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Tobacco smoking

Tobacco smoking, often refered to as "smoking", is the act of burning the dried leaves of the tobacco Tobacco

Tobacco refers to a genus of broad-leafed plants of the nightshade [i] family indigenous to North [i] ... 

 plant and inhaling the smoke. The practice was common to many Native American cultures and was introduced to the rest of the world by sailors following European exploration of the Americas. Tobacco smoke contains nicotine Nicotine

Nicotine is an alkaloid [i] found in the nightshade [i] family of plants , predominantly in tobacco [i], ... 

, a stimulant which temporarily improves alertness and memory, but also forms a strong physical and psychological chemical dependence . Medical research has determined that smoking is a major contributing factor towards many health problems, particularly lung cancer Lung cancer

Lung cancer is a cancer [i] of the lung [i]s characterized by the presence of malignant [i] tumour [i]s. ... 

, emphysema Emphysema

Emphysema is a chronic [i] lung [i] disease. ... 

, and cardiovascular disease.

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Encyclopedia


Tobacco smoking, often refered to as "smoking", is the act of burning the dried leaves of the tobacco Tobacco

Tobacco refers to a genus of broad-leafed plants of the nightshade [i] family indigenous to North [i] ... 

 plant and inhaling the smoke. The practice was common to many Native American cultures and was introduced to the rest of the world by sailors following European exploration of the Americas.

Tobacco smoke contains nicotine Nicotine

Nicotine is an alkaloid [i] found in the nightshade [i] family of plants , predominantly in tobacco [i], ... 

, a stimulant which temporarily improves alertness and memory, but also forms a strong physical and psychological chemical dependence . Medical research has determined that smoking is a major contributing factor towards many health problems, particularly lung cancer Lung cancer

Lung cancer is a cancer [i] of the lung [i]s characterized by the presence of malignant [i] tumour [i]s. ... 

, emphysema Emphysema

Emphysema is a chronic [i] lung [i] disease. ... 

, and cardiovascular disease. Many countries regulate or restrict tobacco sales and advertising Tobacco advertising

Tobacco advertising is the promotion [i] of tobacco [i] use by the tobacco industry [i] thro ... 

 and require warnings Tobacco packaging warning signs

Cigarette packet warning signs are health [i] warning messages that appear on the packaging [i] ... 

 be placed prominently on the product packaging. Many municipalities now ban smoking Smoking ban

Smoking bans are public policies, including legal prohibitions and occupational health and safety [i] regulation [i] ... 

 in a variety of public venues due to health impacts on non-smokers breathing second-hand smoke Passive smoking

Passive smoking occurs when the smoke from one person's burning tobacco [i] product is inhaled by others ... 

.

While smoking is on the decline in many industrial nations due in part to these initiatives, smoking in less restrictive developing countries Developing country

A developing country is a country [i] with a relatively low standard of living [i], undeveloped industrial base [i] ... 

 is on the rise and worldwide production and usage of tobacco continues to grow.

History


Tobacco smoking with pipes Smoking pipe

A smoking pipe is a device used for smoking [i] combustible substances such as tobacco [i] ... 

 and cigar Cigar

A cigar is a tightly rolled bundle of dried and fermented tobacco [i], one end of which is ignited so th ... 

s was common to many Native American Indigenous peoples of the Americas

The term Indigenous peoples of the Americas encompasses the inhabitants of the Americas [i] before the European discovery of the Americas [i] ... 

 cultures prior to the arrival of European explorers. The practice is depicted in early Mayan art dating back to around 1,500 years ago. The Mayans were also known to use tobacco as an all-purpose medicinal antidote, and the crop was widely believed to possess magical powers as its usage has been documented in ancient ceremonial sacrifice Sacrifice

Sacrifice is commonly known as the practice of offering food, or the lives of animals or people to the gods [i] ... 

s and divination Divination

Divination is the attempt of ascertaining information by interpretation of omen [i]s or an alleged supernatural [i] ... 

s as well as in talismans.

On October 12, 1492, Christopher Columbus Christopher Columbus

Christopher Columbus Italian [i] Cristoforo Colombo; Spanish [i]: ... 

 was given dry leaves by the Arawaks, but threw them away. Rodrigo de Jerez and Luis de Torres were the first Europeans to observe smoking, and Jerez became the first recorded smoker outside the Americas. Throughout the 16th century, the habit of smoking was common mainly among sailors. Tobacco was introduced to England in the 1560s by the crew of Sir John Hawkins John Hawkins

[i], and [[slave trade]... 

 but did not begin making an impact on European society until the 1580s. The cigar became immensely popular in England during the late 1820s. In 1828, the cigarette Cigarette

A cigarette is a tobacco [i] product manufactured out of cured and finely cut tobacco leaves, which are ... 

 appeared in Spain and enjoyed immediate success but still remained less popular than both the cigar and pipe until the early 20th century when cheap mechanically manufactured cigarettes became standard.

During World War I, it was typical for tobacco products to be included in military rations. Following the war, cigarette smoking was advertised as part of a glamorous, carefree lifestyle, and became socially acceptable for women. In the 1930s, Nazi Nazism

National Socialism, commonly shortened to Nazism or Naziism, originated as a fascist [i] mo ... 

 medical and military leaders grew concerned with the possibility that tobacco might be hazardous to human health and their scientists were the first to confirm this link. In the United States, biologist Raymond Pearl had demonstrated the negative health effects of tobacco smoking as early as 1938. In the 1950s and 1960s, the medical community along with various governmental bodies, and Readers Digest Reader's Digest

Reader's Digest is a monthly general interest family magazine [i]. ... 

 magazine, began a campaign to reduce the degree of smoking by showing how it damaged public health. Although tobacco smoking in many regions of the world has dropped dramatically in recent years, worldwide tobacco production is still growing. Smoking rates continue to remain relatively high in Asian countries due to aggressive marketing and the lack of health education.

