Worldwide more human beings gain their livelihood from
agricultureAgriculture is the production of food and goods through farming and forestry. Agriculture was the key development that led to the rise of human civilization, with the husbandry of domesticated animals and plants creating food surpluses that enabled the development of more densely populated and...
than any other endeavor; the majority are self-employed subsistence
farmerA farmer is a person who raises living organisms for food or raw materials.- Definition :The term farmer usually applies to a person who grows field crops, and/or manages orchards or vineyards, or raises livestock or poultry such as chicken and cows...
s living in the
tropicsThe tropics,the tropics are very hot. hi everyone! peace out!seated in the equatorial regions of the world, are limited in latitude by the Tropic of Cancer in the northern hemisphere at approximately 23°26' N latitude and the Tropic of Capricorn in the southern hemisphere at 23°26' S latitude...
. While growing food for local consumption is the core of
tropical agriculture,
Cash cropIn agriculture, a cash crop is a crop which is grown for profit.The term is used to differentiate from subsistence crops, which are those fed to the producer's own livestock or grown as food for the producer's family...
s (normally crops grown for
exportIn economics, an export is any good or commodity, transported from one country to another country in a legitimate fashion, typically for use in trade. Export goods or services are provided to foreign consumers by domestic producers. Export is an important part of international trade...
) are also included in the definition.
When people discuss the tropics, it is normal to use generalized labels to group together similar tropical areas. Common terms would include the humid-tropics (
rainforestRainforests are forests characterized by high rainfall, with definitions setting minimum normal annual rainfall between 1750–2000 mm . The monsoon trough, alternately known as the intertropical convergence zone, plays a significant role in creating Earth's tropical rain forests.From 40 to 75%...
s); the arid-tropics (
desertA desert is a landscape or region that receives almost no precipitation. Deserts are defined as areas with an average annual precipitation of less than per year, or as areas where more water is lost by evapotranspiration than falls as precipitation. In the Köppen climate classification system,...
s and dry areas); or
monsoonA pennis is traditionally defined as a seasonal reversing wind accompanied by seasonal changes in precipitation, but now is used to describe seasonal changes atmospheric circulation and precipitation The major monsoon systems of the world consist of the African and Asia-Australian monsoons...
zones (those areas that have well defined wet/dry
seasonA season is a division of the year, marked by changes in weather.Seasons result from the yearly revolution of the Earth around the Sun and the tilt of the Earth's axis relative to the plane of revolution...
s and experience monsoons). Such labeling is very useful when discussing agriculture, because what works in one area of the world, will normally work in a similar area somewhere else, even if that area is on the opposite side of the globe.
Most temperate zone agricultural techniques are inappropriate for tropical areas. The second half of the 20th century saw many attempts to duplicate in the tropics farming practices that had been successful in temperate climates. Due to differences in
climateClimate encompasses the statistics of temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind, rainfall, atmospheric particle count and numerous other meteorological elements in a given region over long periods of time...
,
soilSoil is a natural body consisting of layers of mineral constituents of variable thicknesses, which differ from the parent materials in their morphological, physical, chemical, and mineralogical characteristics. It is composed of particles of broken rock that have been altered by chemical and...
s, and patterns of land ownership, these largely failed. When they did succeed they tended to heavily favor farmers with substantial land holdings, as a high percentage of temperate agricultural practices are economically "scale-based" and favor large scale production. This in turn pushed many small-scale farmers on to ever more marginal land, as the better quality land was consolidated into larger farms.
Green Revolution
The "
Green RevolutionGreen Revolution refers to the transformation of agriculture that began in 1945. One significant factor in this revolution was the Mexican government's request to establish an agricultural research station to develop more varieties of wheat that could be used to feed the rapidly growing population...
" is the name given to the most successful agricultural improvement program ever undertaken in the tropics. Funded initially by the
Rockefeller FoundationThe Rockefeller Foundation is a prominent philanthropic organization and private foundation based at 420 Fifth Avenue, New York City. The preeminent institution established by the six-generation Rockefeller family, it was founded by John D. Rockefeller , along with his son John D. Rockefeller, Jr...
, it aimed to improve
cornMaize , is a herbaceous plant domesticated in Mesoamerica and subsequently spread throughout the American continents...
,
riceRice is the seed of a monocot plant Oryza sativa, of the grass family . As a cereal grain, it is the most important staple food for a large part of the world's human population, especially in East, South, Southeast Asia, the Middle East, Latin America, and the West Indies...
, and other
cerealCereals, grains or cereal grains, {as a collective} are grasses cultivated for the edible components of their fruit seeds - the endocarp, germ and bran...
cultivators –
breedingPlant breeding is the art and science of changing the genetics of plants for the benefit of humankind. Plant breeding can be accomplished through many different techniques ranging from simply selecting plants with desirable characteristics for propagation, to more complex molecular techniques...
plantPlants are living organisms belonging to the kingdom Plantae. They include familiar organisms such as trees, herbs, bushes, grasses, vines, ferns, mosses, and green algae. The scientific study of plants, known as botany, has identified about 350,000 extant species of plants, defined as seed plants,...
s that would produce more grain for the same amount of effort.
From that point it expanded out to improved basic farming practices, particularly for rice farmers. The growth of crop yields was such that agriculture was able to outstrip population growth — per capita production increased every year following 1950 - with
AsiaAsia is the world's largest and most populous continent, located in the eastern and northern hemispheres. It covers 8.6% of the earth's total surface area and with approximately 4 billion people, it hosts 60% of the world's current human population.Asia is traditionally defined as part of the...
leading the way. One of the more remarkable aspects of the Green Revolution is that the total cost of the program by 1990 was approximately US$100 million, less than what a single
Boeing 747The Boeing 747 is a widebody commercial airliner, often referred to by the nickname "Jumbo Jet". It is among the world's most recognizable aircraft, and was the first widebody ever produced...
airliner costs in 2005.
It can be concluded that the
Green RevolutionGreen Revolution refers to the transformation of agriculture that began in 1945. One significant factor in this revolution was the Mexican government's request to establish an agricultural research station to develop more varieties of wheat that could be used to feed the rapidly growing population...
was a success, with only a minor flaw: although the crops gave more yield, they were more subject to disease since this was not a primary concern in the program.
