe 99th Reconnaissance Squadron is part of the 9th Reconnaissance Wing at Beale Air Force Base, California. It operates U-2 Dragon Lady aircraft flying reconnaissance missions around the world.-Mission:...
, & 139th Aero Squadrons (Spad S.XIIIThe SPAD S.XIII was a French biplane fighter aircraft of World War I, developed by Société Pour L'Aviation et ses Dérivés from the earlier highly successful SPAD S.VII...
)
- 3d Pursuit Group
The United States Air Force's 3d Wing is the host wing for Elmendorf Air Force Base, Alaska. It is the largest and principal organization in the Pacific Air Forces Eleventh Air Force....
- (Foucaucourt Foucaucourt-sur-Thabas is a commune in the Meuse department in Lorraine in north-eastern France.-See also:*Communes of the Meuse department...
, Maj. William K. Thaw)
- 28th
The 28th Bomb Squadron is part of the 7th Bomb Wing at Dyess Air Force Base, Texas. It operates B-1 Lancer aircraft providing strategic bombing capability...
, 93dThe 93d Bomb Squadron is part of the 917th Wing at Barksdale Air Force Base, Louisiana. It operates B-52 Stratofortress aircraft providing strategic bombing capability. It is the only reserve bomber unit in the United States Air Force....
, 103d, & 213th Aero Squadrons (Spad XIII)
- 1st Day Bombardment Group
The 2d Bomb Wing is a B-52 Stratofortress unit based at Barksdale Air Force Base, Louisiana. Part of the Eighth Air Force, it is one of only two B-52 wings in the United States Air Force, the other being the 5th Bomb Wing at Minot Air Force Base....
- (Maulan Maulan is a commune in the Meuse department in Lorraine in north-eastern France....
, Maj. James L. Dunsworth)
- 11th
The 11th Bomb Squadron is part of the 2d Bomb Wing at Barksdale Air Force Base, Louisiana. It operates B-52 Stratofortress aircraft providing strategic bombing capability.-Mission:...
, 20thThe 20th Bomb Squadron is part of the 2d Bomb Wing at Barksdale Air Force Base, Louisiana. It operates B-52 Stratofortress aircraft providing strategic bombing capability.-Mission:...
, 166th (DH-4B) & 96thThe 96th Bomb Squadron is part of the 2d Bomb Wing at Barksdale Air Force Base, Louisiana. It operates B-52 Stratofortress aircraft providing strategic bombing capability.-History:...
(Breguet 14 B2The Breguet 14 was a French biplane bomber and reconnaissance aircraft of World War I. It was built in very large numbers and production continued for many years after the end of the war. Apart from its widespread usage, it was noteworthy for becoming the first aircraft in mass production to use...
) Aero Squadrons
- 155th Aero Squadron (night bombardment) - (Belrain
Belrain is a commune in the Meuse department in the Lorraine region in north-eastern France....
, Sopwith FE-2bThe Royal Aircraft Factory F.E.2 was a two-seat pusher biplane that was operated as a day and night bomber and as a fighter aircraft by the Royal Flying Corps during the First World War...
)
- First Army Observation Group - (Vavincourt
Vavincourt is a commune in the Meuse department in Lorraine in north-eastern France....
, Capt. Harry T. Wood)
- 9th Aero Squadron
The 9th Bomb Squadron is part of the 7th Bomb Wing at Dyess Air Force Base, Texas. It operates B-1 Lancer aircraft providing strategic bombing capability...
(night reconnaissance) - (DH-4B, FE-2b)
- 24th, 91st Aero Squadrons
The 91st Network Warfare Squadron is an active United States Air Force unit, currently assigned to the 67th Network Warfare Wing at Kelly Annex, part of Lackland Air Force Base, Texas.-Heraldry:...
(Salmson 2 A2The Salmson 2 was a French biplane reconnaissance aircraft made by Salmson. It was developed to a 1916 requirement. Along with the Breguet 14, it was the main reconnaissance aircraft in use with the French army in 1918...
)
- 186th Aero Squadron (Lemmes
Lemmes is a commune in the Meuse department in Lorraine in north-eastern France....
, Salmson 2 A2)
- First Army Balloon Group - (Maj. John Paegelow)
- 11th (Fontaines) & 43d (Fossé
Fossé may refer to the following communes in France:* Fossé, Ardennes, in the Ardennes department* Fossé, Loir-et-Cher, in the Loir-et-Cher department* Le Fossé, in the Seine-Maritime department...
) Balloon Companies
- Corps Observation Wing - (Rampont
Les Souhesmes-Rampont is a commune in the Meuse department in Lorraine in north-eastern France....
, Maj. Melvin A. Hall)
- Air Service, I Corps - (Chéhéry
Chéhéry is a commune in the Ardennes department in northern France.-References:*...
, Capt. Oliver P. EcholsOliver Patton Echols was an American military officer who brought success in World War II to the United States Army Air Forces by expanding the inventory of America's air arm to meet the needs of the coming war. More than any other man under Chief of the Army Air Forces, General Henry H...
)
- 1st Corps Observation Group - (Julvécourt
Julvécourt is a commune in the Meuse department in Lorraine in north-eastern France....
)
- 1st
The 1st Reconnaissance Squadron is a United States Air Force reconnaissance training unit based at Beale Air Force Base, near Marysville, California. It is the oldest squadron in the Air Force, and the first organization to be established as a U.S. military flying unit...
& 12th Aero SquadronsThe 12th Reconnaissance Squadron is a United States Air Force reconnaissance unit based at Beale Air Force Base, near Marysville, California. It is a component of the 9th Reconnaissance Wing and operates the RQ-4 Global Hawk unmanned aerial vehicle...
(Salmson)
- 50th Aero Squadron (Clermont-en-Argonne
Clermont-en-Argonne is a commune in the Meuse department in Lorraine in north-eastern France.-Geography:The town is located along the old road from Paris to Verdun , which at this point is closely tracked by the A4 autoroute, on the edge of the Forest of Argonne...
, DH-4B)
- N.211 Escadrille, Aéronautique Militaire (Clermont-en-Argonne)
- 1st Corps Balloon Group - (Chéhéry)
- 1st
The 1st Airborne Command and Control Squadron is part of the 55th Wing at Offutt Air Force Base, Nebraska. It operates the E-4 aircraft conducting airborne command and control missions.-History:...
(AuzévilleClermont-en-Argonne is a commune in the Meuse department in Lorraine in north-eastern France.-Geography:The town is located along the old road from Paris to Verdun , which at this point is closely tracked by the A4 autoroute, on the edge of the Forest of Argonne...
), 2d (Les Petites-Armoises Les Petites-Armoises is a commune in the Ardennes department in northern France.-References:*...
), & 5th (La Besace La Besace is a commune in the Ardennes department in northern France.-References:*...
) Balloon Companies
- Air Service, III Corps - (Dun-sur-Meuse
Dun-sur-Meuse is a commune in the Meuse department in Lorraine in north-eastern France....
, Maj. Joseph C. Morrow)
- 3d Corps Observation Group - (Bethelainville
Béthelainville is a commune in the Meuse department in the Lorraine region in north-eastern France....
