Time management refers to a range of skills, tools, and techniques used to
manageManagement in all business and human organization activity is simply the act of getting people together to accomplish desired goals and objectives. Management comprises planning, organizing, staffing, leading, directing, facilitating and controlling or manipulating an organization or effort for...
time when accomplishing specific tasks, projects and goals. This set encompass a wide scope of activities, and these include
planningPlanning in organizations and public policy is both the organizational process of creating and maintaining a plan; and the psychological process of thinking about the activities required to create a desired goal on some scale. As such, it is a fundamental property of intelligent behavior...
, allocating,
setting goalsGoal Setting involves establishing specific, measurable and time-targeted objectives. Work on the theory of goal-setting suggests that it's an effective tool for making progress by ensuring that participants in a group with a common goal are clearly aware of what is expected from them if an...
, delegation, analysis of time spent,
monitoringTo monitor or monitoring generally means to be aware of the state of a system. Below are a couple of specific examples:* to observe a situation for any changes which may occur over time, using a monitor or measuring device of some sort:...
, organizing,
schedulingScheduling is the process of deciding how to commit resources between a variety of possible tasks. Time can be specified or floating as part of a sequence of events.Scheduling may refer to:...
, and prioritizing.
Initially time management referred to just business or work activities, but eventually the term broadened to include personal activities also. A time management system is a designed combination of processes, tools and techniques.
Some authors (such as Stephen R. Covey) offered a categorization scheme for the hundreds of time management approaches that they reviewed
- First generation: reminders based on clocks and watches, but with computer implementation possible; can be used to alert a person when a task is to be done.
- Second generation: planning and preparation based on calendar and appointment books; includes setting goals.
- Third generation: planning, prioritizing, controlling (using a personal organizer, other paper-based objects, or computer or PDA-based systems) activities on a daily basis. This approach implies spending some time in clarifying values and priorities.
- Fourth generation: being efficient and proactive using any of the above tools; places goals and roles as the controlling element of the system and favors importance over urgency.
Some of the recent general arguments related to "time" and "management" point out that the term "time management" is misleading and that the concept should actually imply that it is "the management of our own activities, to make sure that they are accomplished within the available or allocated time, which is an unmanageable continuous resource".
Time management literature paraphrased:
"Get Organized" - paperwork and task triage
"Protect Your Time" - insulate, isolate, delegate
"set gravitational goals" - that attract actions automatically
"Achieve through Goal management Goal Focus" -
motivationMotivation is the activation or energization of goal-oriented behavior. Motivation may be internal or external. The term is generally used for humans but, theoretically, it can also be used to describe the causes for animal behavior as well. This article refers to human motivation...
al emphasis
- "Work in Priority
Priority may refer to:* Priority date, a concept of establishing waiting times in the immigration process by United States Department of State* Priority level, the priority of emergency communications...
Order" - set goalsGoal Setting involves establishing specific, measurable and time-targeted objectives. Work on the theory of goal-setting suggests that it's an effective tool for making progress by ensuring that participants in a group with a common goal are clearly aware of what is expected from them if an...
and prioritize
- "Use Magical Tools to Get More Out of Your Time" - depends on when written
- "Master the Skills of Time Management"
- "Go with the Flow" - natural rhythms, Eastern philosophy
- "Recover from Bad Time Habits" - recovery
Recovery or Recover can refer to:* Recovery of a missing or stolen item.-Economics:*Economic recovery, the end of a recession or depression, marked by renewed growth after the slump in the business cycle.-Electronics:...
from underlying psychological problems, e.g. procrastinationProcrastination is the deferment of actions or tasks to a later time. Psychologists often cite this human behavior as a mechanism for coping with the anxiety associated with starting or completing any task or decision....
Time management and related concepts
Time management has been considered as subsets of different concepts such as:
- Project management
Project management is the discipline of planning, organizing, and managing resources to bring about the successful completion of specific project goals and objectives...
. Time Management, can be considered as a project management subset, and is more commonly known as project planningProject planning is part of project management, which relates to the use of schedules such as Gantt charts to plan and subsequently report progress within the project environment....
and project scheduling. Time Management is also been identified as one of the core functions identified in project management .