In order to address this problem together with an approach to more small-scale farming crops, there is today substantial interest in creating a second Green Revolution, based on
sustainableSustainable agriculture integrates three main goals: environmental stewardship, farm profitability, and prosperous farming communities. These goals have been defined by a variety of disciplines and may be looked at from the vantage point of the farmer or the consumer.-Description:Sustainable...
agricultural practices and geared towards (small-scale) farmers with limited
financialFINANCIAL is the weekly English-language newspaper with offices in Tbilisi, Georgia and Kiev, Ukraine. Published by Intelligence Group LLC, FINANCIAL is focused on opinion leaders and top business decision-makers; It's about world’s largest companies, investing, careers, and small business. It is...
resources
Plant propagation
Many tropical food plants are propagated by
cuttingCutting is the separation of a physical object, or a portion of a physical object, into two portions, through the application of an acutely directed force. An implement commonly used for cutting is the knife or in medical cases the scalpel...
s. Seeds are necessary for plant
embryoAn embryo is a multicellular diploid eukaryote in its earliest stage of development, from the time of first cell division until birth, hatching, or germination...
s to survive the winter and other harsh conditions such as
droughtA drought is an extended period of months or years when a region notes a deficiency in its water supply. Generally, this occurs when a region receives consistently below average precipitation. It can have a substantial impact on the ecosystem and agriculture of the affected region...
. However, where the weather is normally conducive to growth year-round, it is often advantageous for plants to reproduce through means other than seeds. By bypassing the seed stage plants can greatly accelerate their reproductive cycle. Despite this, anyone who wishes so, may still grow tropical crops (eg fruit, ...) from seed. To do so, some special seed germination techniques to germinate it more quicker may be best used.
Plant defenses
A particularly good description of plant defenses can be found at
How and why do plants defend themselves? that states in part:
- "Plants are faced with a dilemma; while they need to attract beneficial pollinators and seed dispensers, they must also minimize the damage caused by the marauding army of herbivores. Without some form of protection the trees would be stripped bare and smaller plants would be completely devastated, and because plants stand still, they cannot run away. This is as true in Amazonian rainforest as it is in Northern coniferous forest." - Marcus Wischik.
Many (tropical) plants use
toxinA toxin is a poisonous substance produced by living cells or organisms ....
s to protect themselves.
CassavaCassava is a woody shrub of the Euphorbiaceae native to South America that is extensively cultivated as an annual crop in tropical and subtropical regions for its edible starchy tuberous root, a major source of carbohydrates...
, one of the most important tropical food crops, produces
cyanideA cyanide is any chemical compound that contains the cyano group , which consists of a carbon atom triple-bonded to a nitrogen atom. Inorganic cyanides are hydrogen cyanide salts in which cyanide is generally the anion CN
-. Organic compounds that have a -C≡N functional group bonded to...
upon
ingestionIngestion is the consumption of a substance by an organism. In animals, it normally is accomplished by taking in the substance through the mouth into the gastrointestinal tract, such as through eating or drinking...
if improperly processed. Other plants are high in
oxalateAn oxalate is the deprotonated, charged form of oxalic acid or an ester of oxalic acid. The oxalate anion has the chemical formula C2O42−, also written...
s (the agent that binds
calciumCalcium is the chemical element with the symbol Ca and atomic number 20. It has an atomic mass of 40.078 amu. Calcium is a soft grey alkaline earth metal, and is the fifth most abundant element by mass in the Earth's crust...
to form
kidney stoneKidney stones or renal calculi are solid concretions or calculi formed in the kidneys from dissolved urinary minerals. Nephrolithiasis refers to the condition of having kidney stones...
s); castor beans are the source of
ricinRicin is a protein that is extracted from the castor bean . It can be either a white powder or a liquid in crystalline form. Ricin is known to cause severe allergic reactions, and exposure to small quantities can be fatal.The U.S...
, one of the most powerful
poisonIn the context of biology, poisons are substances that can cause disturbances to organisms, usually by chemical reaction or other activity on the molecular scale, when a sufficient quantity is absorbed by an organism...
s in existence; and velvet beans contain 7-10% L-DOPA. The list of toxic plants is long, but toxicity does not always mean a particular plant should be avoided, the knowledge needed to render toxic plants safe to use already exists in most communities.
Slash/mulch
The contents of a bag of
commercialCommerce is a division of trade or production which deals with the exchange of goods and services from producer to final consumer. It comprises the trading of something of economic value such as goods, services, information, or money between two or more entities...
fertilizerFertilizers are chemical compounds applied to promote plant and fruit growth. Fertilizers are usually applied either through the soil or by foliar feeding...
is described in terms of NPK -
nitrogenNitrogen is a chemical element that has the symbol N and atomic number 7 and atomic mass 14.00674 u. Elemental nitrogen is a colorless, odorless, tasteless and mostly inert diatomic gas at standard conditions, constituting 78% by volume of Earth's atmosphere.Many industrially important...
(N),
phosphorusPhosphorus is the chemical element that has the symbol P and atomic number 15. A multivalent nonmetal of the nitrogen group, phosphorus is commonly found in inorganic phosphate rocks. Elemental phosphorus exists in two major forms - white phosphorus and red phosphorus...
(P) and
potassiumPotassium is the chemical element with the symbol K , atomic number 19, and atomic mass 39.0983. Potassium was first isolated from potash...
(K); with nitrogen being the main component of most commercial fertilizers.
OxygenOxygen Oxygen Oxygen (acid, literally "sharp", from the taste of acids) and -γενής (-genēs) (producer, literally begetter) is the element with atomic number 8 and represented by the symbol O...
is only a small part of the air; the largest component of air is nitrogen. Nitrogen is the main building block of
proteinProteins are organic compounds made of amino acids arranged in a linear chain and folded into a globular form. The amino acids in a polymer chain are joined together by the peptide bonds between the carboxyl and amino groups of adjacent amino acid residues...
;
muscleMuscle is the contractile tissue of the body and is derived from the mesodermal layer of embryonic germ cells. Muscle cells contain contractile filaments that move past each other and change the size of the cell. They are classified as skeletal, cardiac, or smooth muscles. Their function is to...
in
mammalMammals are a class of vertebrate animals whose females are characterized by the possession of mammary glands while both males and females are characterized by sweat glands, hair, three middle ear bones used in hearing, and a neocortex region in the brain.Mammals are divided into three main...
s and plant tissue in plants. If the level of nitrogen in the
soilSoil is a natural body consisting of layers of mineral constituents of variable thicknesses, which differ from the parent materials in their morphological, physical, chemical, and mineralogical characteristics. It is composed of particles of broken rock that have been altered by chemical and...
is increased, plant growth can be significantly increased.