, Capt. Kenneth P. Littauer)
- 88th & 90th Aero Squadrons
The 90th Fighter Squadron is part of the 3d Wing at Elmendorf Air Force Base, Alaska. It operates the F-22 Raptor aircraft conducting air superiority missions.-Mission:...
(Salmson 2 A2)
- N.219 & N.229 Escadrille
- 3d Corps Balloon Group - (Dun-sur-Meuse)
- 3d (Belrupt
Belrupt is a village and commune in the Vosges département of north-eastern France....
, 4th (Vilosnes-sur-Meuse Vilosnes-Haraumont is a commune in the Meuse department in Lorraine in north-eastern France....
), 9th (Consenvoye Consenvoye is a commune in the Meuse department in Lorraine in north-eastern France....
), & 42d (Villers-devant-Dun Villers-devant-Dun is a commune in the Meuse department in Lorraine in north-eastern France.-See also:*Communes of the Meuse department...
) Balloon Companies
- Air Service, V Corps - (Nouart
Nouart is a commune in the Ardennes department in northern France....
, Maj. Martin F. Scanlon)
- 5th Corps Observation Group - (Parois
Aubréville is a commune in the Meuse department in the Lorraine region in north-eastern France....
, Capt. Stephen H. Noyes)
- 99th
The 99th Reconnaissance Squadron is part of the 9th Reconnaissance Wing at Beale Air Force Base, California. It operates U-2 Dragon Lady aircraft flying reconnaissance missions around the world.-Mission:...
& 104th Aero Squadrons (Salmson 2 A2)
- N.214 & N.215 Escadrille
- 5th Corps Balloon Group - (Nouart, Capt. Alvin C. Rois)
- 6th (Brabant-sur-Meuse
Brabant-sur-Meuse is a commune in the Meuse department in Lorraine in north-eastern France.-See also:*Communes of the Meuse department...
), 7th (Tailly Tailly is a commune in the Ardennes department in northern France....
), 8th (Nouart), & 12th (BuzancyBuzancy may refer to the following places in France:* Buzancy, Aisne, a commune in the department of Aisne* Buzancy, Ardennes, a commune in the department of Ardennes...
) Balloon Companies
Air Service, Second Army
Col.
Frank LahmFrank Purdy Lahm was an American aviator in the United States Army.-Biography:Born in Mansfield, Ohio, he attended public school in Mansfield and later a Dominican school near Paris, France. Lahm then spent two years at Michigan Military Academy preparing for West Point, where he entered in June...
, (
ToulToul is a commune in the Meurthe-et-Moselle department in north-eastern France.It is a sub-prefecture of the department.-Geography:Toul is located between Commercy and Nancy, and situated between the Moselle River and the Canal de la Marne au Rhin....
)
- Balloons Wing - (Toul, Maj. John H. Jouett)
- N.20 and N.52 Balloon Companies, Aéronautique Militaire
- 4th Pursuit Group - (Toul, Maj. Charles J. Biddle)
- 17th
The United States Air Force 17th Weapons Squadron is a unit of the United States Air Force Weapons School stationed at Nellis Air Force Base, Nevada. It is part of Air Combat Command.-Overview:...
, 25th, 141st, & 148th Aero Squadrons (mostly Spad XIII, with S.E.5aThe Royal Aircraft Factory S.E.5 was a British biplane fighter aircraft of the First World War. Although the first examples reached the Western Front before the Sopwith Camel, and it had a much better overall performance, problems with its Hispano-Suiza engine meant that there was a chronic...
for 25th Aero Squadron)
- 5th Pursuit Group
The United States Air Force 5th Bomb Wing is a B-52 Stratofortress unit based at Minot Air Force Base, North Dakota. The wing is one of only two B-52 wings in the US Air Force The United States Air Force 5th Bomb Wing (5 BW) is a B-52 Stratofortress unit based at Minot Air Force Base, North...
- (Lay-Saint-Remy Lay-Saint-Remy is a commune in the Meurthe-et-Moselle department in north-eastern France....
, Capt. Dudley L. Hill)
- 41st, 138th, & 638th Aero Squadrons (forming)
- 2nd Day Bombardment Group - (Ourches
Ourches is a commune in the Drôme department in south-eastern France....
, Maj. George E. A. Reinberg)
- 100th & 163d Aero Squadrons (DH-4B)
- Second Army Observation Wing - (Toul, Lt.Col. John H. Reynolds)
- 2d Corps Observation Group - (Major C. Delaney, attached from French Third Army)
- N.28, N.47, and N.277 Escadrille
- Air Service, IV Corps
The IV Corps replaced the VI Corps in the Fifth United States Army's order of battle in Italy after Allied forces liberated Rome in the summer of 1944 when VI Corps was withdrawn to take part in Operation Dragoon, the Allied invasion of southern France. Initially the Corps had two divisions, U.S...
- (Toul, Maj. Harry B. Anderson)
- 4th Corps Observation Group - (Toul)
- 85th (Salmson 2.A2), 135th, & 168th (DH-4B) Aero Squadrons
- 255th & 278th Aero Squadrons (designated for VII Corps, DH-4B)
- 4th Corps Balloon Group
- 15th, 18th, & 69th Balloon Companies
- Air Service, VI Corps - (Nancy
Nancy is a city in the Meurthe-et-Moselle department in north-eastern France, and formerly the capital of the Duchy of Lorraine, and then the French province of the same name.The city is the head of the department...
, Maj. Joseph T. McNarneyJoseph T. McNarney was a United States Army Air Forces general officer who served as Military Governor of occupied Germany.-Early years:...
)
- 6th Corps Observation Group - (Saizerais
Saizerais is a commune in the Meurthe-et-Moselle department in north-eastern France....
, Capt. John G. Winant)
- 8th
The 8th Special Operations Squadron is part of the 1st Special Operations Wing at Hurlburt Field, Florida. It operates CV-22 Osprey in support of special operations.-Mission:...
& 354th Aero Squadrons (DH-4B)
- 6th Corps Balloon Group
Executive order
In France the "Air Service" was a component of Pershing's American Expeditionary Force (AEF). In the United States the Chief Signal Officer was responsible for organizing, training, and equipping aviation units until May 20, 1918. At that time, the President separated aviation from the Signal Corps, creating a Bureau of Aircraft Production (BAP), to be responsible for aeronautical equipment, and a
Division of Military AeronauticsThe Division of Military Aeronautics, also termed the Division of Military Aeronautics and Bureau of Aircraft Production , was the name of the Army's aviation organization for a brief period during World War I, and therefore also an antecedent of the United States Air Force.-Lineage of the...
(DMA), to be responsible for the training of personnel and aviation units. An Aircraft Engineering Department was set up within the BAP and a Technical Section within the DMA, both under military officers and having similar responsibilities. Both the BAP and the DMA were then placed under the administration of the newly-created
Army Air Service on May 24, and formally merged into the air arm by Executive Order 3066 on March 19, 1919.