- Attention management
Attention management refers to models and tools for supporting the management of attention at the individual or at the collective level , and at the short term of at a longer terms ....
: Attention management relates to the management of cognitiveCognition is the scientific term for "the process of thought". Usage of the term varies in different disciplines; for example in psychology and cognitive science, it usually refers to an information processing view of an individual's psychological functions...
resources, and in particular the time that humans allocate their mind (and organizations the minds of their employees) to conduct some activities.
- Personal knowledge management
Personal knowledge management refers to a collection of processes that an individual needs to carry out in order to gather, classify, store, search, and retrieve knowledge in his/her daily activities...
: see below (Personal time management).
Personal Time Management
Time management strategies are often associated with the recommendation to set goals. These goals are recorded and may be broken down into a
projectProject management is the discipline of planning, organizing, and managing resources to bring about the successful completion of specific project goals and objectives...
, an action plan, or a simple task list. For individual tasks or for goals, an importance rating may be established, deadlines may be set, and priorities assigned. This process results in a plan with a task list or a schedule or calendar of activities. Authors may recommend a daily, weekly, monthly or other planning periods, usually fixed, but sometimes variable. Different planning periods may be associated with different scope of planning or review. Authors may or may not emphasize reviews of performance against plan. Routine and recurring tasks may or may not be integrated into the time management plan and, if integrated, the integration can be accomplished in various ways.
- see also: personal knowledge management
Personal knowledge management refers to a collection of processes that an individual needs to carry out in order to gather, classify, store, search, and retrieve knowledge in his/her daily activities...
How We Use Time
When we spend time, there is no improvement in efficiency, productivity, or effectiveness. The time is gone without a return. We save time when we perform tasks in less time or with less effort than previously. We use shortcuts and processes that streamline activities. We invest time when we take time now to save time later.
We spend time when we go to a movie; however, if we are a screenwriter, the time spent in the movie is an investment since it will help hone our writing skills. If we invest time to learn screenwriting software, we will save time in the future when we compose our scripts. However, this is still relative to the point that we are able to turn better writing skills and faster script development into profit - if we are able to sell it. In capitalism our investment, might very well be someone else's profit.
Delegation is a valuable investment of our time. When we delegate, we teach someone to perform tasks we usually perform. While the training process takes time now, the investment pays off later since we free our time to perform higher-payoff activities.
The goal is to look for ways a person can save and invest time.
Task list
A
task list (also
to-do list) is a list of
tasksIn project management a task is an activity that needs to be accomplished within a defined period of time. An assignment is a task under the responsibility of an assignee which should have a start and end date defined. One or more assignments on a task puts the task under execution. Completion of...
to be completed, such as chores or steps toward completing a project. It is an
inventoryInventory is a list for goods and materials, or those goods and materials themselves, held available in stock by a business. It is also used for a list of the contents of a household and for a list for testamentary purposes of the possessions of someone who has died...
tool which serves as an alternative or supplement to
memoryIn psychology, memory is an organism's mental ability to store, retain, and recall information. Traditional studies of memory began in the fields of philosophy, including techniques of artificially enhancing the memory....
.
Task lists are used in self-management, grocery lists,
business managementManagement in all business and human organization activity is simply the act of getting people together to accomplish desired goals and objectives. Management comprises planning, organizing, staffing, leading, directing, facilitating and controlling or manipulating an organization or effort for...
,
project managementProject management is the discipline of planning, organizing, and managing resources to bring about the successful completion of specific project goals and objectives...
, and
software developmentSoftware development is the set of activities that results in software products. Software development may include research, new development, modification, reuse, re-engineering, maintenance, or any other activities that result in software products...
. It may involve more than one list.
When you accomplish one of the items on a task list, you
check it off or
cross it off. The traditional method is to write these on a piece of paper with a
penA pen is a long, thin rounded device used to apply ink to a surface for the purpose of writing, usually paper. There are several different types, including ballpoint, rollerball, fountain, felt-tip. Historically, reed pens, quill pens, and dip pens were used. Modern day pens come in a varity of...
or
pencilA pencil is a writing or drawing device consisting of a slippery, thin stick of pigment and clay, usually encased in a thin wood cylinder, although paper and plastic sheaths are also used...