Methods of smoking


Cigarette


A cigarette is a product manufactured out of cured and finely cut tobacco leaves, which are rolled or stuffed into a paper-wrapped cylinder . The cigarette is ignited at one end and allowed to smoulder for the purpose of inhalation of its smoke from the other end, which is inserted in the mouth. They are sometimes smoked with a cigarette holder. .

Cigar

A cigar is a tightly rolled bundle of dried and fermented tobacco Tobacco

Tobacco refers to a genus of broad-leafed plants of the nightshade [i] family indigenous to North [i] ... 

, one end of which is ignited so that its smoke may be drawn into the smoker's mouth through the other end.

The word cigar is from the Spanish word cigarro, which the Oxford English Dictionary Oxford English Dictionary

The Oxford English Dictionary is a dictionary [i] published by the Oxford University Press [i] , an ... 

suggests is a variation on cigarra, Spanish for "cicada Cicada

A cicada is any of several insect [i]s of the order Hemiptera [i], suborder Auchenorrhyncha [i], in the ... 

," due to their shape, especially that of what is now called the perfecto. Other sources have indicated that it may be derived from the Mayan word sikar, "tobacco."

Cigar tobacco is grown in significant quantities in such nations as Brazil Brazil

Brazil, officially the Federative Republic of Brazil , is the largest and most populous country [i] ... 

, Cameroon Cameroon

Cameroon, officially the Republic of Cameroon, is a unitary republic [i] of central Africa [i]. ... 

, Cuba Cuba

Cuba, officially the Republic of Cuba, consists of the island of Cuba, the Isle of Youth [i] and a ... 

, Dominican Republic Dominican Republic

The Dominican Republic, is a country located on the eastern two-thirds of the Caribbean [i] ... 

, Honduras Honduras

Honduras, officially the Republic of Honduras, is a country in Central America [i], bordered to th ... 

, Indonesia Indonesia

Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia , is a nation of islands [i] consist ... 

, Mexico Mexico

The United Mexican States, generally known as Mexico is a country [i] located in North America [i] ... 

, Nicaragua Nicaragua

Nicaragua is a republic in Central America [i]. ... 

 and the United States of America United States

The United States of America, also known as the United States, the U.S., the U.S.A., a... 

. Cigars manufactured in Cuba have historically been considered to be without peer, although many experts believe that the best offerings from Honduras and Nicaragua rival those from Cuba. The Cuban reputation arises from both the unique characteristics of the Vuelta Abajo region in the Pinar del Río Province Pinar del Río Province

Pinar del Ro is one of the provinces of Cuba [i]. ... 

 at the west of the island, where a microclimate Microclimate

A microclimate is a local external atmospheric zone where the climate [i] differs from the surrounding a ... 

 allows for high-quality tobacco to be grown, and the skill of the Cuban cigar makers.

Smoking pipe

A smoking pipe is a device used for smoking tobacco Tobacco

Tobacco refers to a genus of broad-leafed plants of the nightshade [i] family indigenous to North [i] ... 

. The smoking pipe typically consists of a small chamber for the combustion of the substance to be smoked and a thin stem that ends in a mouthpiece .

Pipes are made from a variety of materials: briar, corncob Maize

Maize , also known as corn, is a cereal [i] grain [i] that was domesticated in Mesoamerica [i]. ... 

, meerschaum Meerschaum

Meerschaum is a soft white mineral [i] sometimes found floating on the Black Sea [i], and rather suggest... 

, African block meerschaum, clay Clay

Clay is a term used to describe a group of hydrous aluminium [i] phyllosilicate [i] ... 

, cherry Cherry

A cherry is both a tree [i] and its fleshy fruit [i], a type known as a drupe [i] with a single hard st ... 

, wood Wood

Wood is derived from woody plant [i]s, notably tree [i]s but also shrub [i]s. ... 

, glass Glass

Glass is a uniform amorphous solid [i] material, usually produced when the viscous molten material cools ... 

, gourd Gourd

A gourd is a hollow, dried shell [i] of a fruit [i] in the Cucurbitaceae [i] family of plant [i]s. ... 

, bamboo Bamboo

Bamboos are a group of wood [i]y perennial [i] evergreen [i] plant [i]s in the true grass [i] family ... 

 , and various other materials, such as morta Morta

Morta was the the Grand Duchess [i] of Lithuania [i] and later Queen [i] of Lithuania. ... 

 and metal. Many pipes are carved with a great deal of artistry.

Tobaccos used for smoking pipes are often treated and blended to achieve flavour nuances not available in other tobacco products. Many of these are blends using staple ingredients of variously cured Burley and Virginia tobaccos which are enhanced by spice tobaccos, among them many Oriental or Balkan varietals, Latakia Latakia

Latakia is the principal port city of Syria [i]. Its population is 554,000. ... 

 , Perique  or blends of Virginia and Burley tobaccos of African, Indian, or South American origins. Traditionally, many U.S. blends are made of American Burley with sweeteners and flavorings added to create an "aromatic" flavor, whereas "English" blends are based on natural Virginia tobaccos enhanced with Oriental and other natural tobaccos. There is a growing tendency towards "natural" tobaccos which derive their aromas from artful blending with selected spice tobaccos only and careful, often historically-based, curing processes.

Pipes can range from the very simple machine-made briar pipe to highly-prized handmade and artful implements created by renowned pipemakers which can be very expensive collector's items.