At the end of November 1918, the Air Service consisted of 185 flying, 44 construction, 114 supply, 11 replacement, and 150
spruceA spruce is a tree of the genus Picea , a genus of about 35 species of coniferous evergreen trees in the Family Pinaceae, found in the northern temperate and boreal regions of the earth. Spruces are large trees, from 20–60 m tall when mature, and can be distinguished by their whorled branches and...
production squadrons; 86 balloon companies; six balloon group headquarters; 15 construction companies; 55 photographic sections; and a few miscellaneous units. Its personnel strength was 19,189 officers and 178,149 enlisted men. Its aircraft inventory consisted primarily of
Curtiss JN-4The Curtiss JN-4 "Jenny" is a series of biplane aircraft built by the Curtiss Aeroplane Company of Hammondsport, New York, later the Curtiss Aeroplane and Motor Company. The Curtiss JN series was produced as a training aircraft for the U.S...
trainers,
de Havilland DH-4BThe Airco DH.4 was a British two-seat biplane day-bomber of the First World War. It was designed by Geoffrey de Havilland for Airco, and was the first British two seat light day-bomber to have an effective defensive armament. It first flew in August 1916 and entered service with the Royal Flying...
scout planes,
SE-5The Royal Aircraft Factory S.E.5 was a British biplane fighter aircraft of the First World War. Although the first examples reached the Western Front before the Sopwith Camel, and it had a much better overall performance, problems with its Hispano-Suiza engine meant that there was a chronic...
and
Spad S.XIIIThe SPAD S.XIII was a French biplane fighter aircraft of World War I, developed by Société Pour L'Aviation et ses Dérivés from the earlier highly successful SPAD S.VII...
fighters, and
Martin MB-1The Martin MB-1 was a 1910s American large biplane bomber designed and built by the Glenn L. Martin Company for the United States Army Air Service. It was the first purpose-built bomber produced by the United States....
bombers.
Complete demobilization of the Air Service was accomplished within a year. By November 22, 1919, the Air Service had been reduced to one construction, one replacement, and 22 flying squadrons; 32 balloon companies; 15 photographic sections; and 1,168 officers and 8,428 enlisted men. The combat strength of the Air Service was only four pursuit and four bombardment squadrons. Although the leaders of the reorganized Air Service persuaded the General Staff to increase the combat strength to 20 squadrons by 1923, the balloon force was deactivated, including dirigibles, and personnel shrank even further, to just 880 officers. By July 1924, the Air Service inventory was 457 observation planes, 55 bombers, 78 pursuit planes, and 8 attack aircraft, with trainers to make the total number 754.
The Air Service replaced its wartime structure with the formation of six permanent groups in 1919, four of which were based in the United States (only two of which were combat groups) and two overseas. In 1920, a seventh group was formed to provide a headquarters for squadrons serving in the
PhilippinesThe Philippines officially known as the Republic of the Philippines, is a country in Southeast Asia with Manila as its capital city. It comprises 7,107 islands in the western Pacific Ocean....
, and in 1922 an eighth group was created to replace one inactivated the year before. (The
8th Fighter Group was also designated on March 23, 1923, but not activated until 1931 as part of the Air Corps.)
1920 reorganization
With the passage of the Armed Forces Reorganization Act (41 Stat. 759 - June 4, 1920), the Air Service became a combatant arm of the Army, along with the
InfantryInfantrymen are soldiers who are specifically trained for the role of fighting on foot to engage the enemy face to face and have historically borne the brunt of the casualties of combat in wars. As the oldest branch of the Combat Arms they are the backbone of armies...
,
CavalryCavalry were soldiers or warriors who fought mounted on horseback in combat. Cavalry were historically the second oldest and most mobile of the combat arms...
,
Field ArtilleryThe Field Artillery branch was founded on November 17, 1775 by the Continental Congress, which unanimously elected Henry Knox "Colonel of the Regiment of Artillery". The regiment formally entered service on January 1, 1776...
, Corps of Engineers, and
Signal CorpsThe Signal Corps is a military branch, usually subordinate to a country's army, responsible for the military communications .Many countries have a Signal Corps, whose main function is usually communication .* Signal Corps , founded in 1860 by Major Albert J...
. A
Chief of Air Service was authorized with the rank of
major generalMajor General or Major-General is a military rank used in many countries. It is derived from the older rank of Sergeant Major General. A Major General is a high-ranking officer, normally subordinate to the rank of Lieutenant General and senior to the ranks of Brigadier and Brigadier General...
to replace the previous
Director of Air Service, and an assistant chief created in the rank of
brigadier generalBrigadier General is the lowest ranking General Officer in some countries, usually sitting between the ranks of Colonel and Major General.The rank can be traced back to the militaries of Europe where a brigadier general, or simply a brigadier, would command a brigade in the field...
(from 1920 to 1925 this position was held by Brig.Gen.
Billy MitchellWilliam Lendrum "Billy" Mitchell was an American Army general who is regarded as the father of the U.S. Air Force...
). The primary missions of the Air Service were observation and pursuit aviation, and its tactical squadrons in the United States were controlled by the commanders of nine corps areas created by the Act, primarily in support of the ground forces. The Chief of the Air Service retained command of training schools, depots, and support activities exempted from corps control.
The General Staff produced a mobilization plan in the 1920 reorganization that in the event of war would create an expeditionary force of six
armiesAn army An army An army (from Latin armata "armed (things)" via Old French armée, "armed" (feminine), in the broadest sense, is the land-based Military of a nation. It may also include other branches of the military such as the air force via means of aviation corps...
, 18
corpsA Corps is either a large formation, or an administrative grouping of troops within an armed force with a common function such as Artillery or Signals representing an arm of service...
, and 54
divisionA division is a large military unit or formation usually consisting of between ten to thirty thousand soldiers. In most armies, a division is composed of several regiments or brigades, and in turn several divisions make up a corps...
s. Each army would have an Air Service attack wing (one attack and two pursuit groups) and an observation group, each corps and division would have an observation squadron, and a seventh attack wing-observation group would be reserved for the Expeditionary Force's general headquarters. A single bombardment group was planned, relegating bombardment to the most minor of roles. All aviation units would be under the command of ground officers at all levels. This structure provided the principles by which the Air Service and Air Corps operated until 1935.
Aeronautical development became the responsibility of the Technical Section, Air Service, created January 1, 1919, consolidating the Aircraft Engineering Department BAP, the Technical Section DMA, and the Testing Squadron at
Wilbur Wright FieldWright-Patterson Air Force Base is a United States Air Force base located in Greene and Montgomery counties, eight miles northeast of the central business district of Dayton, Ohio, United States. Part of the base is located along the city limits of Riverside and is also adjacent to Fairborn and...
, which was renamed the Engineering Division on March 19 and relocated to
McCook FieldMcCook Field was an airfield and aviation experimentation station operated by the Aviation Section, U.S. Signal Corps from 1917-1927...
,
Dayton, OhioDayton is a city in and the county seat of Montgomery County, Ohio, United States, in the southwestern part of the state. The population was 166,179 at the 2000 census. The Dayton Metropolitan Statistical Area had a population of 848,153 in the 2000 census. Dayton is the fourth largest...