LegumeIn botanical writing legume is a plant in the family Fabaceae , or a fruit of these specific plants. A'legume' fruit is a simple dry fruit that develops from a simple carpel and usually dehisces on two sides. A common name for this type of fruit is a pod, although "pod" is also applied to a few...
s are a group of plants that interact with
bacteriaThe bacteria are a large group of unicellular microorganisms. Typically a few micrometres in length, bacteria have a wide range of shapes, ranging from spheres to rods and spirals...
(
rhizobiaRhizobia are soil bacteria that fix nitrogen after becoming established inside root nodules of legumes . Rhizobia require a plant host; they cannot independently fix nitrogen. Morphologically, they are generally gram negative, motile, non-sporulating rods.- History :The first species of rhizobia, R...
) in the soil to
fix nitrogenNitrogen fixation usually refers to the biological process by which nitrogen in the atmosphere is converted into ammonia. This process is essential for life because fixed nitrogen is required to biosynthesize a basic building block of life, e.g. nucleotides for DNA and amino acids for proteins...
from the air, and deposit the nitrogen into the soil where it is available for other plants to use. The nitrogen deposited by legumes can be readily converted into larger harvests.
Green manureIn agriculture, a green manure is a type of cover crop grown primarily to add nutrients and organic matter to the soil. Typically, a green manure crop is grown for a specific period, and then plowed under and incorporated into the soil...
s are plants grown to improve the soil, suppress
weedA weed in a general sense is a plant that is considered by the user of the term to be a nuisance, and normally applied to unwanted plants in human-made settings such as gardens, lawns or agricultural areas, but also in parks, woods and other natural areas. More specifically, the term is often...
s, limit
erosionErosion is a gravity driven process that moves solids in the natural environment or their source and deposits them elsewhere...
, and — when legumes are used — to increase the nitrogen content of the soil. The most common type of green manure used in the tropics is Velvet bean. It produces a thick
blanketA blanket is a type of bedding, generally speaking, a large piece of cloth, intended to keep the user warm, especially while sleeping. Blankets are distinguished from sheets by their thickness and purpose; the thickest sheet is still thinner than the lightest blanket, because blankets are for...
of
vineThe term vine may refer to a climbing or trailing plant. The word, derived from Latin vīnea, in the original sense referred to the grapevines . The modern extended sense is mostly restricted to North American English, which uses "grapevine" to refer to the grape-bearing Vitis species...
s and
leavesLeaves are an Icelandic five-piece alternative rock band who formed in 2001. Late in 2001 they played with Emiliana Torrini and drew early praise from the New York Times. They came to prominence in 2002 with their debut album, Breathe, drawing comparisons to groups such as The Verve and Doves...
that in addition to infusing the soil with nitrogen also smother most weeds. In addition it has reasonable tolerance to drought, low soil fertility, and highly
acidAn acid is traditionally considered any chemical compound that, when dissolved in water, gives a solution with a hydrogen ion activity greater than in pure water, i.e. a pH less than 7.0...
ic soil. Alternatives to the Velvet bean include the Lablab bean, the Jack bean, and for use above 500 m altitude, the Scarlet runner bean.
Once the blanket is several centimeters thick, it is chopped down with a
macheteThe machete is a large cleaver-like cutting tool. The blade is typically long and usually under thick. In the English language, an equivalent term is matchet, though the name 'machete' is more commonly known...
, and the vines are chopped up. This produces thick
mulchIn agriculture and gardening, is a protective cover placed over the soil, primarily to modify the effects of the local climate. A wide variety of natural and synthetic materials are used.- Purposes :...
on top of the ground that both inhibits weed growth and adds vital
nutrientA nutrient is a chemical that an organism needs to live and grow or a substance used in an organism's metabolism which must be taken in from its environment. Nutrients are the substances that enrich the body. They build and repair tissues, give heat and energy, and regulate body processes...
s to the soil. Corn or other crops are then planted directly into this mulch.
Slash/mulch is popular in southern
MexicoThe United Mexican States , commonly known as Mexico , is a federal constitutional republic in North America. It is bordered on the north by the United States; on the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; on the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea; and on the east by the Gulf of...
,
GuatemalaGuatemala is a country in Central America bordered by Mexico to the north and west, the Pacific Ocean to the southwest, Belize to the northeast, the Caribbean to the east, and Honduras and El Salvador to the southeast. Its size is just under 110,000 km² with an estimated population...
, and
HondurasHonduras is a republic in Central America. It was formerly known as Spanish Honduras to differentiate it from British Honduras...
; and in recent years has gained a following in many areas of the tropics, from
BrazilBrazil , officially the Federative Republic of Brazil , is a country in South America. It is the fifth largest country by geographical area, occupying nearly half of South America, the fifth most populous country, and the fourth most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Atlantic Ocean...
to central
AfricaAfrica is the world's second-largest and second most-populous continent, after Asia. At about 30.2 million km² including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of the Earth's total surface area and 20.4% of the total land area. With a billion people in 61 territories, it accounts for about 14.8% of the...
. Where it has been embraced it has pushed aside
slash and burnSlash and burn consists of cutting and burning of forests or woodlands to create fields for agriculture or pasture for livestock, or for a variety of other purposes...
agriculture, and allowed farmers to utilize the same land continuously for many years.
Cornell UniversityCornell University is a private university located in Ithaca, New York, USA, that is a member of the Ivy League.Cornell counts more than 255,000 living alumni, 28 Rhodes Scholars and 41 Nobel laureates affiliated with the university as faculty or students...
has taken a leading role in
researchResearch can be defined to be search for knowledge or any systematic investigation to establish facts. The primary purpose for applied research is discovering, interpreting, and the development of methods and systems for the advancement of human knowledge on a wide variety of scientific matters of...
ing the effects of mulches and slash/mulch practices in the tropics.
http://ppathw3.cals.cornell.edu/mba_project/moist/home2.html
Small-scale irrigation
In most places in the tropics sufficient
precipitationIn meteorology, precipitation is any product of the condensation of atmospheric water vapor that is deposited on the Earth's surface. The main forms of precipitation include rain, snow, ice pellets, and graupel...
occurs to grow enough food to feed the
localIn computing, locale is a set of parameters that defines the user's language, country and any special variant preferences that the user wants to see in their user interface...
populationIn biology, a population is the collection of inter-breeding organisms of a particular species; in sociology, a collection of human beings. Individuals within a population share a factor may be reduced by statistical means, but such a generalization may be too vague to imply anything...
