Timeline of geology
Encyclopedia
Timeline of geology
: see also geologic time scale
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Geology
Geology is the science comprising the study of solid Earth, the rocks of which it is composed, and the processes by which it evolves. Geology gives insight into the history of the Earth, as it provides the primary evidence for plate tectonics, the evolutionary history of life, and past climates...
: see also geologic time scale
Geologic time scale
The geologic time scale provides a system of chronologic measurement relating stratigraphy to time that is used by geologists, paleontologists and other earth scientists to describe the timing and relationships between events that have occurred during the history of the Earth...
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Early works
- c. 1025 – Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī publishes the Kitab fi Tahqiq ma li'l-Hind (Researches on India), in which he discusses the geology of India and hypothesizes that it was once a sea.
- 1027 – AvicennaAvicennaAbū ʿAlī al-Ḥusayn ibn ʿAbd Allāh ibn Sīnā , commonly known as Ibn Sīnā or by his Latinized name Avicenna, was a Persian polymath, who wrote almost 450 treatises on a wide range of subjects, of which around 240 have survived...
publishes The Book of HealingThe Book of HealingThe Book of Healing is a scientific and philosophical encyclopedia written by Abū Alī ibn Sīnā from Asfahana, near Bukhara in Greater Persia. Despite its English title, it is not in fact concerned with medicine...
, in which he hypothesizes on two causes of mountainMountainImage:Himalaya_annotated.jpg|thumb|right|The Himalayan mountain range with Mount Everestrect 58 14 160 49 Chomo Lonzorect 200 28 335 52 Makalurect 378 24 566 45 Mount Everestrect 188 581 920 656 Tibetan Plateaurect 250 406 340 427 Rong River...
s, and proposes the law of superpositionLaw of superpositionThe law of superposition is a key axiom based on observations of natural history that is a foundational principle of sedimentary stratigraphy and so of other geology dependent natural sciences:...
and the concept of uniformitarianismUniformitarianism (science)In the philosophy of naturalism, the uniformitarianism assumption is that the same natural laws and processes that operate in the universe now, have always operated in the universe in the past and apply everywhere in the universe. It has included the gradualistic concept that "the present is the...
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16th and 17th centuries
- 1556 – AgricolaGeorg AgricolaGeorgius Agricola was a German scholar and scientist. Known as "the father of mineralogy", he was born at Glauchau in Saxony. His real name was Georg Pawer; Agricola is the Latinised version of his name, Pawer meaning "farmer"...
publishes De re metallicaDe re metallicaDe re metallica is a book cataloguing the state of the art of mining, refining, and smelting metals, published in 1556. The author was Georg Bauer, whose pen name was the Latinized Georgius Agricola...
. This book acts as the standard mining and assaying text for the next 250 years. - 1669 – Nicolas StenoNicolas StenoNicolas Steno |Latinized]] to Nicolaus Steno -gen. Nicolai Stenonis-, Italian Niccolo' Stenone) was a Danish pioneer in both anatomy and geology. Already in 1659 he decided not to accept anything simply written in a book, instead resolving to do research himself. He is considered the father of...
puts forward his theory that sedimentary strata had been deposited in former seas, and that fossils were organic in origin
18th century
- 1701 – Edmund Halley suggests using the salinity and evaporation of the Mediterranean to determine the age of the Earth
- 1743 – Dr Christopher Packe produces a geological map of south-east England
- 1746 – Jean-Étienne GuettardJean-Étienne GuettardJean-Étienne Guettard , French naturalist and mineralogist, was born at Étampes, near Paris.In boyhood, he gained a knowledge of plants from his grandfather, who was an apothecary, and later he qualified as a doctor in medicine...
presents the first mineralogical map of France to the French Academy of SciencesFrench Academy of SciencesThe French Academy of Sciences is a learned society, founded in 1666 by Louis XIV at the suggestion of Jean-Baptiste Colbert, to encourage and protect the spirit of French scientific research...
. - 1760 – John MichellJohn MichellJohn Michell was an English natural philosopher and geologist whose work spanned a wide range of subjects from astronomy to geology, optics, and gravitation. He was both a theorist and an experimenter....
suggests earthquakes are caused by one layer of rocks rubbing against another - 1776 – James KeirJames KeirJames Keir FRS was a Scottish chemist, geologist, industrialist, and inventor, and an important member of the Lunar Society of Birmingham.- Life and work :...
suggests that some rocks, such as those at the Giant's CausewayGiant's CausewayThe Giant's Causeway is an area of about 40,000 interlocking basalt columns, the result of an ancient volcanic eruption. It is located in County Antrim on the northeast coast of Northern Ireland, about three miles northeast of the town of Bushmills...