.
A formal training establishment was also created by the Air Service on February 25, 1920, when the War Department authorized the establishment of service schools. Flying training took place in Texas, and a technical school for mechanics was at located at Chanute Field,
IllinoisIllinois , the 21st state admitted to the United States of America, is the most populous and demographically diverse Midwestern state and the fifth most populous state in the nation...
. The
Air Service Tactical SchoolThe Air Corps Tactical School, also known as ACTS and "the Tactical School", was a military professional development school for officers of the United States Army Air Service and United States Army Air Corps, the first such school in the world. Created in 1920 at Langley Field, Virginia, it...
was set up at Langley Field,
VirginiaThe Commonwealth of Virginia is a U.S. state on the Atlantic Coast of the Southern United States. Virginia is nicknamed the "Old Dominion" and sometimes the "Mother of Presidents" because it is the birthplace of eight U.S. presidents. The geography and climate of the state are shaped by the Blue...
, to train officers for higher command and to instruct in doctrine and the employment of military aviation, and later became the
Air Corps Tactical SchoolThe Air Corps Tactical School, also known as ACTS and "the Tactical School", was a military professional development school for officers of the United States Army Air Service and United States Army Air Corps, the first such school in the world. Created in 1920 at Langley Field, Virginia, it...
, trnasferred in 1931 to
Maxwell FieldMaxwell Field was the football stadium located behind the former location of Louisville Male High School, 911 S. Brook St., Louisville, Kentucky, 40203 which was bounded by the streets of Brook, Breckinridge, Floyd, and Caldwell streets in Louisville, Kentucky. In 1984 a double murder known locally...
,
AlabamaAlabama is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States of America. It is bordered by Tennessee to the north, Georgia to the east, Florida and the Gulf of Mexico to the south, and Mississippi to the west. Alabama ranks 30th in total land area and ranks second in the size of its...
. The Engineering Division created an air engineering school at McCook Field and moved it to
Wright FieldWilbur Wright Field, or Wright Field as it is commonly known, was an air field of the United States Air Force. It is the location of the United States Air Force Museum.-History:...
when that base was established in 1924.
The principal pursuit planes of the Air Service were the MB-3 (50 in inventory), the
MB-3AThe Thomas-Morse MB-3 was an open-cockpit biplane fighter primarily manufactured by the Boeing Company for the U.S. Army Air Service in 1922. The MB-3A was the mainstay fighter for the Air Service between 1922 and 1925.-Development:...
(200 acquired 1920-23), and the Curtiss PW-8/P-1 Hawk (48 acquired in 1924-25). The only bomber ordered in quantity was the
Martin NBS-1The Martin NBS-1 was a military aircraft of the United States Army Air Service and its successor, the Air Corps. An improved version of the Martin MB-1, a scout-bomber built during the final months of World War I, the NBS-1 was ordered under the designation MB-2 and is often referred to as such...
, the mass-produced version of the MB-2 bomber developed in 1920. Mitchell used the NBS-1 as the primary striking weapon during his demonstration in July 1921 off the Virginia coast that resulted in the sinking of the captured German battleship
Ostfriesland.
Groups of the Air Service
| | | | |
|---|
| Original Designation |
Station |
Date created |
Redesignation (date) |
| 1st Surveillance Group |
Fort Bliss Fort Bliss is a United States Army post in the U.S. states of New Mexico and Texas. With an area of about , it is the Army's second-largest installation behind the adjacent White Sands Missile Range. It is TRADOC's largest installation, and has the Army's largest Maneuver Area behind the National...
, TexasTexas is the second-largest U.S. state in both area and population, and the largest state in the contiguous United States.The name had wide usage among native Americans, meaning "friends" or "allies"...
|
July 1, 1919 |
3d Attack GroupThe United States Air Force's 3d Wing is the host wing for Elmendorf Air Force Base, Alaska. It is the largest and principal organization in the Pacific Air Forces Eleventh Air Force....
² (1921) |
| 2d Observation Group |
Luke FieldFord Island is located in the middle of Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. It is connected to the main island by the Ford Island Bridge. Before the bridge was built, Ford Island could only be reached by a ferry boat which ran at hourly intervals for cars and foot passengers. The island houses several naval...
, HawaiiHawaii is the newest of the 50 U.S. states, and is the only state made up entirely of islands. It is located on an archipelago in the central Pacific Ocean, southwest of the continental United States, southeast of Japan, and northeast of Australia. The state was admitted to the Union on August...
|
August 16, 1919 |
5th Group (Composite)² (1922) |
1st Pursuit GroupThe 1st Operations Group is the flying component of the 1st Fighter Wing, assigned to the USAF Air Combat Command. The group is stationed at Langley Air Force Base, Virginia....
² |
Kelly Field, TexasTexas is the second-largest U.S. state in both area and population, and the largest state in the contiguous United States.The name had wide usage among native Americans, meaning "friends" or "allies"...
|
August 22, 1919 |
|
| 1st Day Bombardment Group |
Kelly Field, Texas |
September 18, 1919 |
2d Bomb GroupThe 2d Bomb Wing is a B-52 Stratofortress unit based at Barksdale Air Force Base, Louisiana. Part of the Eighth Air Force, it is one of only two B-52 wings in the United States Air Force, the other being the 5th Bomb Wing at Minot Air Force Base....
² (1922) |
| 3d Observation Group |
France FieldThe Panama Canal Zone was a 553 square mile territory inside of Panama, consisting of the Panama Canal and an area generally extending 5 miles on each side of the centerline, but excluding Panama City and Colón, which otherwise would have fallen in part within the limits of the Canal Zone...
, PanamaPanama, officially the Republic of Panama , is the southernmost country of both Central America and, in turn, North America. Situated on the isthmus connecting North and South America, it is bordered by Costa Rica to the northwest, Colombia to the southeast, the Caribbean Sea to the north and the...
|
September 30, 1919 |
6th Group (Composite)² (1922) |
First ArmyThe First United States Army is a field army of the United States Army. It now serves a mobilization, readiness and training command.- Establishment and World War I :...
Observation Group |
Langley Field, VirginiaThe Commonwealth of Virginia is a U.S. state on the Atlantic Coast of the Southern United States. Virginia is nicknamed the "Old Dominion" and sometimes the "Mother of Presidents" because it is the birthplace of eight U.S. presidents. The geography and climate of the state are shaped by the Blue...
|
October 1, 1919 |
(7th Bomb Group 1921)¹ |
| 1st Observation Group |
Ft. StotsenburgClark Air Base is a former United States Air Force base on Luzon Island in the Philippines, located 3 miles west of Angeles City, about 40 miles northwest of Metro Manila. Clark Air Base was an American military facility from 1903 to 1991...