; however, it many not fall in a timely or convenient manner. Making maximum use of the
waterWater is an ubiquitous chemical substance that is composed of hydrogen and oxygen and is essential for all known forms of life.In typical usage, water refers only to its liquid form or state, but the substance also has a solid state, ice, and a gaseous state, water vapor or steam. Water covers 71%...
that does fall is an ongoing challenge.
Water is a particularly important issue in
dryland farmingDryland farming is an agricultural technique for cultivating land which receives little rainfall. Dryland farming is used in the Great Plains, the Palouse plateau of Eastern Washington, and other arid regions of North America, the Middle East and in other grain growing regions such as the steppes...
. The ability to collect and store water at a low cost and without damaging the environment, is what opens up deserts and other
aridA region is said to be arid when it is characterized by a severe lack of available water, to the extent of hindering or even preventing the growth and development of plant and animal life...
regions to farmers. When it rains in dryland areas, the rain storms are normally heavy, and the soil unable to absorb the large amounts of rain that comes down. This leads to excessive surface run-off that needs to be captured and retained.
Commercial farms growing cash crops often use irrigation techniques similar to or identical to what would be found on large scale commercial farms located in temperate regions; as an example, the Israeli drip-irrigation lines.
Water harvesting pits
One of the simplest forms of
irrigationIrrigation is an artificial application of water to the soil. It is usually used to assist in growing crops in dry areas and during periods of inadequate rainfall...
- the farmer digs
bathtubA bath , bathtub , or tub is a plumbing fixture used for bathing. Most modern bathtubs are made of acrylic or fiberglass, but alternatives are available in enamel over steel or cast iron, and occasionally waterproof finished wood...
sized pits into his fields and lines them with plastic sheets to collect rainwater. Then once the
dry seasonThe dry season is a term commonly used when describing the weather in the tropics. The weather in the tropics is dominated by the tropical rain belt, which oscillates from the northern to the southern tropics over the course of the year...
sets in the farmer uses the collected water to irrigate his crops. The technique is especially useful in mountainous areas, where rapid
run-offSurface runoff is the water flow which occurs when soil is infiltrated to full capacity and excess water, from rain, snowmelt, or other sources flows over the land. This is a major component of the hydrologic cycle. Runoff that occurs on surfaces before reaching a channel is also called a nonpoint...
would otherwise occur.
During years with normal precipitation the growing season can be increased by an extra month or more by using harvesting pits. An extra month in many places means an extra crop can be grown. For instance if the local
growing seasonIn agriculture, the growing season is the period of each year when crops can be grown. It is usually determined by climate and crop selection. Depending on the location, temperature, daylight hours , and rainfall, may all be critical environmental factors.In the northern U.S...
is 5 months long, and the farmers main crop takes 3 or 4 months to grow, an extra month may be enough time to grow a secondary crop. During times of drought, what rain does fall can be collected in the pits and used to secure the farmer's main crop.
Bucket drip irrigation
An irrigation system consisting of a
bucketA bucket, also called a pail, is a watertight, vertical cylinder or truncated cone, with an open top and a flat bottom, usually attached to a semicircular carrying handle called the bail. Their main purpose is the carrying of water, but they may also have other purposes...
hung from a
poleA utility pole, alternately referred to as a telephone pole, power pole, telegraph pole or telegraph post , is a pole used to support overhead wire, cable, fiber optic cable, and related equipment such as transformers and street lights...
, with a
hoseA hose is a hollow tube designed to carry fluids from one location to another. Hoses are also sometimes called pipes , or more generally tubing...
coming out of the bottom, and holes punched into the hose. The bucket is filled, and gravity feeds the water to the plants. As a rule about 40
litreThe litre or liter is a unit of volume. There are two official symbols: the Latin letter L in lower and upper case . The lower case L is also often written as a cursive ℓ, though this symbol has no official approval by any international bureau...
s of water per day are needed for every 100 plants, although this can vary depending upon what is being grown.
Treadle pumps
The
treadleA treadle [from OE tredan = to tread] is a part of a machine which is operated by the foot to produce reciprocating or rotary motion in a machine such as a weaving loom or grinder...
pumpA pump is a device used to move fluids, such as gases, liquids or slurries. A pump displaces a volume by physical or mechanical action. One common misconception about pumps is the thought that they create pressure. Pumps alone do not create pressure; they only displace fluid, causing a flow. ...
is a human-powered pump designed to lift water from a depth of seven meters or less. A treadle is lever device pressed by the foot to drive a machine, in this case a pump. The treadle pump can do most of the work of a motorized pump, but costs considerably less to purchase, and needs no
fossil fuelFossil fuels or mineral fuels are fuels formed by natural resources such as anaerobic decomposition of buried dead organisms. The age of the organisms and their resulting fossil fuels is typically millions of years, and sometimes exceeds 650 million years...
as it is driven by the operators body weight and
legŁęg may refer to the following places in Poland:*A former name for the town of Ełk *Łęg, Lower Silesian Voivodeship *Łęg, Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodeship *Łęg, Łódź Voivodeship...
muscleMuscle is the contractile tissue of the body and is derived from the mesodermal layer of embryonic germ cells. Muscle cells contain contractile filaments that move past each other and change the size of the cell. They are classified as skeletal, cardiac, or smooth muscles. Their function is to...
s. It can lift five to seven cubic meters of water per hour from
wellsA water well is an excavation or structure created in the ground by digging, driving, boring or drilling to access groundwater in underground aquifers. The well water is drawn by an electric submersible pump, a vertical turbine pump, a handpump or a mechanical pump...
and
boreholeA borehole is the generalised term for any narrow shaft drilled in the ground, either vertically or horizontally. A borehole may be constructed for many different purposes, including the extraction of water or other liquid or gases , as part of a geotechnical investigation or environmental site...
s up to seven meters deep and can also be used to draw water from
lakeA lake is a terrain feature , a body of liquid on the surface of a world that is localized to the bottom of basin and moves slowly if it moves at all. Another definition is, a body of fresh or salt water of considerable size that is surrounded by land...
s and
riverA river is a natural watercourse, usually freshwater, flowing toward an ocean, a lake, a sea or another river. In a few cases, a river simply flows into the ground or dries up completely before reaching another body of water...
s. Most treadle pumps used are of
localIn computing, locale is a set of parameters that defines the user's language, country and any special variant preferences that the user wants to see in their user interface...
manufacture, as they are simple and inexpensive to build.