, might have been formed by the crystallisation of molten lava - 1779 – Comte de BuffonGeorges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de BuffonGeorges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon was a French naturalist, mathematician, cosmologist, and encyclopedic author.His works influenced the next two generations of naturalists, including Jean-Baptiste Lamarck and Georges Cuvier...
speculates that the Earth is older than the 6,000 years suggested by the Bible - 1785 – James HuttonJames HuttonJames Hutton was a Scottish physician, geologist, naturalist, chemical manufacturer and experimental agriculturalist. He is considered the father of modern geology...
presents paper entitled Theory of the Earth – earth must be old - 1799 – William SmithWilliam Smith (geologist)William 'Strata' Smith was an English geologist, credited with creating the first nationwide geological map. He is known as the "Father of English Geology" for collating the geological history of England and Wales into a single record, although recognition was very slow in coming...
produces the first large scale geological map, of the area around Bath
19th century
- 1809 – William MaclureWilliam MaclureWilliam Maclure, American - British social experimenter on new types of community life together with British social reformer Robert Owen, , in Indiana State, U. S. A....
conducts the first geological survey of the eastern United States - 1830 – Sir Charles LyellCharles LyellSir Charles Lyell, 1st Baronet, Kt FRS was a British lawyer and the foremost geologist of his day. He is best known as the author of Principles of Geology, which popularised James Hutton's concepts of uniformitarianism – the idea that the earth was shaped by slow-moving forces still in operation...
publishes book, Principles of Geology, which describes the world as being several hundred million years old - 1837 – Louis AgassizLouis AgassizJean Louis Rodolphe Agassiz was a Swiss paleontologist, glaciologist, geologist and a prominent innovator in the study of the Earth's natural history. He grew up in Switzerland and became a professor of natural history at University of Neuchâtel...
begins his glaciation studies which eventually demonstrate that the Earth has had at least one ice ageIce ageAn ice age or, more precisely, glacial age, is a generic geological period of long-term reduction in the temperature of the Earth's surface and atmosphere, resulting in the presence or expansion of continental ice sheets, polar ice sheets and alpine glaciers... - 1841 – August BreithauptAugust BreithauptJohann Friedrich August Breithaupt was a German mineralogist and professor at Freiberg Mining Academy in Freiberg, Saxony.-Biography:...
, Vollstandiges Handbuch der Mineralogie - 1848 – James Dwight DanaJames Dwight DanaJames Dwight Dana was an American geologist, mineralogist and zoologist. He made pioneering studies of mountain-building, volcanic activity, and the origin and structure of continents and oceans around the world.-Early life and career:...
, Manual of Mineralogy - 1862 – Lord Kelvin attempts to find the age of the Earth by examining its cooling time and estimates that the Earth is between 20—400 million years old
- 1884 – Marcel Alexandre BertrandMarcel Alexandre BertrandMarcel Alexandre Bertrand was a French geologist who was born in Paris. He was a student at the École Polytechnique, and beginning in 1869 he attended the Ecole des Mines de Paris. Beginning in 1877 he performed geological mapping studies of Provence, Jura Mountains and the Alps...
, NappeNappeIn geology, a nappe is a large sheetlike body of rock that has been moved more than or 5 km from its original position. Nappes form during continental plate collisions, when folds are sheared so much that they fold back over on themselves and break apart. The resulting structure is a...
and Thrust faultThrust faultA thrust fault is a type of fault, or break in the Earth's crust across which there has been relative movement, in which rocks of lower stratigraphic position are pushed up and over higher strata. They are often recognized because they place older rocks above younger...
theory
20th century
- 1903 – George DarwinGeorge DarwinSir George Howard Darwin, FRS was an English astronomer and mathematician.-Biography:Darwin was born at Down House, Kent, the second son and fifth child of Charles and Emma Darwin...
and John JolyJohn JolyJohn Joly FRS was an Irish physicist, famous for his development of radiotherapy in the treatment of cancer...
claim that radioactivity is partially responsible for the Earth's heat - 1907 – Bertram BoltwoodBertram BoltwoodBertram Borden Boltwood was an American pioneer of radiochemistry.He graduated from Yale University, and taught there 1897-1900...
proposes that the amount of lead in uranium and thorium ores might be used to determine the Earth's age and crudely dates some rocks to have ages between 410—2200 million years - 1911 – Arthur HolmesArthur HolmesArthur Holmes was a British geologist. As a child he lived in Low Fell, Gateshead and attended the Gateshead Higher Grade School .-Age of the earth:...