, LuzonLuzon is the largest and most economically and politically important island in the Philippines and one of the three island groups in the country, with Visayas and Mindanao being the other two...
|
March 3, 1920 |
4th Group (Composite)² (1922) |
| 9th Observation Group² |
Mitchel Field, New YorkNew York is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions of the United States and is the nation's third most populous. The state is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south, and Connecticut, Massachusetts and Vermont to the east...
|
August 1, 1922 |
|
- ¹Redesignated, then inactivated until 1928
- ²Original 7 groups of US Army Air Corps
Annual Air Service strength
as of June 30 yearly
| | | | | | | | |
|---|
| Year |
Strength |
|
Year |
Strength |
|
Year |
Strength |
| 1918 |
138,997 |
|
1921 |
11,830 |
|
1924 |
10,488 |
| 1919 |
24,115 |
|
1922 |
9,888 |
|
1925 |
9,719 |
| 1920 |
9,358 |
|
1923 |
9,407 |
|
1926 |
9,578 |
Heads of the Air Service
Directors of Air Service
- John D. Ryan (August 28, 1918–November 27, 1918)
- Maj.Gen. Charles T. Menoher
Major General Charles Thomas Menoher was a U.S. Army general and commanded the U.S. Army Hawaiian Department from 1924-1925. The son of a Civil War veteran, was born in Johnstown, Pennsylvania and graduated from the United States Military Academy in 1886 with a commission in the Artillery...
(January 2, 1919–June 4, 1920)
Chiefs of Air Service
- Maj.Gen. Charles T. Menoher
Major General Charles Thomas Menoher was a U.S. Army general and commanded the U.S. Army Hawaiian Department from 1924-1925. The son of a Civil War veteran, was born in Johnstown, Pennsylvania and graduated from the United States Military Academy in 1886 with a commission in the Artillery...
(June 4, 1920–October 4, 1921)
- Maj.Gen. Mason M. Patrick
Mason Mathews Patrick was a U.S. Army general and air power advocate.Patrick was born in Lewisburg, West Virginia and graduated from West Point in 1886. For three years he was at the Engineer School of Application, Willets Point, New York, graduating in 1889...
(October 5, 1921–July 2, 1926)
Debate over an independent Air Force
The seven-year history of the Air Service was essentially a prolonged debate between adherents of airpower and the supporters of the traditional military services about the value of an independent Air Force, spurred by the creation of the
Royal Air ForceThe Royal Air Force is the United Kingdom's air force, the oldest independent air force in the world. Formed on 1 April 1918, the RAF has taken a significant role in British military history ever since, playing a large part in World War II and in more recent conflicts.The RAF operates almost 1,109...
in 1918. On one side were Brig. Gen.
Billy MitchellWilliam Lendrum "Billy" Mitchell was an American Army general who is regarded as the father of the U.S. Air Force...
, Brig. Gen.
Benjamin FouloisBenjamin Delahauf Foulois , was a United States Army Officer who learned to fly the first military planes purchased from the Wright Brothers. He became the first military aviator as an airship pilot, and achieved numerous other military aviation "firsts"...
, a cadre of young former Reserve officers who made up the overwhelming majority of Army pilots, and a few like-minded politicians and newspapers. Opposed were the
General StaffA military staff is a group of officers and enlisted personnel that provides a bi-directional flow of information between a commanding officer and subordinate military units....
of the U.S. Army, its senior leadership from
World War IWorld War I , also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All Wars, was a global military conflict which involved most of the world's great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances: the Triple Entente and the Triple Alliance...
, and the
United States NavyThe United States Navy is the sea branch of the U.S. Armed Forces. It is one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. As of 31 December 2008, the U.S. Navy had about 331,682 personnel on active duty and 124,000 in the Navy Reserve. It operates 283 ships in active service and more than...
.
While this debate focused largely on the controversial Mitchell, its early star was Foulois. Both returned from France with combat leadership experience in aviation, expecting to become the peacetime leaders of the Air Service. Instead, the
War DepartmentThe United States Department of War, also called the War Office, was the cabinet department originally responsible for the operation and maintenance of the US Army...
had appointed Maj.Gen. Charles Menoher, who had commanded the Rainbow Division in France, to be Director of the Air Service to replace Secretary Ryan, signalling to the nation and the airpower proponents its intent to keep the air arm under the direction of the ground forces.
In 1919, Mitchell proposed a Cabinet-level Department of Aviation equal to the War and Navy Departments to control all aviation, including sea-based air,
airmailAirmail is mail that is transported by aircraft. It typically arrives more quickly than surface mail, and usually costs more to send...
, and commercial operations. His goal was not only independent and centralized control of airpower, but also encouragement of the peacetime U.S. aviation industry. However, Mitchell insisted that the debate be both broad and civil. Foulois, however, complained bitterly to the
United States CongressThe United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States of America, consisting of two houses, the Senate and the House of Representatives. Both senators and representatives are chosen through direct election....
about the historical neglect and indifference of the Army to its air service. Although a bill actually was introduced in the U.S. Senate to create Mitchell's proposed department and initially garnered strong support, the opposition of the Army's wartime leaders (especially General Pershing) frustrated the effort at the start and resulted in the passage of the less radical though still significant National Defense Act of 1920.
Mitchell was not discouraged by the failure of his first proposal. He recognized the value of public opinion in the debate and changed tactics, embarking on a publicity campaign on behalf of military aviation. General Menoher, when he was unable to persuade the Secretary of War,
John WeeksJohn Wingate Weeks was an American politician in the Republican Party. He served as a United States Representative for Massachusetts from 1905 to 1913, as a United States Senator from 1913 to 1919, and as Secretary of War from 1921 to 1925.-Biography:Weeks was born and raised in Lancaster, New...
to silence Mitchell, resigned his position on October 4, 1921, and was replaced by Maj.Gen.
Mason PatrickMason Mathews Patrick was a U.S. Army general and air power advocate.Patrick was born in Lewisburg, West Virginia and graduated from West Point in 1886. For three years he was at the Engineer School of Application, Willets Point, New York, graduating in 1889...
. Although an engineer and not an aviator, Patrick had been Pershing's Chief of Air Service in France, where his primary duty had been to coordinate the activities of Foulois and Mitchell, then rivals. Patrick had also testified before Congress against Mitchell's plan for an independent air force.
Patrick was not hostile to aviation, however. He underwent flight training and obtained his wings, then issued a series of reports to the War Department emphasizing the need to expand and modernize the Air Service. Patrick was also critical of the policy that placed air units under the command of corps commanders and proposed that only observation squadrons should be part of the ground forces, with all combat forces centralized under the command of a "General Headquarters Air Force."
The response to the proposal was three boards and committees. The Secretary of War convened the Lassiter Board in 1923, composed of general staff officers who fully endorsed Patrick's views, and adopted the proposal as policy. However, he proposed that appropriations for the GHQ Air Force be merged with those for
Naval aviationNaval Aviation is the application of manned military air power by navies. Maritime Aviation is the operation of aircraft in a maritime role under the command of land based forces such as RAF Coastal Command or United States Coast Guard....
, which the Navy rejected, and the reorganization could not be implemented.