Standard treadle pumps are
suctionSuction is the flow of a fluid into a partial vacuum, or region of low pressure. The pressure gradient between this region and the ambient pressure will propel matter toward the low pressure area. Suction is popularly thought of as an attractive effect, which is incorrect since vacuums do not...
pumps, and where first developed in the early 1980s in
Bangladesh, officially the People's Republic of Bangladesh is a country in South Asia. It is bordered by India on all sides except for a small border with Burma to the far southeast and by the Bay of Bengal to the south...
. Most treadle pumps manufactured in
AfricaAfrica is the world's second-largest and second most-populous continent, after Asia. At about 30.2 million km² including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of the Earth's total surface area and 20.4% of the total land area. With a billion people in 61 territories, it accounts for about 14.8% of the...
are
pressurePressure is the force per unit area applied in a direction perpendicular to the surface of an object. Gauge pressure is the pressure relative to the local atmospheric or ambient pressure.- Definition :...
treadle pumps; a modification to the original design that means water is forced out of the pump under pressure. Pressure treadle pumps are more versatile as they allow farmers to pump water uphill, or over long distances, or fill elevated tanks.
Crop rotation
Crop rotationCrop rotation or Crop sequencing is the practice of growing a series of dissimilar types of crops in the same area in sequential seasons for various benefits such as to avoid the build up of pathogens and pests that often occurs when one species is continuously cropped...
is the cornerstone
pest controlPest control refers to the regulation or management of a species defined as a pest, usually because it is perceived to be detrimental to a person's health, the ecology or the economy....
in the tropics. When a single crop is planted repeatedly in the same soil,
insectInsects are arthropods, having a hard exoskeleton, a three-part body , three pairs of jointed legs, compound eyes, and two antennae. They are the most diverse group of animals on the planet and include more than a million species that are already described. Insects represent more than half of all...
s and
diseaseA disease or medical condition isan abnormal condition of an organism that impairs bodily functions, associated with specific symptoms and signs...
s that attack that crop are allowed to build up to unmanageable levels, greatly reducing the farmer’s
harvestIn agriculture, the harvest is the processes of gathering mature crops from the fields. Reaping is the cutting of grain or pulse for harvest, typically using a scythe, sickle, or reaper. The harvest marks the end of the growing season, or the growing cycle for a particular crop, and this is the...
.
The most basic form of crop rotation is also the simplest: never plant the same thing in the same place twice. This results in naturally breaking the
cyclesA life cycle is a period involving all different generations of a species succeeding each other through means of reproduction, whether through asexual reproduction or sexual reproduction...
of
weedA weed in a general sense is a plant that is considered by the user of the term to be a nuisance, and normally applied to unwanted plants in human-made settings such as gardens, lawns or agricultural areas, but also in parks, woods and other natural areas. More specifically, the term is often...
s, insects and diseases that attack food crops. Rotations are used to prevent or at least partially control several pests and at the same time to reduce the farmer’s reliance on chemical
pesticideA pesticide is a substance or mixture of substances used to kill a pest.A pesticide is any substance or mixture of substance intended for:- preventing, destroying, repelling or mitigating any pest....
s. Crop rotations often are the only economically feasible method for reducing insect and disease
damageDamage may refer to:In gaming:* Damage Incorporated, a computer game for Mac and Windows made by Paranoid Productions in 1998* Quad damage, a powerup in the first-person shooter computer game series Quake...
.
Crop rotation replaces a crop that is susceptible to a serious pest with another crop that is not susceptible. Each food crop comes with its own set of pests that attack that particular crop. By planting a different crop each time, the farmer is able to starve out those pests. Often a set of three or four crops are planted on a rotating basis, ensuring that by the time the first crop is replanted, the pests that attack it are substantially reduced.
Another side benefit of crop rotation is it improves the soil. Constantly growing the same crop in the same location will strip the soil of the
nutrientA nutrient is a chemical that an organism needs to live and grow or a substance used in an organism's metabolism which must be taken in from its environment. Nutrients are the substances that enrich the body. They build and repair tissues, give heat and energy, and regulate body processes...
s that particular crop requires. Rotating to a different crop will reduce the pressure placed on the soil. Or if a green manure is used as part of the rotation sequence, the soil can actually be improved.
Integrated pest management
Integrated Pest ManagementIn agriculture, integrated pest management is a pest control strategy that uses a variety of complementary strategies including: mechanical devices, physical devices, genetic, biological, cultural management, and chemical management. These methods are done in three stages: prevention, observation,...
(IPM) was developed as an alternative to the heavy use of chemical pesticides. Eliminating all insect pests requires the extensive use of chemical pesticides, which over time can become self-defeating. Farmers end up using more and more chemicals with diminishing effect as pests quickly adapt –while at the same time natural predator insects are eliminated from the farm. Under IPM chemicals should be a secondary line of defense, while building up the number of natural predators on a farm is the main goal. The IPM approach calls for keeping the pest
populationIn biology, a population is the collection of inter-breeding organisms of a particular species; in sociology, a collection of human beings. Individuals within a population share a factor may be reduced by statistical means, but such a generalization may be too vague to imply anything...
s below the levels at which they cause economic injury, not total eradication.
IPM in its pure form is extremely complex, and beyond the ability of most farmers to manage; however, the underlying principals have gained widespread acceptance in the tropics, with most governments sponsoring IPM educational programs.
System of Rice Intensification and other sustainable agricultural systems
Besides
IPMIn agriculture, integrated pest management is a pest control strategy that uses a variety of complementary strategies including: mechanical devices, physical devices, genetic, biological, cultural management, and chemical management. These methods are done in three stages: prevention, observation,...
, there are also completely biological systems (not using pesticides at all) which are used in the developing world, mostly the
System of Rice IntensificationThe System of Rice Intensification is a method of increasing the yield of rice produced in farming. It was developed in 1983 by the French Jesuit Father Henri de Laulanie in Madagascar. However full testing of the system did not occur until some years later...
and
Organic farmingOrganic farming is the form of agriculture that relies on crop rotation, green manure, compost, biological pest control, and mechanical cultivation etc.....
. In the World of Organic Agriculture 2007, we can clearly see that in Oceania and Latin America, organic farming is matching the organic farming in the developed world.
Non-indigenous crops
Most crops grown in the developing world are crops imported from Europe and North America (wheat, maize, ...). These crops are -as they come from other regions- not adapted to the new environment in which they are grown. This causes decreased yields (when compared to other similar (yet indigenous) crops) and makes the plant less capable of fending off pests. A new project called Crops for the Future, started by The International Centre for Underutilised Crops is momentarily researching indigenous alternatives to western crops.