, usually on a note pad or clip-board.
Numerous digital equivalents are now available, including
PIMA personal information manager is a type of application software that functions as a personal organizer.-Uses:...
(Personal information management) applications and most
PDAsA personal digital assistant is a handheld computer, also known as a palmtop computer. Newer PDAs commonly have color screens and audio capabilities, enabling them to be used as mobile phones , web browsers, or portable media players. Many PDAs can access the Internet, intranets or extranets...
. There are also several web-based task list applications, many of which are free.
Task list organization
Task lists are often tiered. The simplest tiered system includes a general to-do list (or task-holding file) to record all the tasks the person needs to accomplish, and a daily to-do list which is created each day by transferring tasks from the general to-do list.
Task lists are often prioritized:
- An early advocate of "ABC" prioritization was Alan Lakein
Alan Lakein is a well-known author on personal time management, including How to Get Control of Your Time and Your Life which has sold over 3 million copies....
(See Books below.). In his system "A" items were the most important ("A-1" the most important within that group), "B" next most important, "C" least important.
- A particular method of applying the ABC method assigns "A" to tasks to be done within a day
A day is a unit of time equivalent to approximately 24 hours. It is not an SI unit but it is accepted for use with SI. The SI unit of time is the second....
, "B" a weekA week is a time unit equal to a number of days, now usually seven days. Weeks of between 4 and 20 days have been used historically in various places.-Four-day:The Igbo of Nigeria have a traditional calendar with a 4 day week...
, and "C" a monthThe month is a unit of time, used with calendars, which is approximately as long as some natural period related to the motion of the Moon; month and Moon are cognates. The traditional concept arose with the cycle of moon phases; such months are synodic months and last approximately 29.53 days...
.
- To prioritize a daily task list, one either records the tasks in the order of highest priority
Priority may refer to:* Priority date, a concept of establishing waiting times in the immigration process by United States Department of State* Priority level, the priority of emergency communications...
, or assigns them a numberA number is a mathematical object used in counting and measuring. A notational symbol which represents a number is called a numeral, but in common usage the word number is used for both the abstract object and the symbol, as well as for the word for the number...
after they are listed ("1" for highest priority, "2" for second highest priority, etc.) which indicates in which order to execute the tasks. The latter method is generally faster, allowing the tasks to be recorded more quickly.
Alternatives to Prioritizing:
A completely different approach which argues against prioritising altogether was put forward by British author
Mark ForsterMark Forster is a British author best known for three books on time management. A business coach until he retired on 24 November 2008, in the past he has also worked for the British Army, Ministry of Defence and the Church of England....
in his book "Do It Tomorrow and Other Secrets of Time Management". This is based on the idea of operating "closed" to-do lists, instead of the traditional "open" to-do list. He argues that the traditional never-ending to-do lists virtually guarantees that some of your work will be left undone. This approach advocates getting all your work done, every day, and if you are unable to achieve it helps you diagnose where you are going wrong and what needs to change. Recently,
ForsterMark Forster is a British author best known for three books on time management. A business coach until he retired on 24 November 2008, in the past he has also worked for the British Army, Ministry of Defence and the Church of England....
developed the "Autofocus Time Management System", which further systematizes working a to-do list as a series of closed sublists and emphasizes intuitive choices.
Software applications
Modern task list applications may have built-in task hierarchy (tasks are composed of subtasks which again may contain subtasks), may support multiple methods of filtering and ordering the list of tasks, and may allow one to associate arbitrarily long notes for each task.
In contrast to the concept of allowing the person to use multiple filtering methods, at least one new software product additionally contains a mode where the software will attempt to dynamically determine the best tasks for any given moment.
Many of the software products for time management support multiple users. It allows the person to give tasks to other users and use the software for communation
Task list applications may be thought of as lightweight personal information manager or
project management softwareProject management software is a term covering many types of software, including scheduling, cost control and budget management, resource allocation, collaboration software, communication, quality management and documentation or administration systems, which are used to deal with the complexity of...
.
Resistors
- Fear
Fear is an emotional response to a threat. It is a basic survival mechanism occurring in response to a specific stimulus, such as pain or the threat of danger. Some psychologists such as John B. Watson, Robert Plutchik, and Paul Ekman have suggested that fear is one of a small set of basic or...
of change: Change can be daunting and one may be afraid to change what's proven to work in the past.