Hookah

A hookah is a traditional Middle Eastern or South Asian device for smoking Smoking pipe

A smoking pipe is a device used for smoking [i] combustible substances such as tobacco [i] ... 

, which operates by water-filtration and indirect heat. It can be used for smoking many substances, such as tobacco, and herbal fruits. Hookah smoking is most popular in the Middle East, but is currently gaining popularity in other parts of the world.

Hookah smoking is considered to be safer than other forms of smoking due to water-filtration. However, the water does not filter out many of the toxins, and several negative health effects were still linked to hookah smoking. One study found Hookah smoke to be both clastogenic Chromosome

A chromosome is a large macromolecule [i] into which DNA [i] is normally packaged in a cell [i].... 

 and genotoxic for human beings. Another study showed that the CO Carbon dioxide

Carbon dioxide is a chemical compound [i] composed of one carbon [i] and two oxygen [i] atoms. ... 

 hazard is as high with hookah smoking as with cigarette smoking. In addition to the cancer risk, there is some risk of infectious disease resulting from pipe sharing, and other harm caused by any addition of alcohol or psychoactive drugs to the tobacco.

Factors that influence smoking behavior


Performance enhancement


Tobacco smoke contains nicotine Nicotine

Nicotine is an alkaloid [i] found in the nightshade [i] family of plants , predominantly in tobacco [i], ... 

, a stimulant, which increases the acetylcholine Acetylcholine

The chemical compound [i] acetylcholine, often abbreviated as ACh, was the first neurotransmitter [i] ... 

 levels in the brain, temporary increasing memory and alertness. Recent evidence has shown that nicotine use also increases dopamine Dopamine

Dopamine is a chemical naturally produced in the body.... 

 levels in the brain, promoting feelings of pleasure and reward. One study found that smokers exhibit better reaction-time and memory performance as they tire, compared to non-smokers.

Nicotine addiction


Nicotine Nicotine

Nicotine is an alkaloid [i] found in the nightshade [i] family of plants , predominantly in tobacco [i], ... 

, an element of tobacco smoke, is one of the most addictive substances that exists. When tobacco is smoked, most of the nicotine is pyrolised Pyrolysis

*Karrick process [i]
  • Woodgas [i] ... 

    ; however, a dose sufficient to cause mild somatic dependency and mild to strong psychological dependency remains. According to studies by Henningfield and Benowitz, nicotine is more addictive than marijuana Cannabis (drug)

    The drug [i] cannabis, also called marijuana, is produced from parts of the cannabis [i]... 

     and caffeine Caffeine

    Caffeine is a xanthine [i] alkaloid [i] compound that acts as a stimulant [i] in humans.... 

     but of a lesser potential for somatic dependency than ethanol Ethanol

    This article is about the chemical compound.... 

    , cocaine Cocaine

    Cocaine is a crystalline [i] tropane [i] alkaloid [i] that is obtained from the leaves of the coca [i] p... 

     and heroin Heroin

    Heroin, diamorphine or diacetylmorphine is a semi-synthetic opioid [i]. ... 

    . A study by Perrine concludes nicotine's potential for psychological dependency exceeds all other studied drugs - even ethanol, an extremely physically addictive substance with a severe withdrawal that can be fatal. Most smokers use nicotine compulsively. About half of Canadians who currently smoke have tried to quit. McGill University McGill University

    McGill University is a publicly funded, non-denominational [i], co-educational research university locat... 

     health professor Jennifer O'Loughlin stated that nicotine addiction can occur as soon as five months after the start of smoking.


It is difficult to quit smoking due to the withdrawal symptoms which include insomnia Insomnia

Insomnia is characterized by an inability to sleep [i] and/or to be incapable of remaining asleep for a ... 

, irritability, anxiety, decreased heart rate, weight gain Obesity

Obesity is a condition in which the natural energy reserve, stored in the [[adipose tissue|fatty tissue]... 

, and nicotine cravings. The relapse rate for quitters is high: about 60% relapse in three months. Also, nicotine users are sometimes reluctant to quit smoking because they do not see any short-term damages it may cause.

Tobacco advertising



Before the 1970s, most tobacco advertising Tobacco advertising

Tobacco advertising is the promotion [i] of tobacco [i] use by the tobacco industry [i] thro ... 

 was legal in the United States and most European nations. In the United States, in the 1950s and 1960s, cigarette brands were frequently sponsors of television shows—most notably shows such as To Tell the Truth and I've Got a Secret I've Got a Secret

I've Got a Secret was a weekly panel game show [i] produced by Mark Goodson [i] and Bill Todman [i] ... 

.
One of the most famous television jingles of the era came from an advertisement for Winston cigarettes. The slogan "Winston tastes good like a cigarette should Winston tastes good like a cigarette should

"Winston tastes good like a cigarette should" is an enduring slogan [i] that appeared ... 

!" proved to be catchy, and is still quoted today. Another popular slogan from the 1960s was "Us Tareyton smokers would rather fight than switch! Us Tareyton smokers would rather fight than switch!

"Us Tareyton smokers would rather fight than switch!" is an enduring slogan [i] which appeared in magazine [i]... 

," which was used to advertise Tareyton cigarettes.

Many nations, including Russia, still allow billboards advertising tobacco use. Tobacco smoking is still advertised in special magazines, during sporting events, in gas stations and stores, and in more rare cases on television.

In the United States, it was well known that tobacco companies are marketing tobacco smoking to minors. For example, Reynolds American Inc. used the Joe Camel Joe Camel

Joe Camel was the cartoon [i] mascot [i] for Camel cigarettes [i] from late 1987 [i] to July 12 [i], 1997 [i] ... 

 cartoon character to advertise Camel cigarettes Camel (cigarette)

[i] company [[R.J. Reynolds Tobacco]... 