uses radioactivity to date rocks, the oldest being 1.6 billion years old - 1912 – Alfred WegenerAlfred WegenerAlfred Lothar Wegener was a German scientist, geophysicist, and meteorologist.He is most notable for his theory of continental drift , proposed in 1912, which hypothesized that the continents were slowly drifting around the Earth...
proposes that all the continents once formed a single landmass called Pangaea that broke apart via continental driftContinental driftContinental drift is the movement of the Earth's continents relative to each other. The hypothesis that continents 'drift' was first put forward by Abraham Ortelius in 1596 and was fully developed by Alfred Wegener in 1912... - 1912 - George BarrowGeorge BarrowGeorge Barrow was a British geologist.Barrow matriculated at London University in 1871, holding a Turner scholarship. Admitted to King's College London, he studied science, winning prizes in mathematics and geology. He was the first to map a metamorphic gradient by determining a sequence of...
mappes zones of metamorphismMetamorphismMetamorphism is the solid-state recrystallization of pre-existing rocks due to changes in physical and chemical conditions, primarily heat, pressure, and the introduction of chemically active fluids. Mineralogical, chemical and crystallographic changes can occur during this process...
(the Barrovian sequence) in southern ScotlandScotlandScotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. Occupying the northern third of the island of Great Britain, it shares a border with England to the south and is bounded by the North Sea to the east, the Atlantic Ocean to the north and west, and the North Channel and Irish Sea to the... - 1913 – Albert Michelson measures tideTideTides are the rise and fall of sea levels caused by the combined effects of the gravitational forces exerted by the moon and the sun and the rotation of the Earth....
s in the solid body of the Earth - 1920 - Pentti EskolaPentti EskolaPentti Eelis Eskola was a Finnish geologist who developed the concept of metamorphic facies. He won the Wollaston Medal in 1958, and was given a state funeral upon his death....
developes the concept of metamorphic faciesMetamorphic faciesThe metamorphic facies are groups of mineral compositions in metamorphic rocks, that are typical for a certain field in pressure-temperature space... - 1928 – N. L. BowenNorman L. BowenNorman Levi Bowen was born in Kingston, Ontario, Canada June 21, 1887 and died on September 11, 1956. Bowen "revolutionized experimental petrology and our understanding of mineral crystallization...
publishes The Evolution of the Igneous Rocks, revolutionizing experimental igneous petrologyPetrologyPetrology is the branch of geology that studies rocks, and the conditions in which rocks form.... - 1935 – Charles Richter invents a logarithmic scale to measure the intensity of earthquakeEarthquakeAn earthquake is the result of a sudden release of energy in the Earth's crust that creates seismic waves. The seismicity, seismism or seismic activity of an area refers to the frequency, type and size of earthquakes experienced over a period of time...
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) - 1941 – Nickel-Strunz classification, Karl H. Strunz, Mineralogische Tabellen
- (1948 - 1959) – Felix Andries Vening MeineszFelix Andries Vening MeineszFelix Andries Vening Meinesz was a Dutch geophysicist and geodesist. He is known for his invention of a precise method for measuring gravity. Thanks to his invention, it became possible to measure gravity at sea, which led him to the discovery of gravity anomalies above the ocean floor...
investigations show gravity anomalies, implying that the crust is moving (together with J.H.F. UmbgroveJohannes Herman Frederik UmbgroveJohannes Herman Frederik Umbgrove , called in short Jan Umbgrove, was a Dutch geologist and Earth scientist.Umbgrove studied geology at Leiden University, he finished his studies in 1926...
, B.G. EscherBerend George EscherBerend George Escher was a Dutch geologist.Escher had a broad interest, but his research was mainly on crystallography, mineralogy and volcanology. He was a pioneer in experimental geology. He was a half-brother of the artist M.C. Escher, and had some influence on his work due to his knowledge of...
and Ph.H. KuenenPhilip Henry KuenenPhilip Henry Kuenen was a Dutch geologist.Kuenen spent his earliest youth in Scotland, where his father was professor in physics. He studied geology at Leiden University, where he was a pupil of K. Martin and B.G. Escher. He finished his studies in 1925 and then became assistant to Escher...
) - 1951 – Alfred RittmannAlfred RittmannAlfred Rittmann was a world's leading volcanologist at his time. His book "Vulkane und ihre Tätigkeit" was translated in five languages and it was a standard work on volcanism. He drew the right conclusion that orogenic uplift volcanism , lacks alkaline basalts...
links subductionSubductionIn geology, subduction is the process that takes place at convergent boundaries by which one tectonic plate moves under another tectonic plate, sinking into the Earth's mantle, as the plates converge. These 3D regions of mantle downwellings are known as "Subduction Zones"...