- Uncertainty
Uncertainty is a term used in subtly different ways in a number of fields, including philosophy, physics, statistics, economics, finance, insurance, psychology, sociology, engineering, and information science...
: Even with the change being inevitable, one may be hesitant as being not sure where to start. Uncertainty about when or how to begin making a change can be significant.
- Time pressure: To save time, one has to invest time, and this time investment may be a cause of concern. Fearing that changing may involve more work at the start—and thus, in the very short term, make things worse—is a common resistor.
Attention Deficit Disorder
Excessive and chronic inability to manage time effectively may be a result of Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD). Diagnostic criteria includes:
A sense of underachievement, difficulty getting organized, trouble getting started, many projects going simultaneously and trouble with follow-through.
- The Prefrontal Cortex: The Prefrontal Cortex is the most evolved part of the brain. It controls the functions of attention span, impulse control, organization, learning from experience and self-monitoring, among others. Daniel Amen, M.D. offers possible solutions in Change Your Brain Change Your Life.
Drivers
- Increased effectiveness: One may feel the need to make more time so as to be more effective in performing the job and carrying out responsibilities.
- Performance improvement: Time management is an issue that often arises during performance appraisal
Performance appraisal, also known as employee appraisal, is a method by which the job performance of an employee is evaluated...
s or review meetings.
- Personal development
Personal development for individuals refers to actions oriented towards one or more of the following aims:* improving self-awareness* improving self-knowledge* building or renewing identity* developing strengths or talents...
: One may view changing the approach to time management as a personal development issue and reap the benefit of handling time differently at workEmployment is a contract between two parties, one being the employer and the other being the employee. An employee may be defined as: "A person in the service of another under any contract of hire, express or implied, oral or written, where the employer has the power or right to control and direct...
and at homeA home is a place of residence or refuge and comfort. It is usually a place in which an individual or a family can rest and be able to store personal property. Most modern-day households contain sanitary facilities and a means of preparing food. Animals have their own homes as well, either living...
.
- Increased responsibilities: A change in time-management approach may become necessary as a result of a promotion
A promotion is the advancement of an employee's rank or position in an organizational hierarchy system. Promotion may be an employee's reward for good performance i.e. positive appraisal...
or additional responsibilities. Since there is more work to do, and still the same amount of time to do it in, the approach must change.
Dwelling on the lists
- According to Sandberg, task lists "aren't the key to productivity [that] they're cracked up to be". He reports an estimated "30% of listers spend more time managing their lists than [they do] completing what's on them".
- This could be caused by procrastination
Procrastination is the deferment of actions or tasks to a later time. Psychologists often cite this human behavior as a mechanism for coping with the anxiety associated with starting or completing any task or decision....
by prolonging the planning activity. This is akin to analysis paralysisAnalysis paralysis is a phrase that describes a situation where the opportunity cost of decision analysis exceeds the benefits that could be gained by enacting some decision, or an informal or non-deterministic situation where the sheer quantity of analysis overwhelms the decision making process...
. As with any activity, there's a point of diminishing returns.
Rigid adherence
- Hendrickson asserts that rigid adherence to task lists can create a "tyranny of the to-do list" that forces one to "waste time on unimportant activities".
- Again, the point of diminishing returns
In economics, diminishing returns refers to how the marginal production of a factor of production, in contrast to the increase that would otherwise be normally expected, actually starts to progressively decrease the more of the factor are added...
applies here too, but toward the size of the task. Some level of detail must be taken for granted for a task system to work. Rather than put "clean the kitchen", "clean the bedroom", and "clean the bathroom", it is more efficient to put "housekeeping" and save time spent writing and reduce the system's administrative load (each task entered into the system generates a cost in time and effort to manage it, aside from the execution of the task). The risk of consolidating tasks, however, is that "housekeeping" in this example may prove overwhelming or nebulously defined, which will either increase the risk of procrastination, or a mismanaged project.
- Listing routine tasks wastes time. If you are in the habit of brushing your teeth every day, then there is no reason to put it down on the task list. The same goes for getting out of bed, fixing meals, etc. If you need to track routine tasks, then a standard list or chart may be useful, to avoid the procedure of manually listing these items over and over.