The U.S. House of Representatives then appointed the Lampert Committee in 1924 to investigate Patrick's criticisms. Mitchell testified before the committee and, upset by the failure of the War Department to even negotiate with the Navy in order to save the reforms of the Lassiter Board, harshly criticized Army leadership and attacked other witnesses. He had already antagonized the senior flag officers of both services with speeches and articles delivered in 1923 and 1924, and the Army refused to retain him as Assistant Chief of the Air Service when his term expired in March, 1925. He was reduced in rank to colonel by Secretary Weeks and exiled to the VIII Corps in San Antonio as air officer, where his continuing criticisms caused President Calvin Coolidge to order his
court-martialA court-martial is a military court. These military courts can determine punishments for members of the military subject to military law who are found guilty or may dismiss the charges based on the evidence and the case presented. Most militaries maintain a court-martial system to try cases in...
. Mitchell was convicted in December 1925 and, shortly after, the Lampert Committee issued a compromise recommendation that both military air arms be expanded.
The third board was the Morrow Board, convened by President Coolidge to make a general inquiry into U.S. aviation. Headed by an investment banker and personal friend of Coolidge's,
Dwight MorrowDwight Whitney Morrow was an American businessman, politician, and diplomat.-Life:Born in Huntington, West Virginia, he moved with his parents to Allegheny, Pennsylvania in 1875. After graduating from Amherst College in 1895, he studied law at Columbia Law School and began practicing at the law...
, the board was made up of a federal judge, the head of the
National Advisory Committee for AeronauticsThe National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics was a U.S. federal agency founded on March 3, 1915 to undertake, promote, and institutionalize aeronautical research. On October 1, 1958 the agency was dissolved, and its assets and personnel transferred to the newly created National Aeronautics and...
, former military officers now in industry, and the wartime head of the Board of Aircraft Production. The actual purpose of the Morrow Board was to minimize the political impact of the Mitchell trial, and Coolidge directed that it issue its findings by the end of November, to pre-empt the findings of not only the military court but also of the Lampert Committee that might be contrary to the Morrow Board. The major result of the Morrow Board was to maintain the status quo, but it also made the recommendation, adopted in 1926, that the Air Service be abolished and replaced by an Air Corps equal within the Army to the
Signal CorpsThe Signal Corps is a military branch, usually subordinate to a country's army, responsible for the military communications .Many countries have a Signal Corps, whose main function is usually communication .* Signal Corps , founded in 1860 by Major Albert J...
, but without the autonomy of the
Marine CorpsMarines are military forces optimised for operations at sea. Historically the marine forces or marine corps are infantry forces that are part of the country's navy...
within the Navy Department, and thus still relegated as a support arm to the infantry.
Advances in aviation
To positively influence U.S. public opinion and thereby enlist political support in Congress in his crusade for an independent air force, General Mitchell conducted a publicity campaign on behalf of airpower. While using public pronouncements for propaganda purposes, Mitchell also fostered within the Air Service advances in aeronautical science that would not only increase its effectiveness as a military service, but would also generate public support.
His first project, undertaken at McCook Field, in Dayton, Ohio, was for the creation of a heavily armored attack plane for supporting ground forces. Although the designs that resulted were not practical and did not meet Mitchell's specifications for aircraft that could land troops behind enemy lines, the project led Mitchell to closely supervise aircraft development, not only at McCook but in Europe as well. On October 30, 1919, the McCook Field engineers tested the first reversible-pitch propeller.
This effort resulted in the development of a
monoplaneA monoplane is an aircraft with one main set of wing surfaces, in contrast to a biplane or triplane. Since the late 1930s it has been the most common form for a fixed wing aircraft.-Types of monoplane:...
with retractable
landing gearLanding Gear is Devin the Dude's fifth studio album. It was released on October 7 2008. It will be his first studio album since signing with the label Razor & Tie. It features a high-profile guest appearance from Snoop Dogg. As of October 30, 2008, the album has sold 18,906 copies.-Track...
, a metal
propellerA propeller is a type of fan which transmits power by converting rotational motion into thrust. A pressure difference is produced between the forward and rear surfaces of the airfoil-shaped blade, and air or water is accelerated behind the blade...
, and a streamlined engine design, the Verville R-3 Racer. Economy measures by the Air Service prevented the project from being fully completed, but contributed to a growing determination within the Air Service to set new aviation records for speed,
altitudeAltitude is defined based on the context in which it is used . As a general definition, altitude is a distance measurement, usually in the vertical or "up" direction, between a reference datum and a point or object...
, distance, and endurance, which in turn contributed not only to technical improvements (and favorable publicity) but also advancements in
aviation medicineAviation medicine, also called flight medicine or aerospace medicine, is a branch of preventive or occupational medicine in which the patients/subjects are pilots and aircrews...
.
Air Service pilots established world records in altitude, distance, and speed. Speed in particular attracted public attention and, although a number of speed records were set in cross-country flying, records were also set on measured courses. Mitchell himself set a world speed record of 222.97 mph over a closed course in a Curtiss R-6 racer on October 18, 1922, at the Pulitzer Trophy competition of the 1922 National Air Races. A later world speed record of 232 mph was made by 1st Lt. James H. Doolittle in winning the
Schneider TrophyThe Coupe d'Aviation Maritime Jacques Schneider was a prize competition for seaplanes.-Creation:...
race at the 1925 Races.
The practical and military applications of speed were not ignored, however. On September 4, 1922, Doolittle had made the first transcontinental crossing in one day, flying from Florida to California in 21 hours, 20 minutes, a distance of 2,163 miles. Mitchell concluded that accomplishing the same feat by "daylight only" had tremendous value, and staged a dawn-to-dusk transcontinental flight across the United States in the summer of 1924 in a Curtiss PW-8 fighter acquired for the purpose.
Despite the emphasis in the press on speed, the Air Service also established a number of altitude, distance, and endurance records. On February 27, 1920, Maj. R. W. Schroeder set a world altitude record of 33,114 feet in the Packard-LePere LUSAC-11 biplane over McCook Field. The first nonstop flight across the United States, made in 26 hours and 50 minutes at an average speed of 98.76 mph, was made May 2-May 3, 1923, from Roosevelt Field,
New YorkNew York is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions of the United States and is the nation's third most populous. The state is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south, and Connecticut, Massachusetts and Vermont to the east...
to
Rockwell FieldRockwell Field, located on Naval Air Station North Island in San Diego, California, was originally called the Signal Corps Aviation School. It was the first U.S. Army school to provide flying training for military pilots, and North Island was the school's first permanent location...
, California, in a
FokkerFokker was a Dutch aircraft manufacturer named after its founder, Anthony Fokker. The company operated under several different names, starting out in 1912 in Schwerin, Germany, moving to the Netherlands in 1919. During its most successful period in the 1920s and 1930s, it dominated the civil...
T-2 (a converted F.IV airliner) by two Air Service pilots, Lt. Oakley G. Kelly and Lt. John A. Macready. The feat was followed in August by a flight in which a DeHavilland DH-4 stayed aloft for more than 37 hours by means of
aerial refuelingAerial refueling, also called air refueling, in-flight refueling , air-to-air refueling or tanking, is the process of transferring fuel from one aircraft to another during flight. Applied to helicopters, it is known as HAR for Helicopter Aerial Refueling...