. Other brands such as Virginia Slims Virginia Slims

Virginia Slims is a brand [i] of cigarette [i] manufactured by Philip Morris [i]. ... 

 targeted women with slogans like "You've Come a Long Way Baby".

Recently, some nations began anti-smoking advertisements to counter the effects of tobacco advertising.

The actual effectivness of tobacco advertisement is widely debated. According to an opinion piece by Henry Saffer, public health experts say that tobacco advertising increases cigarette consumption, but there is a significant empirical literature that finds little or no effect of tobacco advertising on smoking.

Peer pressure

Many anti-smoking organizations say that teenagers begin their smoking habits due to peer pressure. However, one study found that direct pressure to smoke cigarettes did not play a significant part in adolescent smoking. In that study, adolescent Adolescence

Adolescence is the period of psychological and social transition between childhood [i] and adult [i]hood ... 

s also reported low levels of both normative and direct pressure to smoke cigarettes. A similar study showed that individuals play a more active role in starting to smoke than has previously been acknowledged and that social processes other than peer pressure need to be taken into account. Another study's results revealed that peer pressure was significantly associated with smoking behavior across all age and gender cohorts, but that intrapersonal factors were significantly more important to the smoking behavior of 12-13 year-old girls than same-age boys. Within the 14-15 year-old age group, one peer pressure variable emerged as a significantly more important predictor of girls' than boys' smoking. It is debated whether peer pressure or self-selection is a greater cause of adolescent smoking.

Ethnic and cultural influences

Smoking is more popular in some cultures than in others. One study found that in the United States, white youths reported the highest rates of lifetime, current, and persistent smoking, and initiated smoking at a significantly earlier age than African-Americans and Hispanics. In the United States, 33.4% of American Indians and Alaskan Natives smoke, 22.2% of whites smoke, 20.2% of African Americans smoke, 15.0% of Hispanics smoke, and only 11.3% of Asian Americans smoke. Religion and local cultures play a significant role in the smoking prevalnce in the region. Utah Utah

Utah is a U.S. state [i] located in the western [i] United States [i]. ... 

, a predominantly Mormon Mormon

Mormon is a colloquial [i] term used to refer to adherents of the Latter Day Saint movement [i], and ... 

 state, has a smoking rate of 12%, while Kentucky Kentucky

The Commonwealth of Kentucky is a U.S. state [i] located in the Southern [i] United States [i] ... 

, which is the second largest tobacco producing state and whose state economy is the most tobacco dependent , has a 31% smoking rate. In Europe, smoking is more common than it is in the United States. In Germany, 35% of the population smokes, and in Russia, 39% of the population smokes and in the Hellenic Republic Greece

Greece
Greece lies at the juncture of Europe [i], Asia [i], and Africa [i]. ... 

 89% smoke. In the United States, the smoking rate is 22.1%.

Parental smoking

Children of smoking parents are more likely to smoke than children with non-smoking parents. One study found that parental smoking cessation was associated with less adolescent smoking, except when the other parent currently smoked. A current study tested the relation of adolescent smoking to rules regulating where adults are allowed to smoke in the home. Results showed that restrictive home smoking policies were associated with lower likelihood of trying smoking for both middle and high school students.

Smoking in movies and television

Exposure to smoking in movies has been linked with adolescent smoking initiation in cross-sectional studies. Hollywood movies tend to have a high incidence of smoking behavior. According to a study of movies created between 1988 and 1997, eighty-seven percent of these movies portrayed various tobacco use, with an average of 5 occurrences per film. R-rated movies had the greatest number of occurrences and were most likely to feature major characters using tobacco. Despite the declining tobacco use in the society, the incidence of smoking in 2002 movies was nearly the same as in 1950 movies.

There have been moves to reduce the depiction of protagonists smoking in television shows, especially those aimed at children. For example, Ted Turner Ted Turner

Robert Edward "Ted" Turner III is an American [i] media mogul [i] and philanthropist [i] ... 

 has taken steps to remove or edit scenes that depict characters smoking in cartoons such as Tom and Jerry, The Flintstones The Flintstones

The Flintstones, an American [i] animated television series [i] produced by Hanna-Barbera Productions [i] ... 

 and Scooby-Doo Scooby-Doo

!colspan="3"|Scooby-Doo
... 

 , which are shown on his Cartoon Network Cartoon Network

Cartoon Network is a cable television [i] network created by Turner Broadcasting [i] which primarily sho ... 

 and Boomerang Boomerang

A boomerang is a simple wood [i]en implement used for various purposes.... 

 television channels.

The use of smoking to project an image

Famous smokers of the past used cigarettes or pipes as part of their image, such as Jean Paul Sartre Jean-Paul Sartre

Jean-Paul Charles Aymard Sartre , normally known simply as Jean-Paul Sartre , was a French [i] ... 

's Gauloise-brand cigarettes, Bertrand Russell Bertrand Russell

Bertrand Arthur William Russell, 3rd Earl Russell, OM [i], FRS [i] ... 

's pipe, Lord of the Rings' Gandalf Gandalf

In J. R. R. Tolkien [i]'s legendarium [i], Gandalf is a fictional character [i] in The Hobbit [i] an... 

, or the news broadcaster Edward R. Murrow Edward R. Murrow

Edward R. "Ed" Murrow, was an American [i] journalist [i] and famous media figu... 