- To remain flexible, a task system must allow adaptation, in the form of rescheduling in the face of unexpected problems and opportunities, to save time spent on irrelevant or less than optimal tasks.
- To avoid getting stuck in a wasteful pattern, the task system should also include regular (monthly, semi-annual, and annual) planning and system-evaluation sessions, to weed out inefficiencies and ensure the user is headed in the direction he or she truly desires.
- If some time is not regularly spent on achieving long-range goals, the individual may get stuck in a perpetual holding pattern on short-term plans, like staying at a particular job much longer than originally planned.
Set goals for oneself and work on achieving these goals. Some people study in different ways so you are to find out how you are able to study and put that into action. Some people are able to understand their work if they can see it. Some need to touch and feel whatever is being spoken about in the book. Some people need to see what they are studying in order to understand what is coming out of the book.
Techniques for setting priorities
ABC analysis
A technique that has been used in business management for a long time is the categorization of large data into groups. These groups are often marked A, B, and C—hence the name. Activities are ranked upon these general criteria:
- A – Tasks that are perceived as being urgent and important.
- B – Tasks that are important but not urgent.
- C – Tasks that are neither urgent nor important.
Each group is then rank-ordered in priority. To further refine priority, some individuals choose to then force-rank all "B" items as either "A" or "C". ABC analysis can incorporate more than three groups. ABC analysis is frequently combined with
Pareto analysisPareto analysis is a statistical technique in decision making that is used for selection of a limited number of tasks that produce significant overall effect. It uses the Pareto principle – the idea that by doing 20% of work you can generate 80% of the advantage of doing the entire job...
.
Pareto analysis
This is the idea that 80% of tasks can be completed in 20% of the disposable time. The remaining 20% of tasks will take up 80% of the time. This principle is used to sort tasks into two parts. According to this form of
Pareto analysisPareto analysis is a statistical technique in decision making that is used for selection of a limited number of tasks that produce significant overall effect. It uses the Pareto principle – the idea that by doing 20% of work you can generate 80% of the advantage of doing the entire job...
it is recommended that tasks that fall into the first category be assigned a higher priority.
The
80-20-ruleThe Pareto principle states that, for many events, roughly 80% of the effects come from 20% of the causes. Business management thinker Joseph M...
can also be applied to increase productivity: it is assumed that 80% of the productivity can be achieved by doing 20% of the tasks. If productivity is the aim of time management, then these tasks should be prioritized higher.
Fit
Essentially, fit is the congruence of the requirements of a task (location, financial investment, time, etc.) with the available resources at the time. Often people are constrained by externally controlled schedules, locations, etc., and "fit" allows us to maximize our productivity given those constraints. For example, if one encounters a gap of 15 minutes in their schedule, it is typically more efficient to complete a task that would require 15 minutes, than to complete a task that can be done in 5 minutes, or to start a task that would take 4 weeks. This concept also applies to time of the day: free time at 7am is probably less usefully applied to the goal of learning the drums, and more productively a time to read a book. Lastly, fit can be applied to location: free time at home would be used differently from free time at work, in town, etc.
POSEC method
POSEC is an acronym for
Prioritize by Organizing, Streamlining, Economizing and Contributing.
The method dictates a template which emphasises an average individual's immediate sense of emotional and monetary security. It suggests that by attending to one's personal responsibilities first, an individual is better positioned to shoulder collective responsibilities.
Inherent in the acronym is a hierarchy of self-realization which mirrors
Abraham MaslowAbraham Harold Maslow was an American psychologist. He is noted for his conceptualization of a "hierarchy of human needs", and is considered the founder of humanistic psychology.-Biography:...
's
"Hierarchy of needs"Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a theory in psychology, proposed by Abraham Maslow in his 1943 paper A Theory of Human Motivation, which he subsequently extended to include his observations of humans' innate curiosity....
.
- PRIORITIZE-Your time and define your life by goals.