. The Fokker T.2 is on display at the
National Air and Space MuseumThe National Air and Space Museum of the Smithsonian Institution is a museum in Washington, D.C., United States, and is the most popular of the Smithsonian museums. It maintains the largest collection of aircraft and spacecraft in the world...
in
Washington, D.C.Washington, D.C. , formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D.C., is the capital of the United States, founded on July 16, 1790...
The greatest achievement of these projects, however, was the first
flight around the worldThe first aerial circumnavigation of the world was conducted in 1924 by a team of aviators of the Army Air Service, the precursor of the United States Air Force...
. The Air Service set up support facilities along the proposed route and in April 1924 sent a flight of four aircraft west from Seattle,
WashingtonWashington is a state in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. Washington was carved out of the western part of Washington Territory which had been ceded by Britain in 1846 by the Oregon Treaty as settlement of the Oregon Boundary Dispute. It was admitted to the Union as the...
. Six months later, two aircraft completed the flight. Even if considered as primarily a
publicity stuntA publicity stunt is a planned event designed to attract the public's attention to the event's organizers or their cause. Publicity stunts can be professionally organized or set up by amateurs...
, the flight was a brilliant accomplishment in which five nations had already failed.
Kelly and Macready, Doolittle, and the crews of the circumnavigation flight all won the
Mackay TrophyThe Mackay Trophy was donated in 1911 by Clarence H. Mackay who was then head of the Postal Telegraph-Cable Company and the Commercial Cable Company. The award is administered by the United States National Aeronautic Association and is awarded yearly by the United States Air Force for the "most...
for the respective years in which they accomplished their feats.
Notable members of the Air Service
- Henry H. Arnold
General of the Army Henry Harley "Hap" Arnold was a five-star general officer holding the grades of General of the Army and later General of the Air Force. He is the only officer to ever hold a five-star grade in two different U.S. military services...
, aviation pioneer; Commanding General of the United States Army Air ForcesThe United States Army Air Forces was the military aviation arm of the United States of America during and immediately after World War II. It was a component of the United States Army, divided functionally by executive order in 1942 into three autonomous forces: the Army Ground Forces, the...
- Hobey Baker
Hobart Amory Hare Baker , known as Hobey Baker, was a noted American amateur athlete of the early 20th century. He was the only member of both the College Football Hall of Fame and Hockey Hall of Fame, and U.S...
, star athlete at Princeton UniversityPrinceton University a private university located in Princeton, New Jersey, United States. The school is one of the eight universities of the Ivy League and is considered one of the Colonial Colleges....
- Hiram Bingham III
Hiram Bingham, formally Hiram Bingham III, was an American academic, explorer and politician. He rediscovered the Inca settlement of Machu Picchu in 1911...
, United States Senator from Connecticut
- Clayton Bissell
Major General Clayton Lawrence Bissell was born in Kane, Pennsylvania, in 1896. He graduated from Valparaiso University, Indiana, in 1917 with a degree of doctor of laws...
, World War I ace, commander of Tenth Air ForceTenth Air Force is a Numbered Air Force headquartered at Naval Air Station Joint Reserve Base Fort Worth, Texas. The command is one of three numbered air forces in Air Force Reserve Command, and is responsible for command supervision of fighter, bomber, rescue, airborne warning and control,...
during World War II
- Erwin R. Bleckley
Erwin Russell Bleckley was a United States Army Air Service aviator during World War I, and posthumous recipient of the Medal of Honor, killed in action on October 6, 1918. Beckley entered service as a member of the Kansas National Guard, was commissioned as an artillery officer, then volunteered...
, artillery officer assigned to the Air Service and Medal of HonorThe Medal of Honor is the highest military decoration awarded by the United States government. It is bestowed on a member of the United States armed forces who distinguishes themselves "conspicuously by gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty while...
recipient
- Raynal Bolling
Colonel Raynal Cawthorne Bolling was the first high-ranking U.S. officer to be killed in combat in World War I. He laid the foundation for the United States Army Air Service in the American Expeditionary Force...
, executive of US Steel; first high-ranking casualty of World War I
- Leighton Brewer, poet and professor of English at Boston University
Boston University is a private nonsectarian university located in Boston, Massachusetts, United States. Although chartered by the Massachusetts Legislature in 1869, Boston University traces its roots to the establishment of the Newbury Biblical Institute in Newbury, Vermont in 1839...
- Arthur Raymond Brooks
Arthur Raymond Brooks was a World War I flying ace of the United States Army Air Service credited with shooting down six enemy aircraft. He was a pioneer in the development of radio navigational aids used by pilots for location and navigation as well as air-to-ground communications...
, World War I ace
- Douglas Campbell
Douglas Campbell was an American aviator and World War I flying ace. He was the first American aviator flying in an American unit to achieve the status of ace.-Early life:...
, first American ace
- Merian C. Cooper
Merian Caldwell Cooper was an American aviator, United States Air Force and Polish Air Force officer, adventurer, director, screenwriter and producer.Cooper's most famous film work was the 1933 movie King Kong.Cooper was the father of Polish translator and writer...
, adventurer and Hollywood film producer
- Jimmy Doolittle
General James Harold "Jimmy" Doolittle, USAF was an American aviation pioneer. Doolittle served as a brigadier general, major general and lieutenant general in the United States Army Air Forces during the Second World War...
, daredevil pilot, aeronautical engineer, World War II general
- Ira Eaker, commander of U.S. Eighth Air Force
The Eighth Air Force is a Numbered Air Force of the United States Air Force Air Force Global Strike Command. It is headquartered at Barksdale Air Force Base, Louisiana, and is one of three active-duty numbered air forces in Air Combat Command....
during World War II
- Benjamin Delahauf Foulois, aviation pioneer
- Harold Ernest Goettler
Harold Ernest Goettler was a U.S. Army Air Service aviator killed in action on October 6, 1918 while locating the Lost Battalion of the 77th Division during World War I. He died of wounds resulting from German fire from the ground during the flight...
, Medal of HonorThe Medal of Honor is the highest military decoration awarded by the United States government. It is bestowed on a member of the United States armed forces who distinguishes themselves "conspicuously by gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty while...
recipient
- Edgar S. Gorrell, Air Service historian and later president of Stutz Motor Company
The Stutz Motor Company was a producer of luxury cars. Production began in 1911 and continued through 1935. The marque reappeared in 1968 under the aegis of Stutz Motor Car of America, Inc., and with a newly defined modern retro-look. Although the company is still active today, actual sales of...
- James Norman Hall
James Norman Hall was an American author best known for the novel Mutiny on the Bounty.-Biography:He was born in Colfax, Iowa, where he attended the local school...
, author
- Charles W. "Chic" Harley
Charles Wesley "Chic" Harley was one of the outstanding American football players of the first half of the 20th century and the player who first brought the Ohio State University football program to national attention. Harley was Ohio State's first consensus first-team All-America selection and...
, All-American college football player
- Arthur Harvey
Major Arthur Harvey was born in Edom, Van Zandt County, Texas, on September 26, 1895. He was a writer, businessman, oil pioneer, family man and a veteran of both World War I and II.-Early life:...