Mild winters
Winters are mild in the tropics; there is no
frostFrost is the solid deposition of water vapor from saturated air. It is formed when solid surfaces are cooled to below the dew point of the adjacent air. Frost crystals' size differ depending on time and water vapor available. Frost is also usually translucent in appearance. There are many types of...
, no
snowSnow is a type of precipitation in the form of crystalline water ice, consisting of a multitude of snowflakes that fall from clouds. Since snow is composed of small ice particles, it is a granular material. It has an open and therefore soft structure, unless packed by external pressure. Snowflakes...
, and no
iceIce is a solid phase, usually crystalline, of a non-metallic substance that is liquid or gas at room temperature, such as carbon dioxide ice , ammonia ice, or methane ice. However, the predominant use of the term ice is for water ice, technically restricted to one of the 15 known crystalline phases...
, so the insect population flourishes year-round. In temperate areas winter eliminates most insect pests prior to the emergence of new crops, so plants coming up in the spring have a chance to take hold and grow prior to being attacked. In the tropics plants enter a world already full of hungry adult insects.
Acidic soils
Soils in the humid tropics are normally highly acidic and nutrient poor;
decompositionDecomposition is the process by which tissues of a dead organism break down into simpler forms of matter. The process is essential for new growth and development of living organisms because it recycles the finite matter that occupies physical space in the biome. Bodies of living organisms begin to...
is rapid because of high temperatures, high
humidityHumidity is the amount of water vapour in the air. In daily language the term "humidity" is normally taken to mean relative humidity. Relative humidity is defined as the ratio of the partial pressure of water vapour in a parcel of air to the saturated vapour pressure of water vapour at a prescribed...
, and frequent heavy
rainRain is liquid precipitation, as opposed to other kinds of precipitation such as snow, hail and sleet. On Earth, it is the condensation of atmospheric water vapor into drops heavy enough to fall, often making it to the surface...
s. Heavy rains, especially monsoon rains, lead to rapid nutrient
leachingIn agriculture, leaching refers to the loss of water-soluble plant nutrients from the soil, due to rain and irrigation. Soil structure, crop planting, type and application rates of fertilizers, and other factors are taken into account to avoid excessive nutrient loss.
Leaching may also refer to...
, and chemical weathering of the soil. Standard temperate strategies for improving nutrient poor soil, such as
compostingComposting is the purposeful biodegradation of organic matter, such as yard and food waste. The decomposition is performed by micro-organisms, mostly bacteria, but also yeasts and fungi...
, have limited application in such an environment due to rapid leaching.
Aluminum is the most common
metalA metal is a chemical element that is a good conductor of both electricity and heat, forms cations and ionic bonds with non-metals. In chemistry, a metal is an element, compound, or alloy characterized by high electrical conductivity. In a metal, atoms readily lose electrons to form positive ions...
found in the Earth’s
crustCrust may refer to:Geology and soil science:*Crust , the outer solid layer of a planet*Continental crust*Oceanic crust*Soil crust*the dough or pastry shell of pies, pizzas, etc.Music:*Crust punk, a hardcore punk / extreme metal fusion...
. It is found in all soils and in all environments, from temperate to tropical. In a soluble state it is highly toxic to plant life, as it inhibits
rootIn vascular plants, the root is the organ of a plant that typically lies below the surface of the soil. This is not always the case, however, since a root can also be aerial or aerating . Furthermore, a stem normally occurring below ground is not exceptional either...
growth; however, in
neutralpH is a measure of the acidity or basicity of a solution. It is defined as the cologarithm of the activity of dissolved hydrogen ions . Hydrogen ion activity coefficients cannot be measured experimentally, so they are based on theoretical calculations...
and alkaline soils common to the temperate zones it is insoluble and therefore
inertIn English, to be inert is to be in a state of doing little or nothing.-Chemistry:In chemistry, the term inert is used to describe something that is not chemically active. The noble gases were described as being inert because they did not react with the other elements or themselves...
. Soil
fertilityFertility is the natural capability of giving life. As a measure, "fertility rate" is the number of children born per couple, person or population. This is different from fecundity, which is defined as the potential for reproduction...
is directly influenced by how acidic it is, as the more acidic the higher the level of aluminum toxicity; in areas where the
pHpH is a measure of the acidity or basicity of a solution. It is defined as the cologarithm of the activity of dissolved hydrogen ions . Hydrogen ion activity coefficients cannot be measured experimentally, so they are based on theoretical calculations...
drops below 5, aluminum becomes soluble and can enter into plant roots where it accumulates.
Approximately a third of all tropical soils are too acidic to support traditional food crops. These highly acidic tropical soils represent the largest untapped
arable landIn geography, arable land is an agricultural term, meaning land that can be used for growing crops. It is distinct from cultivated land and includes jungles that are not currently used for human purposes. Arable land covers an area of approximately 12 million square miles...
left in the world, and therefore more productive utilization of these lands is key to expanding the world food supply.
Winrock International states "In the humid tropics, the relative importance of acid soils is greatest in Latin America (81%), but also significant in Africa (56%) and Asia (38%)"
http://www.winrock.org/forestry/FACTPUB/AIS_web/AIS10.html.
Traditionally on commercial farms aluminum toxicity is countered by adding
limeAgricultural lime, also called garden lime or liming, is a soil additive made from pulverized limestone or chalk. The primary active component is calcium carbonate...
to the soil, which neutralizes the acid and renders the aluminum inert. However, many small land holders and resource-poor farmers cannot afford lime, and instead rely on slash-and-burn agriculture. As the original plant life is burnt, the ash acts to neutralize the acidic soil and makes the area acceptable for food plants. In time acidity increases and only native plants will grow, forcing the farmer to move on and clear a new area.
Soil color in humid areas is related to the level of oxidation that has occurred in the soil, with red soil being the result of
ironIron is a metallic chemical element with the symbol Fe and atomic number 26. Iron is a group 8 and period 4 element and is therefore classified as a transition metal. Iron and iron alloys are by far the most common metals and the most common ferromagnetic materials in everyday use...
oxidation, and yellow soil being the result of aluminum oxidation.
Salinization
Salinization occurs naturally in arid areas where not enough rain falls to wash soluble salts down and out of the root zone. Irrigation makes the situation worse, since surface water and groundwater contain more salt than rainwater does. Salt tends to build up in the soil as water is added through irrigation. As water is used by plants and evaporates from the soil surface, the salt in the water
concentrateA concentrate is a form of substance which has had the majority of its base component removed. Typically this will be the removal of water from a solution or suspension such as the removal of water from fruit juice...
s in the soil. The high temperatures and low humidity in arid regions means that salinization often accompanies irrigation.