's cigarette. Writers in particular seemed to be known for smoking; see, for example, Richard Klein's book Cigarettes are Sublime for the analysis, by this Cornell University professor of French literature, of the role smoking plays in 19th and 20th century letters. British Prime Minister Harold Wilson Harold Wilson

James Harold Wilson, Baron Wilson of Rievaulx, KG [i], OBE [i]... 

 was well known for smoking a pipe in public as was Winston Churchill Winston Churchill

Sir Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill, KG [i], OM [i], CH [i] ... 

 for his cigars. Sherlock Holmes Sherlock Holmes

Sherlock Holmes is a fictional [i] detective [i] of the late 19th [i] ... 

, the fictional detective created by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle Arthur Conan Doyle

Sir Arthur Ignatius Conan Doyle DL [i] was a Scottish [i] author most famous ... 

, was also never without a pipe.

Smoking and depression

Data from multiple studies suggest that depression plays a role in cigarette smoking. A history of regular smoking was observed more frequently among individuals who had experienced major depressive disorder at some time in their lives than among individuals who had never experienced major depression or among individuals with no psychiatric diagnosis. Another study found that the average lifetime daily cigarette consumption was strongly related to lifetime prevalence and to prospectively assessed 1-year prevalence of major depression Clinical depression

Clinical depression is a state of sadness [i], melancholia [i] or despair that has advanced to the point ... 

. People with major depression are also much less likely to quit Smoking cessation

Smoking cessation is the effort to stop smoking [i] tobacco [i] products. ... 

 due to the increased risk of experiencing mild to severe states of depression, including full blown major depression. Depressed smokers appear to experience more withdrawal symptoms on quitting, are less likely to be successful at quitting, and are more likely to relapse. The neurotransmitter systems affected by cigarette smoke mirror the neurotransmitter pathways are also thought to be involved in the biological mechanisms of depression, and the use of antidepressants as adjuvants to smoking-cessation treatment can enhance cessation success rates.

Genetic connection

It is inconclusive if smoking is influenced by genetic factors; one 1990 study posited that 52% of the variance in smoking behaviour is attributable to heritable factors, with the other half were a function of the environment.

Health effects


Health risks of smoking


The health effects of tobacco smoking are related to direct tobacco smoking, as well as passive smoking Passive smoking

Passive smoking occurs when the smoke from one person's burning tobacco [i] product is inhaled by others ... 

, inhalation of environmental or secondhand tobacco smoke. A 50 year study of over thirty thousand British physicians showed that nonsmokers lived about 10 more years than the smokers. For those born between 1920 and 1929 the standardized mortality rate Mortality rate

Mortality rate is the number of deaths per 1000 people and typically reported on an annual [i] basi ... 

 between the ages of 35 and 69 for nonsmokers was 15% and for smokers was 43%
-- nearly three times greater. Claims that personalities of smokers account for these differences are not convincing in light of the fact that the heavy smokers were about 25 times more likely to die of lung cancer or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease than the nonsmokers

The health risks of smoking are not uniform across all smokers but vary according to amount of cigarettes smoked, with those who smoke more cigarettes at greater risk, although light smoking is still a health risk.

According to the Canadian Lung Association, tobacco kills between 40,000-45,000 Canadians per year, more than the total number of deaths from AIDS, traffic accidents, suicide, murder, fires and accidental poisoning. However, the number of deaths related to smoking may be exaggerated because it is difficult to determine whether smoking actually caused the terminal illness.
Purported health benefits of smoking
Ulcerative colitis Ulcerative colitis

Ulcerative colitis is a form of inflammatory bowel disease [i] . ... 

 is twice as common in non-smokers as in smokers. The nicotine Nicotine

Nicotine is an alkaloid [i] found in the nightshade [i] family of plants , predominantly in tobacco [i], ... 

 in tobacco smoke acts as an anti-inflammatory agent.

Also, it is thought that the risks of Parkinson's disease Parkinson's disease

Parkinson's disease is a degenerative disorder of the central nervous system [i] that affects the contro... 

 or Alzheimer's disease Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease is a neurodegenerative disease [i] characterized by progressive cognitive deteriora ... 

 may be significantly lower for smokers than for non-smokers though this idea has not been definitively proven. According to previous epidemiological studies, cigarette smokers are 50% less likely to have PD or AD than are age- and gender-matched nonsmokers. One explanation given for this effect is the fact that nicotine allegedly increases the levels of acetylcholine Acetylcholine

The chemical compound [i] acetylcholine, often abbreviated as ACh, was the first neurotransmitter [i] ... 

 in the smoker's brain. Parkinson's disease consequently occurs when the effect of dopamine Dopamine

Dopamine is a chemical naturally produced in the body.... 

 is less than that of acetylcholine. Another explanation may simply be that smokers die before they reach the age at which the onset of Parkinson's disease occurs. However, nicotine Nicotine

Nicotine is an alkaloid [i] found in the nightshade [i] family of plants , predominantly in tobacco [i], ... 

, a cholinergic stimulant, is the only substance in tobacco smoke which has those positive effects, and the consumption of pure nicotine would likely be more beneficial than smoking.

More recent evidence has challenged the earlier epidemiological Epidemiology

Epidemiology is the scientific study of factors affecting the health [i] and illness [i] of individuals ... 

 studies on methodological grounds. A prospective Epidemiology

Epidemiology is the scientific study of factors affecting the health [i] and illness [i] of individuals ... 

 Rotterdam Study found that the incidence of Alzheimer's disease is more than double for smokers as compared to non-smokers and the Honolulu Heart Program also found more than twice the risk for Alzheimer's disease among medium and heavy smokers as compared to non-smokers.