- ORGANIZING-Things you have to accomplish regularly to be successful. (Family and Finances)
- STREAMLINING-Things you may not like to do, but must do. (Work and Chores)
- ECONOMIZING-Things you should do or may even like to do, but they're not pressingly urgent. (Pastimes and Socializing)
- CONTRIBUTING-By paying attention to the few remaining things that make a difference. (Social Obligations)
The Eisenhower Method
All tasks are evaluated using the criteria important/unimportant and urgent/not urgent and put in according quadrants. Tasks in unimportant/not urgent are dropped, tasks in important/urgent are done immediately and personally, tasks in unimportant/urgent are delegated and tasks in important/not urgent get an end date and are done personally. This method is said to have been used by US President
Dwight D. EisenhowerDwight David "Ike" Eisenhower was a five-star general in the United States Army and the 34th President of the United States, from 1953 until 1961. During the Second World War, he served as Supreme Commander of the Allied forces in Europe, with responsibility for planning and supervising the...
, and is outlined in a quote attributed to him:
What is important is seldom urgent and what is urgent is seldom important.
See also
- Action item
In Management, an action item is a documented event, task, activity, or action that needs to take place. Action items are discrete units that can be handled by a single person.-Planning actions:...
- African time
"Africa time" or African time is a colloquial term used to describe a perceived cultural tendency, in some parts of Africa, toward a more relaxed attitude to time. This is sometimes used in a negative sense, about tardiness in appointments, meetings and events...
- Attention management
Attention management refers to models and tools for supporting the management of attention at the individual or at the collective level , and at the short term of at a longer terms ....
- Opportunity cost
Opportunity cost or economic opportunity loss is the value of the next best alternative foregone as the result of making a decision. Opportunity cost analysis is an important part of a company's decision-making processes but is not treated as an actual cost in any financial statement...
- Procrastination
Procrastination is the deferment of actions or tasks to a later time. Psychologists often cite this human behavior as a mechanism for coping with the anxiety associated with starting or completing any task or decision....
- Punctuality
Punctuality is the characteristic of being able to complete a required task or fulfill an obligation before or at a previously-designated time. "Punctual" is often used synonymously with "on time."...
- Prospective memory
Prospective memory may be defined as remembering to remember or remembering to perform an intended action. One difference between prospective and retrospective memory is that instead of recalling past actions, events, or knowledge, prospective memory is self-initiated and does not operate directly...
Tools:
- Hipster PDA
The Hipster PDA is a paper-based personal organizer, popularized by American writer Merlin Mann. Originally a tongue-in-cheek reaction to the increasing expense and complexity of personal digital assistants, the Hipster PDA simply comprises a sheaf of index cards held together with a binder clip...
- Personal digital assistant
A personal digital assistant is a handheld computer, also known as a palmtop computer. Newer PDAs commonly have color screens and audio capabilities, enabling them to be used as mobile phones , web browsers, or portable media players. Many PDAs can access the Internet, intranets or extranets...
- Personal organizer
A personal organizer, day planner, or personal planner is a small book/binder, designed to be portable, usually containing a diary, calendar, address book, and other sections usually including blank paper. It may also include pages with useful information, such as maps, telephone codes...
- Time boxing
Timeboxing is a time management technique common in planning projects , where the schedule is divided into a number of separate time periods , with each part having its own deliverables, deadline and budget...
- Time tracking software
Time tracking software is a software that allows to maintain the time tracking process on a computer.- Types of time tracking software :Timesheet software software - allows to enter time spent performing different tasks while working....
Systems:
- Getting Things Done
Getting Things Done is a method created by David Allen, and described in a book of the same name. Both "Getting Things Done" and "GTD" are registered trademarks of the David Allen Company....
- Stephen Covey
Stephen R. Covey wrote the best-selling book, The Seven Habits of Highly Effective People. Other books he has written include First Things First, Principle-Centered Leadership, and The Seven Habits of Highly Effective Families. In 2004, Covey released, The 8th Habit...
's system offered in the book First Things First and implemented in the Franklin PlannerThe Franklin Planner is a time management system created by Hyrum W. Smith. It is marketed by the FranklinCovey company, and promoted by Stephen Covey. Physically it consists of a ring binder holding specially designed loose leaf pages...
time management system
Further reading
- Covey, Stephen (1994) First Things First. ISBN 0-684-80203-1
External links