Day-length sensitive plants
Some plants have a photoperiod (
photoperiodismPhotoperiodicity is the physiological reaction of organisms to the length of day or night. It occurs in plants and animals.- In plants :Many flowering plants use a photoreceptor protein, such as phytochrome or cryptochrome, to sense seasonal changes in night length, or photoperiod, which they take...
) requirement for a certain number of hours of daylight before they will grow,
flowerA flower, sometimes known as a bloom or blossom, is the reproductive structure found in flowering plants . The biological function of a flower is to mediate the union of male sperm with female ovum in order to produce seeds...
, or produce
fruitThe term fruit has different meanings dependent on context, and the term is not synonymous in food preparation and biology. Fruits are the means by which flowering plants disseminate seeds, and the presence of seeds indicates that a structure is most likely a fruit, though not all seeds come from...
. Without this they will not complete their
life-cycleA life cycle is a period involving all different generations of a species succeeding each other through means of reproduction, whether through asexual reproduction or sexual reproduction...
and will not produce fruit and seeds. For this reason seeds brought from the temperate zones may not perform as expected, or at all in the tropics. Some plants are genetically keyed to only start producing when a certain number of hours of daylight is reached, the same number of hours as is found in their native habitat. With the shorter daylight hours experienced in the tropics, that switch never gets thrown.
Logging of rainforest/tropical forests to produce food
Throughout the tropics and predominantly in
IndonesiaThe Republic of Indonesia is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania. Indonesia comprises 17,508 islands. With an estimated population of around 237 million people, it is the world's fourth most populous country, with the world's largest population of Muslims.Indonesia is a republic, with an...
, and certain South-East Asian Countries, a lot of forest is being cleared to produce food. Major examples are the
oil palmThe oil palms comprise two species of the Arecaceae, or palm family. They are used in commercial agriculture in the production of palm oil. The African Oil Palm Elaeis guineensis is native to west Africa, occurring between Angola and Gambia, while the American Oil Palm Elaeis oleifera is native to...
plantations in Indonesia and the dry rice farming techniques using
slash and burnSlash and burn consists of cutting and burning of forests or woodlands to create fields for agriculture or pasture for livestock, or for a variety of other purposes...
-method in Southeast Asia. This of course adds to
global warmingGlobal warming is the increase in the average temperature of the Earth's near-surface air and oceans since the mid-20th century and its projected continuation. Global surface temperature increased 0.74 ± 0.18 °C during the last century...
(as trees collect CO
2 in life and release it in death) and increases the decline in biodiversity. It has been argued that although tropical crops should be grown, it should be done in regions under threat (e.g., regions at risk of desertification, salination, ...)
Low economic input in Africa, constraining the export of tropical crops
In certain tropical places (predominantly the entire continent of Africa), there are very few (registered) African companies at all to sell their products through the normal ways, let alone that they are capable of exporting products beyond their borders/continent. This phenomenon can be clearly seen if one walks into a supermarket (not a normal market, where this isn't the case) in the developing world (e.g., Africa); almost all products come from Western companies.
As such, tropical crops (vegetables, grain, fruit), although it has high value at European markets (very low production, increasing the demand and unknown products), are not sold at all (most crops) or very limited (certain tropical fruit as papaya, guave, mango, cacao by mostly Western companies and representing only a few percentages of the entire bunch of crops).
At the country of origin, predominantly at normal markets (not supermarkets), these food items are available, but only within the season and not always the crops of the entire country (rather only the ones grown locally). Of course because the demand and availability are closer together in these places, prices are lower and farmers are not capable of getting as high returns as if they would in the West.
Availability of inexpensive Western crops and food
Western food, as it is subsidized by the EU and the USA, is for certain products, such as chicken, cheaper than its counterparts in the developing world. Besides the matching food products being cheaper, the availability of Western surrogates for certain food has also proven disastrous. At least in certain continents as Africa, Western surrogate foods are thought to be 'better' and more modern by African people, who thus switch from their traditional ingredients and meals to Western counterparts (see article below).
This availability of inexpensive foreign food is not only damaging to the indigenous economy, but also for the
healthAt the of the creation of the World Health Organization , in 1948, Health was defined as being "a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity"....
of the people themselves (sparking obesity, heart problems, and a lack of certain vitamins and minerals). This is believed to be because certain Western food (not only hamburgers but also the main staple food) is not qualified for them (as strange as it may seem). Because of these problems, the traditional African food is again slowly being distributed within the continent (e.g. in
NairobiNairobi is the capital and largest city of Kenya. The city and its surrounding area also forms the Nairobi Province. The name "Nairobi" comes from the Maasai phrase Enkare Nyirobi, which translates to "the place of cool waters"...
, the Tusker
SupermarketA supermarket, also called a grocery store in some parts of North America, is a self-service store offering a wide variety of food and household merchandise, organized into departments...
).
Pioneering crops
Pioneering crops are used in places where the land has been striped bare, and the
topsoilTopsoil is the upper, outermost layer of soil, usually the top to . It has the highest concentration of organic matter and microorganisms and is where most of the Earth's biological soil activity occurs. Plants generally concentrate their roots in and obtain most of their nutrients from this layer...
has been entirely lost to erosion, or where
desertificationDesertification is the degradation of land in arid and dry sub-humid areas, resulting primarily from man-made activities and influenced by climatic variations...
has started. The intent is not to grow food or cash crops, but to repair and reinvigorate the soil in order to prepare the way for the later planting of food or cash crops. Nitrogen fixing plants and trees normally form the basis of such a
reclamationReclamation is the process of reclaiming something from loss or from a less useful condition. It is generally used of water reclamation, which, a century ago meant damming streams , and now has come to be used to describe wastewater reclamation.* Land reclamation* Mine reclamation* River...
project.
Hunger season
The hunger season is that period of time when all the food from the previous
harvestIn agriculture, the harvest is the processes of gathering mature crops from the fields. Reaping is the cutting of grain or pulse for harvest, typically using a scythe, sickle, or reaper. The harvest marks the end of the growing season, or the growing cycle for a particular crop, and this is the...
has been consumed, and the next harvest is still some time away. Even in normal years, many households face an
annualA year is the amount of time it takes the Earth to make one revolution around the Sun...
reduction in the amount of food they have available. Typically the hunger season will coincide with the start of planting the new crop, or shortly thereafter. So farmers are faced with a shortage of food at the very time they are expected to perform their heaviest labor.