Passive smoking


Passive or involuntary smoking occurs when the exhaled and ambient smoke from one person's cigarette is inhaled by other people. Involuntary smoking involves inhaling carcinogens, as well as other toxic components, that are present in secondhand tobacco smoke. Carcinogens that occur in secondhand tobacco smoke include benzene, 1,3-butadiene, benzo[a]pyrene, 4--1--1-butanone, and many others.

It is confirmed that, in adults, secondhand smoke causes lung cancer Lung cancer

Lung cancer is a cancer [i] of the lung [i]s characterized by the presence of malignant [i] tumour [i]s. ... 

, nasal sinus cancer, breast cancer Breast cancer

Breast cancer is a cancer [i] of breast [i] tissue.... 

 in younger women, heart disease, heart attacks Myocardial infarction

Acute myocardial infarction , commonly known as a heart attack, is a disease that occurs when the ... 

, and asthma induction. Second-hand smoke is also known to harm children, infants and reproductive health through acute lower respiratory tract illness, asthma induction and exacerbation, chronic respiratory symptoms, middle ear infection, lower birth weight babies, and Sudden Infant Death Syndrome.

In June 2006, US Surgeon General Richard H. Carmona Richard Carmona

Vice Admiral Richard Henry Carmona, M.D. [i], M.P.H [i], F.A.C.S. [i] ... 

 called the evidence against passive smoke "indisputable" and said "The science is clear: secondhand smoke is not a mere annoyance, but a serious health hazard that causes premature death and disease in children and non-smoking adults." . Passive smoking is one of the key issues that have lead to introduction of smoking ban Smoking ban

Smoking bans are public policies, including legal prohibitions and occupational health and safety [i] regulation [i] ... 

s, particularly in workplaces.

The composition of Environmental tobacco smoke is similar to fossil fuel combustion products that contribute to air pollution, and has been shown to be responsible for indoor particulate Particulate

Particulates, alternatively referred to as particulate matter, aerosols or fine particles, a... 

 matter levels far exceeding official outdoor limits.
Sudden infant death syndrome
According to the U.S. Surgeon General’s Report , . Infants who die from SIDS tend to have higher concentrations of nicotine and cotinine in their lungs than those who die from other causes. Infants exposed to secondhand smoke after birth are also at a greater risk of SIDS.

Smoking cessation


Many of tobacco's health effects can be minimised through smoking cessation Smoking cessation

Smoking cessation is the effort to stop smoking [i] tobacco [i] products. ... 

. The British doctors study  showed that those who stopped smoking before they reached 30 years of age lived almost as long as those who never smoked. It is also possible to reduce the risks by reducing the frequency of smoking and by proper diet and exercise. Some research has indicated that some of the damage caused by smoking tobacco can be moderated with the use of antioxidants.

Smokers wanting to quit or to temporarily abstain from smoking can use a variety of nicotine-containing tobacco substitutes, or nicotine replacement therapy  products to temporarily lessen the physical withdrawal symptoms, the most popular being nicotine gum Nicotine gum

Nicotine gum is a type of chewing gum [i] that delivers nicotine [i] to the body. ... 

 and lozenge Lozenge

A lozenge is a form of rhombus [i].... 

s. Nicotine patches are also used for smoking cessation Smoking cessation

Smoking cessation is the effort to stop smoking [i] tobacco [i] products. ... 

. Medications that do not contain nicotine can also be used, such as bupropion Bupropion

Bupropion is an antidepressant [i] of the amino [i]ketone [i] class, chemically unrelated to tricyclics [i]... 

 .

Peer support can be helpful, such as that provided by support groups and telephone quitlines.. In addition, there are many self-help books on the market, such as those by Allen Carr Allen Carr

Allen Carr is most notable as the author of books on how to stop smoking [i] and, as he... 

 and David Marks.

Opinions on smoking


Native Americans and smoking
Communal smoking of a sacred tobacco pipe was a common ritual of many Native American tribes, and was considered a sacred part of their religion. Sema, the Anishinaabe Anishinaabe

Anishinaabe or more properly Anishinaabeg or Anishinabek is a self-description often used by... 

 word for tobacco, was grown for ceremonial use and considered the ultimate sacred plant since its smoke was believed to carry prayers to the heavens. Smoking was chiefly done after the evening meal, in the sweathouse, and before going to sleep. The tobacco used during these rituals varies widely in potency -- the Nicotiana rustica Nicotiana rustica

Nicotiana rustica, known in South America as Mapacho, is a very potent variety of tobacco [i]. ... 

species used in South America, for instance, has up to twice the nicotine content of the common North American N. tabacum. Many Native American tribes operate tobacco stores, including on the Internet, where they are usually exempt from taxes and therefore can sell products cheaper than non-Native American dealers.
Christianity and smoking
In more modern times, even before the health risks of smoking were identified for study, smoking was considered an immoral habit by certain Christian preachers and social reformers. Tobacco was listed, along with drunkenness, gambling, cards, dancing and theatre-going, in J.M. Judy's , a book featuring anti-smoking dialogue which was published in 1904 by the Western Methodist Methodism

Methodism or the Methodist movement is a group of historically related denomination [i] ... 

 Book Concern of Chicago Chicago

Chicago is the largest city [i] in the U.S. state [i] of Illinois [i], as well as the third-most populous [i] ... 

.

Moral concerns about self-injury are also prevalent in Catholic medical ethics on the grounds that people ought to be responsible stewards of the body as a gift from God; the stewardship argument is also used among Protestant groups as an argument against smoking.
Mormonism and smoking
The founder of the Latter Day Saint movement, Joseph Smith, Jr Joseph Smith, Jr.