, volcanismVolcanismVolcanism is the phenomenon connected with volcanoes and volcanic activity. It includes all phenomena resulting from and causing magma within the crust or mantle of a planet to rise through the crust and form volcanic rocks on the surface....
and the Wadati-Benioff zone - 1953 – Maurice EwingMaurice EwingWilliam Maurice "Doc" Ewing was an American geophysicist and oceanographer.Ewing has been described as a pioneering geophysicist who worked on the research of seismic reflection and refraction in ocean basins, ocean bottom photography, submarine sound transmission , deep sea coring of the ocean...
and Bruce Heezen discover the Great Global Rift running along the Mid-Atlantic RidgeMid-Atlantic RidgeThe Mid-Atlantic Ridge is a mid-ocean ridge, a divergent tectonic plate boundary located along the floor of the Atlantic Ocean, and part of the longest mountain range in the world. It separates the Eurasian Plate and North American Plate in the North Atlantic, and the African Plate from the South... - 1960 – Harry HessHarry Hammond HessHarry Hammond Hess was a geologist and United States Navy officer in World War II.Considered one of the "founding fathers" of the unifying theory of plate tectonics, Rear Admiral Harry Hammond Hess was born on May 24, 1906 in New York City...
proposes that new sea floor might be created at mid-ocean rifts and destroyed at deep sea trenches - 1963 – Frederick Vine and Drummond MatthewsDrummond MatthewsDrummond Hoyle Matthews FRS was a British marine geologist and geophysicist and a key contributor to the theory of plate tectonics...
explain the stripes of magnetized rocks with alternating magnetic polarities running parallel to mid- ocean ridges as due to sea floor spreading and the periodic geomagnetic field reversals (Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis) - 1966 – Keiiti AkiKeiiti Akiwas a professor of Geophysics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology , seismologist, author and mentor. He co-authored with Paul G. Richards, "Quantitative Seismology: theory and methods".Aki was born in Yokohama, Japan...
discovers the seismic momentSeismic momentSeismic moment is a quantity used by earthquake seismologists to measure the size of an earthquake. The scalar seismic moment M_0 is defined by the equationM_0=\mu AD, where*\mu is the shear modulus of the rocks involved in the earthquake...
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) - 1979 – Thomas C. Hanks and Hiroo KanamoriHiroo Kanamoriis a Japanese American seismologist who has made fundamental contributions to understanding the physics of earthquakes and the tectonic processes that cause them....
, Moment magnitude scaleMoment magnitude scaleThe moment magnitude scale is used by seismologists to measure the size of earthquakes in terms of the energy released. The magnitude is based on the seismic moment of the earthquake, which is equal to the rigidity of the Earth multiplied by the average amount of slip on the fault and the size of...
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), it succeeds the Richter magnitude scaleRichter magnitude scaleThe expression Richter magnitude scale refers to a number of ways to assign a single number to quantify the energy contained in an earthquake.... - 1980 – Physicist Luis AlvarezLuis AlvarezLuis W. Alvarez was an American experimental physicist and inventor, who spent nearly all of his long professional career on the faculty of the University of California, Berkeley...
, his son, geologist Walter AlvarezWalter AlvarezWalter Alvarez is a professor in the Earth and Planetary Science department at the University of California, Berkeley. He is most widely known for the theory that dinosaurs were killed by an asteroid impact, developed in collaboration with his father, Nobel Prize winning physicist Luis...
, and others propose that the impact of a large extraterrestrial object caused the extinctionExtinctionIn biology and ecology, extinction is the end of an organism or of a group of organisms , normally a species. The moment of extinction is generally considered to be the death of the last individual of the species, although the capacity to breed and recover may have been lost before this point...
of the dinosaurDinosaurDinosaurs are a diverse group of animals of the clade and superorder Dinosauria. They were the dominant terrestrial vertebrates for over 160 million years, from the late Triassic period until the end of the Cretaceous , when the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event led to the extinction of...
s at the end of the Cretaceous PeriodCretaceous-Tertiary extinction eventThe Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, formerly named and still commonly referred to as the Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event, occurred approximately 65.5 million years ago at the end of the Maastrichtian age of the Cretaceous period. It was a large-scale mass extinction of animal and plant...
, about 65 million years ago.
21st century
- 2001 – Nickel-Strunz classification, Karl H. Strunz and Ernest H. Nickel, Strunz Mineralogical Tables 9 ed.