, oil pioneer, author
- Howard Hawks
Howard Winchester Hawks was an influential American film director, producer and screenwriter of the classic Hollywood era...
, film director
- Field Kindley, World War I ace
- Fiorello LaGuardia, U.S. Representative
The United States House of Representatives, commonly referred to as the "House," is the lower house of the bicameral United States Congress, the upper house being the United States Senate. The composition and powers of the House and the Senate are established in Article One of the Constitution...
and Mayor of New York
- Charles Lindbergh
Charles Augustus Lindbergh was an American aviator, author, inventor and explorer.On May 20–21, 1927, Lindbergh, then a 25-year old U.S...
, aviation pioneer; first solo pilot to fly the Atlantic non-stop
- Raoul Lufbery
Gervais Raoul Lufbery was aFrench-American fighter pilot and flying ace in World War I. Because he served in both the French and later the United States Army Air Service in World War I, he is sometimes listed as a French ace and sometimes as an American ace, though all but one of his 17 combat...
, member of Lafayette EscadrilleThe Lafayette Escadrille , was a squadron of the French Air Service, the Aéronautique militaire, during World War I composed largely of American volunteer pilots flying fighters....
and air tactics pioneer
- Frank Luke
Frank Luke Jr. was an American fighter ace, ranking second among U.S. Air Service pilots to Eddie Rickenbacker in number of aerial victories during World War I. Frank Luke was the first airman to receive the Medal of Honor. Luke Air Force Base, a training site for Air Force aviators since WWII,...
, ace and Medal of HonorThe Medal of Honor is the highest military decoration awarded by the United States government. It is bestowed on a member of the United States armed forces who distinguishes themselves "conspicuously by gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty while...
recipient
- Thomas DeWitt Milling, aviation pioneer and first certified U.S. military pilot
- John Purroy Mitchel
John Purroy Mitchel was the mayor of New York from 1914 to 1917, and at age 34 the youngest ever; he was sometimes referred to as "The Boy Mayor of New York"...
, advocate of universal military training and youngest mayor of New York CityNew York is the most populous city in the United States, and the center of the New York metropolitan area, which is among the most populous urban areas in the world. A leading global city, New York exerts a powerful influence over worldwide commerce, finance, culture, fashion and entertainment...
- Billy Mitchell
William Lendrum "Billy" Mitchell was an American Army general who is regarded as the father of the U.S. Air Force...
, airpower visionary
- Charles Nordhoff
Charles Bernard Nordhoff was an English-born American novelist and traveler.-Early life:Charles Nordhoff was born in London, England, to American parents. His father was Walter Nordhoff, a wealthy businessman and author of The Journey of the Flame penned under the name "Antonio de Fierro Blanco"...
, co-author of Mutiny on the BountyThe mutiny on the Bounty occurred aboard a British Royal Navy ship on 28 April 1789, and has been commemorated by several books, films, and popular songs, many of which take considerable liberties with the facts. The mutiny was led by Fletcher Christian against the commanding officer, William Bligh...
- Eddie Rickenbacker
Edward Vernon Rickenbacker was an American fighter ace in World War I and Medal of Honor recipient. He was also a race car driver and automotive designer, a government consultant in military matters and a pioneer in air transportation, particularly as the longtime head of Eastern Air Lines.-Early...
, highest ranking U.S. ace of World War I and Medal of HonorThe Medal of Honor is the highest military decoration awarded by the United States government. It is bestowed on a member of the United States armed forces who distinguishes themselves "conspicuously by gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty while...
recipient
- Quentin Roosevelt
Quentin Roosevelt was the youngest and favorite son of President Theodore Roosevelt. Family and friends agreed that Quentin had many of his father's positive qualities and few of the negative ones. Encouraged by his father, he joined the United States Army Air Service where he became a fighter...
, youngest son of President Theodore RooseveltTheodore Roosevelt was the 26th President of the United States. He is well remembered for his energetic persona, his range of interests and achievements, his model of masculinity, and his "cowboy" image. He was a leader of the Republican Party and founder of the short-lived Bull Moose Party...
- John Monk Saunders
John Monk Saunders was an American novelist, screenwriter and movie director, born in Hinckley, Minnesota on 22 November 1897. He served in the Air Service during World War I as a flight instructor in Florida, but was never able to secure a posting to France, a disappointment that frustrated him...
, author and screenwriter of Academy Award-winning films WingsWings is a silent movie about World War I fighter pilots, directed by William A. Wellman and released by Paramount Pictures. It was the first film to win the Academy Award for Best Picture and the only silent film ever to win Best Picture. Wings stars Clara Bow, Charles "Buddy" Rogers and Richard...
and The Dawn Patrol
- Carl Andrew Spaatz, first Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force
The Chief of Staff of the Air Force is the senior uniformed officer in United States Air Force and is a member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The CSAF heads the Air Staff and reports directly to the Secretary of the Air Force on matters of the Air Force...
- Stephen W. Thompson
Stephen W. Thompson was an American aviator of World War I, and the first person in the U.S. Military to shoot down an enemy aircraft .-Early life:...
, First Aerial Victory by the U. S. military
- George Augustus Vaughn, Jr.
George Augustus Vaughn, Jr. was an American fighter ace in World War I and Distinguished Service Cross, Britain's Distinguished Flying Cross, and Silver Star recipient....
World War I Ace
- Alfred V. Verville
Alfred Victor Verville was an aviation pioneer and designer who contributed to civilian and military aviation. During his 47 years in the aviation industry, he led the design and developed nearly a dozen commercial and military airplanes...
, aircraft designer (Verville-Sperry R-3 Racer and M-1 MessengerThe Sperry Messenger was a American single-seat biplane designed by Alfred V. Verville working for the Engineering Division of the United States Army Air Service and built under contract by Sperry Aircraft Company of Farmingdale, New York. The aircraft was later designated the M-1 and MAT by the...
currently displayed in the National Air and Space MuseumThe National Air and Space Museum of the Smithsonian Institution is a museum in Washington, D.C., United States, and is the most popular of the Smithsonian museums. It maintains the largest collection of aircraft and spacecraft in the world...
)
- William Wellman, Hollywood film director
A film director, or filmmaker is a person who directs the making or production of a film. Some also consider a film producer to be a filmmaker....
- Charles A. Willoughby, World War II general in the United States Army
The United States Army is the branch of the United States Military responsible for land-based military operations. It is the largest and oldest established branch of the U.S. military and is one of seven uniformed services...
- John Gilbert Winant
John Gilbert Winant was an American teacher and Republican politician from Concord, New Hampshire. Born in New York City, Winant held positions in New Hampshire, national, and international politics...
, educator, governor of New HampshireThe Governor of the State of New Hampshire is the supreme executive magistrate of the U.S. state of New Hampshire.The governor is elected at the biennial state general election in November of even-numbered years. New Hampshire is one of only two states, along with bordering Vermont, to hold...
, and ambassador to BritainThe office of United States Ambassador to the United Kingdom was traditionally, and still is very much so today due to the Special Relationship, the most prestigious position in the United States Foreign Service...
during World War II
External links
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