Joseph Smith, Jr. was an American [i] religious [i] leader who founded the Latter Day Saint movement [i] ... 

, recorded that on February 27, 1833, he received a revelation which addressed tobacco use. It is commonly known as the Word of Wisdom Word of Wisdom

The Word of Wisdom is the common name of of the Doctrine and Covenants [i] of the Latter Day Saint movement [i] ... 

, and is found in section 89 of the Doctrine and Covenants Doctrine and Covenants

The Doctrine and Covenants is a part of the open [i] scriptural [i] ... 

, a book canonized as scripture by Mormons Mormonism

Mormonism is a religion [i], movement [i], ideology [i], and subculture [i] that ... 

.


And again, tobacco is not for the body, neither for the belly, and is not good for man, but is an herb for bruises and all sick cattle, to be used with judgment and skill.


While initially viewed as a guideline, this was eventually accepted as a commandment; consequently, most Mormons do not smoke.
Judaism and smoking

The Jewish Rabbi Yisrael Meir Kagan Yisrael Meir Kagan

Yisrael Meir Kagan was an influential Eastern Europe [i]an rabbi [i], Halakhist [i], Kabbalist [i] ... 

  was one of the first Jewish authorities to speak out on smoking. He considered it a health risk and a waste of time, and had little patience for those who claimed addiction, stating that they never should have started smoking in the first place .

A shift toward health-oriented concerns may be observed in some people's interpretations of Jewish law . For instance, when the link between smoking and health was still doubted, Rabbi Moses Feinstein Moshe Feinstein

Rabbi Moshe Feinstein was a Haredi [i] Orthodox [i] Rabbi [i] and scholar, who was worl ... 

 response stated that smoking was permitted, although still inadvisable.

More recently, rabbinic responsa tend to argue that smoking is prohibited as self-endangerment under Jewish law and that smoking in indoor spaces should be restricted as a type of damage to others.
Other opinions on smoking
Much opposition to smoking is based on arguments grounded on alleged unethical corporate practices of the tobacco industry and public health concerns. Many public interest groups are interested in controlling smoking-induced problems through political means, and mostly consist of former smokers, health professionals, corporate responsibility advocates, school and community-based organizations, and environmental groups.

David Krogh argues for tobacco's uniqueness as a drug and accounts for the fact that in the past, many moralists who disapproved of "recreational" drugs approved of tobacco.

Krogh's book argues that tobacco is not like alcohol or so-called controlled substances, including marijuana, and that smokers use tobacco to normalize their feelings within the narrow band necessary for functioning within an industrial society, where energy levels have to be carefully rationed according to expectations.

Kant Immanuel Kant

Immanuel Kant , was a German [i] philosopher [i] from Knigsberg in East Prussia [i] . ... 

ians, however, argue against self-injury as a necessary duty, consistent with the moral law or categorical imperative.

Legal issues and regulation




On February 28 2005, an international treaty, the WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control, took effect. The FCTC is the world's first public health treaty. Countries that sign on as parties agree to a set of common goals, minimum standards for tobacco control policy, and to cooperate in dealing with cross-border challenges such as cigarette smuggling. Currently the WHO declares that 4 billion people will be covered by the treaty, which includes 168 signatories. Amongst other steps, signatories are to put together legislation that will eliminate secondhand smoke in indoor workplaces, public transport, indoor public places and, as appropriate, other public places.

Sale to minors

In many countries, including the United States, the European Union member states, New Zealand, Canada, South Africa, Brazil and Australia, it is illegal to sell tobacco products to minors. In the United Kingdom , The Netherlands, Austria and South Africa it is illegal to sell tobacco products to people under the age of 16. In 46 of the 50 United States, the minimum age is 18, except for Alabama, Alaska, New Jersey, and Utah where the legal age is 19. Some countries have also legislated against giving tobacco products to minors, and even against minors engaging in the act of smoking. Underlying such laws is the belief that people should make an informed decision regarding the risks of tobacco use. These laws have a lax enforcement in some nations and states. In other regions, cigarettes are still sold to minors because the fines for the violation are lower or comparable to the profit made from the sales to minors.

Taxation


Many governments have introduced excise taxes on cigarettes in order to reduce the consumption of cigarettes. Money collected from the cigarette taxes are frequently used to pay for tobacco use prevention programs, therefore making it a method of internalizing external costs.

In 2002, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention is an agency of the U.S.... 

 said that each pack of cigarettes sold in the United States costs the nation more than $7 in medical care and lost productivity. Another study by a team of health economists finds the combined price paid by their families and society is about $41 per pack of cigarettes.

Substantial scientific evidence shows that higher cigarette prices result in lower overall cigarette consumption. Most studies indicate that a 10% increase in price will reduce overall cigarette consumption by 3% to 5%. Youth, minorities, and low-income smokers are two to three times more likely to quit or smoke less than other smokers in response to price increases.

Many nations have implemented some form of tobacco taxation. As of 1997, Denmark had the highest cigarette tax burden of $4.02 per pack. Taiwan only had a tax burden of $0.62 per pack. Currently, the average price and excise tax on cigarettes in the United States is well below those in many other industrialized nations.

The cigarette taxes vary from state to state in the United States. For example, South Carolina has a cigarette taxes of only 7 cents per pack, while Rhode Island has a cigarette tax of $2.46 per pack. In Alabama, Illinois, Missouri, New York City, Tennessee, and Virginia, counties and cities may impose an additional limited tax on a price of cigarettes.

Due to the high taxation, the price of an average pack of cigarettes in New Jersey is $6.35 , which is still less than the approximated external cost of a pack of cigarettes.