One way of mitigating the effects of the hunger season is growing some non-seasonal crops close to the family home, such as
bananaBanana is the common name for a herbaceous plants of the genus Musa, and the commonly eaten fruit it produces. They are native to the tropical region of Southeast Asia, and are likely to have been first domesticated in Papua New Guinea. Today, they are cultivated throughout the tropics.Banana...
s in humid areas, or cassava where it is arid. As an example, a family that has ten banana plants producing fruit during the hunger season is unlikely to experience excessive hardship.
Sweet potatoThe sweet potato is a dicotyledonous plant that belongs to the family Convolvulaceae. Amongst the approximately 50 genera and more than 1,000 species of this family, only I. batatas is a crop plant whose large, starchy, sweet tasting tuberous roots are an important root vegetable...
,
pigeon peaThe pigeon pea is a perennial member of the family Fabaceae.-Other common names:Other common names are तुवरि in Sanskrit, arhar , Rohor , Rahar , red gram, toovar/toor , tuvaram paruppu ,tuvara The pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan, syn. Cajanus indicus) is a perennial member of the family...
, and
Moringa oleiferaMoringa oleifera, commonly referred to simply as "Moringa" ,Muringakkaya in Malayalam language,the most widely cultivated species of the genus Moringa, which is the only genus in the family Moringaceae...
should also be considered.
Common tropical horticulture crops
- papaya
The papaya is the fruit of the plant Carica papaya, in the genus Carica. It is native to the tropics of the Americas, and was cultivated in Mexico several centuries before the emergence of the Mesoamerican classic cultures...
- rubber tree
- coconut
The Coconut Palm is a member of the family Arecaceae . It is the only species in the genus Cocos, and is a large palm, growing to 30 m tall, with pinnate leaves 4–6 m long, pinnae 60–90 cm long; old leaves break away cleanly leaving the trunk smooth. The term coconut refers to the seed of the...
- Banana
Banana is the common name for a herbaceous plants of the genus Musa, and the commonly eaten fruit it produces. They are native to the tropical region of Southeast Asia, and are likely to have been first domesticated in Papua New Guinea. Today, they are cultivated throughout the tropics.Banana...
- Palms
Arecaceae or Palmae , the palm family, is a family of flowering plants, the only family in the monocot order Arecales...
(mainly oil palm)
Common agricultural crops
- Cassava
Cassava is a woody shrub of the Euphorbiaceae native to South America that is extensively cultivated as an annual crop in tropical and subtropical regions for its edible starchy tuberous root, a major source of carbohydrates...
- Maize
Maize , is a herbaceous plant domesticated in Mesoamerica and subsequently spread throughout the American continents...
(corn)
- Rice
Rice is the seed of a monocot plant Oryza sativa, of the grass family . As a cereal grain, it is the most important staple food for a large part of the world's human population, especially in East, South, Southeast Asia, the Middle East, Latin America, and the West Indies...
- Sorghum
Sorghum is a genus of numerous species of grasses, some of which are raised for grain and many of which are used as fodder plants either cultivated or as part of pasture. The plants are cultivated in warmer climates worldwide. Species are native to tropical and subtropical regions of all continents...
- barley
Barley is a cereal grain derived from the annual grass Hordeum vulgare. It serves as a major animal feed crop, with smaller amounts used for malting and in health food. It is used in soups, stews and barley bread in various countries, such as Scotland and in Africa...
- wheat
Wheat is a worldwide cultivated grass from the Fertile Crescent region of the Near East. In 2007 world production of wheat was 607 million tons, making it the third most-produced cereal after maize and rice...
- buckwheat
Buckwheat refers to plants in two genera of the dicot family Polygonaceae: the Eurasian genus Fagopyrum, and the North American genus Eriogonum. The crop plant, common buckwheat, is Fagopyrum esculentum. Tartary buckwheat or "bitter buckwheat" is also used as a crop, but it is much less common...
- Sweet potato
The sweet potato is a dicotyledonous plant that belongs to the family Convolvulaceae. Amongst the approximately 50 genera and more than 1,000 species of this family, only I. batatas is a crop plant whose large, starchy, sweet tasting tuberous roots are an important root vegetable...
- Taro
Taro is a tropical plant grown primarily as a vegetable food for its edible corm, and secondarily as a leaf vegetable. It is considered a staple in Oceanic cultures. It is believed to be one of the earliest cultivated plants...
- millet
The millets are a group of small-seeded species of cereal crops or grains, widely grown around the world for food and fodder. They do not form a taxonomic group, but rather a functional or agronomic one. Their essential similarities are that they are small-seeded grasses grown in difficult...
- yam
Yam is the common name for some species in the genus Dioscorea . These are perennial herbaceous vines cultivated for the consumption of their starchy tubers in Africa, Asia, Latin America and Oceania...
- tobacco
Tobacco is an agricultural product processed from the leaves of plants in the genus Nicotiana. It can be consumed, used as an organic pesticide, and in the form of nicotine tartrate it is used in some medicines. In consumption it most commonly appears in the forms of smoking, chewing, snuffing, or...
- sugarcane
Sugarcane, or sugar cane, is any of six to thirty-seven species of tall perennial grasses of the genus Saccharum . Native to warm temperate to tropical regions of Asia, they have stout, jointed, fibrous stalks that are rich in sugar, and measure two to six meters tall...
- kidney beans
- soybean
The soybean or soya bean is a species of legume native to East Asia. The plant is classed as an oilseed rather than a pulse. It is an annual plant that has been used in China for 5,000 years to primarily add nitrogen into the soil as part of crop rotation...
s
- tea
Tea is the agricultural product of the leaves, leaf buds, and internodes of the Camellia sinensis plant, prepared and cured by various methods...
- cotton
Cotton is a soft, staple fiber that grows in a form known as a boll around the seeds of the cotton plant, a shrub native to tropical and subtropical regions around the world, including the Americas, India and Africa. The fiber most often is spun into yarn or thread and used to make a soft,...
- Coffee
Coffee is a brewed beverage prepared from roasted seeds, commonly called coffee beans, of the coffee plant. They are seeds of "coffee cherries" that grow on trees in over 70 countries. It has been said that green coffee is the second most traded commodity in the world behind crude oil. Due to its...
- cocoa
Cocoa is the dried and fully fermented fatty seed of the cacao tree, from which chocolate is made. "Cocoa" can often also refer to the drink commonly known as hot chocolate; to cocoa powder, the dry powder made by grinding cocoa seeds and removing the cocoa butter from the dark, bitter cocoa...
- morus alba
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