Some nations are reluctant to increase tobacco taxes because they fear the reduction of tobacco tax revenues and increase in smuggling.

Restrictions on cigarette advertising

Several Western countries have also put restrictions on cigarette advertising. In the United States, all television advertising of tobacco products has been prohibited since 1971. In Australia, the Tobacco Advertising Prohibition Act 1992 prohibits tobacco advertising in any form, with a very small number of exceptions . Other countries have legislated particularly against advertising that appears to target minors.

Package warnings

Some countries also impose legal requirements on the packaging of tobacco products. For example in the countries of the European Union, Turkey, Australia and South Africa, cigarette packs must be prominently labelled with the health risks associated with smoking . Canada, Australia and Brazil have also imposed labels upon cigarette packs warning smokers of the effects, and they include graphic images of the potential health effects of smoking. Cards are also inserted into cigarette packs in Canada. There are sixteen of them, and only one comes in a pack. They explain different methods of quitting smoking. Also, in the United Kingdom, there have been a number of graphic NHS National Health Service

The National Health Service is the "public face" of the four publicly funded [i] health care system [i]... 

 advertisements, one showing a cigarette filled with fatty deposits, as if the cigarette is symbolising the artery of a smoker.

Smoking bans



Some jurisdictions impose restrictions on where smoking is allowed. Several European countries such as the Republic of Ireland, Norway, Sweden, Italy, Spain and Scotland have legislated against smoking in public places, often including bars and restaurants. Similar bans will also take effect in the rest of the UK at various intervals . In the United States United States

The United States of America, also known as the United States, the U.S., the U.S.A., a... 

, many states prohibit smoking in restaurants, and some also prohibit smoking in bars. In New Zealand New Zealand

New Zealand is a country in the south-western Pacific Ocean [i] consisting of two large islands and many ... 

 and Australia Australia

Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere [i] c ... 

 smoking is banned in all public places, including bars and restaurants.

See the List of smoking bans List of smoking bans

The following is a list of smoking ban [i]s. ... 

 article for a full list of restrictions in various areas around the world.

See also

  • Other forms of tobacco use:
    • Bidi Bidi

      A bidi is a thin, often flavored, Indian [i] cigarette [i] made of tobacco [i] wrapped in a tendu [i] ... 

    • Chewing tobacco
    • Dipping tobacco
    • Kretek Kretek

      Clove cigarettes, are cigarette [i]s made with a complex blend of tobacco [i], cloves [i] and a flavorin ... 

    • Smoking pipe Smoking pipe

      A smoking pipe is a device used for smoking [i] combustible substances such as tobacco [i] ... 

    • Snuff
    • Snus Snus

      Snus is a moist powder tobacco [i], a kind of snuff [i]. ... 

  • Other forms of smoking:
    • cannabis Cannabis

      Cannabis is a genus [i] of flowering plant [i] that includes one or more species. ... 

    • hashish Hashish

      Hashish is a preparation of a psychoactive [i] drug [i] derived from the ... 

    • cocaine Cocaine

      Cocaine is a crystalline [i] tropane [i] alkaloid [i] that is obtained from the leaves of the coca [i] p... 

  • Cigarette packet warning signs Tobacco packaging warning signs

    Cigarette packet warning signs are health [i] warning messages that appear on the packaging [i] ... 

  • List of iconic smokers List of iconic smokers

    div class="boilerplate metadata" id="afd" style="margin: 0 5%; padding: 0 7px 7px 7px; background: #EDF1F1; bo... 

  • List of tobacco-related deaths
  • Pack year
  • Smoking culture Smoking culture

    Since the introduction of tobacco [i] to the world at large in the 1500s, a smoking culture has built ar ... 

  • Smoking fetish Smoking fetishism

    [i]

[i]
... 


Notes


References

  • Joint Committee on Smoking and Health. Smoking and health: physician responsibility; a statement of the Joint Committee on Smoking and Health. Chest 1995; 198:201- 208
  • Boffetta, P., Agudo, A., Ahrens, W., Benhamou, E., Benhamou, S., Darby, S.C., Ferro, G., Fortes, C., Gonzalez, C.A., Jockel, K.H., Krauss, M., Kreienbrock, L., Kreuzer, M., Mendes, A., Merletti, F., Nyberg, F., Pershagen, G., Pohlabeln, H., Riboli, E., Schmid, G., Simonato, L., Tredaniel, J., Whitley, E., Wichmann, H.E., Saracci, R. 1998. Multicenter case-control study of exposure to environmental tobacco smoke and lung cancer in Europe. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 90:1440-1450.
  • Osvaldo P. Almeida, Gary K. Hulse, David Lawrence and Leon Flicker, ": contrasting evidence from a systematic review of case-control and cohort studies," Addiction, Volume 97, Issue 1, Page 15 - January 2002.

Further reading

  • Iain Gately: La Diva Nicotina. The Story of How Tobacco Seduced the World .
  • David Krough: Smoking: The Artificial Passion .
  • G Invernizzi et al., Particulate matter from tobacco versus diesel car exhaust: an educational perspective.

External links


History

  • by Gene Borio
  • 7 million documents related to advertising, manufacturing, marketing, sales, and scientific research of tobacco products.
  • , by G. L. Apperson, 1914, from Project Gutenberg Project Gutenberg

    Project Gutenberg is a volunteer effort to digitize, archive, and distribute cultural works.... 



Prevention and self help




  • from the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
  • News and articles about smoking addiction

Smokers' rights sites



Statistics and studies

  • by GreenFacts GreenFacts

    GreenFacts, formerly the GreenFacts Foundation, is an international non-profit [i] organization fo ... 

    .
  • — BBC News