Throwing (cricket)
Encyclopedia
In the sport of cricket
, throwing, commonly referred to as chucking, is an illegal bowling action which occurs when a bowler straightens their arm when delivering
the ball. The Laws of Cricket
specify that a bowler's arm must be fully extended and rotated about the shoulder to impart velocity to the ball. Throws are not allowed. If the umpire
deems that the ball has been thrown, he will call a no ball
which means the batsman cannot be given out from that delivery. Current regulations of the International Cricket Council
(ICC) set the legal limit of 15 degrees of permissible straightening of the elbow joint for all bowlers in international cricket. This law applies between the point at which the bowling arm passes above shoulder height and the point at which the ball is released.
The charge of 'throwing' against a bowler is one of the most serious and controversial that can be made in cricket, as a bowler with an illegal action cannot dismiss a batsman. This means the player cannot effectively participate in the game, and may not be selected again without significant change to the way they bowl.
24, Clause 3 defines a fair delivery with respect to the arm:
Before the advent of developed biomechanical and audiovisual technology, this law was implemented by the on-field umpires, who judged a delivery as illegal or "thrown" on visual judgement alone. The law against throwing has not changed in its essence since overarm bowling
was legalised in 1864.
In the early 1880s there were a number of bowlers who were widely considered to have unfair actions, with the Lancashire
pair of Jack Crossland and George Nash
coming in for particular criticism. After playing for Kent
against Lancashire in 1885, when he faced the bowling of Crossland and Nash, Lord Harris decided to take action. He persuaded the Kent committee to cancel the return fixture. Later that season, Crossland was found to have broken his residential qualification for Lancashire by living in Nottinghamshire, and Nash dropped out of the side. Thus the two counties resumed playing each other the following season. Harris's Wisden obituarist wrote: "...there can be no doubt the action of Lord Harris, even if it did not entirely remove the throwing evil, had a very healthy effect on the game."
Sydney Pardon
, the editor of Wisden, accused quick bowler Ernest Jones
of throwing during Australia's tour of England in 1896 but it was left to an Australian umpire, Jim Phillips
, to "call" Jones for throwing in the Melbourne Test in 1897. The same umpire ended the great C.B. Fry's bowling career by calling him for throwing. Pardon considered the end of the famous Corinthian's bowling career "a case of long-delayed justice".
Phillips went on to call Lancashire and England fast bowler Arthur Mold
in 1900 and 1901, so effectively ending his productive career. Mold took 1,673 wickets in first-class cricket at only 15.54 apiece, bowling at high pace with a sharp 'break back' from just a four pace run up, but his bowling had always attracted as much controversy as praise. He took 192 wickets in 1895 and was a Wisden Cricketer of the Year in 1892 but he left the first class scene after the 1901 season after Phillips' intervention.
The Australian aboriginal fast bowler Eddie Gilbert
was another fast bowler who generated extreme pace from a remarkably short run. Just 5 feet 7 inches tall and nine stone in weight he took wickets at a prodigious rate in the late 1920s in Queensland club cricket. He was chosen for Queensland against New South Wales Colts in 1930 and took 6 wickets, but the Brisbane Courier's correspondent "Long On" was moved to describe his whipped catapult action as "almost a throw". He was picked for Queensland's Sheffield Shield side and bowled with great success. Queensland selectors responded to complaints from New South Wales by filming his arm action in slow motion but took no action against him. His most famous spell came against Don Bradman on 6 November 1931. He dismissed the NSW opener with his first ball, a vicious bouncer, then knocked Bradman's bat out of his hands with the next. The next delivery knocked Bradman over and the third had him caught behind. A month later, playing against Victoria, he was repeatedly called for throwing. He played on for Queensland, bowling at a reduced pace, and in 1934-35 headed the Queensland averages. He was a victim of legislation outlawing intimidatory bowling, in the wake of the Bodyline affair, and retired in 1936, having taken 87 first class wickets at 29.21. He later suffered from mental illness.
An epidemic of throwing plagued cricket in the 1950s. Umpire Frank Chester
wanted to no-ball the South African Cuan McCarthy
for throwing in 1951, but was blocked by the authorities at Lords, Plum Warner
commenting diplomatically "These people are our guests".
Surrey and England left-arm spinner Tony Lock
was generally thought to throw his dangerous faster ball, on one occasion Doug Insole inquiring if he had been 'bowled or run out' after Lock had shattered his stumps.
Left-arm paceman Ian Meckiff
helped Australia to regain the Ashes in 1958-59 but feelings ran high in the England team and press that Meckiff, and others, bowled outside the laws and spirit of the game. Elder statesmen on both sides, including Gubby Allen
and Don Bradman, resolved to clear the air before Australia's tour of England in 1961. In 1963–64, Meckiff was called by Colin Egar
in the First Test against South Africa in Brisbane
, ending his career.
21 year old South African Geoff Griffin, who had already been called when playing for Natal, was called in May 1960 while playing against MCC at Lords and his test career was ended by umpire Frank Lee
who called him four times during the Second Test. Remarkably he claimed a hat trick during the test, but South Africa lost by an innings, prompting an exhibition match to be staged as the Queen was due to visit the ground. Griffin was called by umpire Syd Buller
, ending an over bowling underarm when he was no balled again for not informing the umpire of a change of action.
West Indian fast bowler Charlie Griffith
, perhaps the most feared fast bowler of his generation, was often suspected of throwing his faster ball although he was not called in Test matches and the promising career of Derbyshire's Harold Rhodes
was stunted by constant speculation about the legality of his action. He was 'called' while playing against the South African tourists in 1960 by Paul Gibb
but through he was eventually cleared and played on with great success for Derbyshire though the decade, he played just twice for England.
In more recent times bowlers such as England's James Kirtley
, Australia's Brett Lee
and Pakistan's Shoaib Akhtar
and Shabbir Ahmed
have fallen under the microscope to varying degrees.
, one of the modern era's most celebrated exponents of spin bowling has been dogged by controversy over his bowling action for much of his international career. Since his debut, he has been under scrutiny from umpires due to an unusual hyperextension of his congenitally bent arm during delivery. Despite initial criticism, the first occasion when his action became a real issue was when Australian umpire Darrell Hair
called him for throwing during the Boxing Day
Test in Melbourne, 1995. Biomechanical trials exonerated him in the eyes of the ICC, but some players, umpires and spectators remain unconvinced. Hair has publicly stated that he would call Murali for throwing again, given the opportunity, and considered his bowling action "diabolical". The inability of cricket's officials to agree on the legality of Muralitharan's action, and the reluctance of other umpires to call him for throwing meant Hair was isolated and was later excluded from officiating in matches involving Sri Lanka. Subsequent biomechanical tests exonerated Muralitharan's action, showing that he did not extend his arm any more than many other bowlers with legal actions. Unfortunately this testing has not cleared his action in the eyes of many observers, who still find his action suspicious as the extension of the arm differs between bowling in testing and in game situations, and also when he bowls particular deliveries.
Since the mid-1990s when Pakistani off-spinner Saqlain Mushtaq
pioneered the doosra
, off spinners who have bowled with a non-classical action that can produce this delivery have routinely been reported and investigated for throwing, although none have been sanctioned. Such bowlers include Harbhajan Singh
, Shoaib Malik
, Marlon Samuels
, Mohammad Hafeez
and Johan Botha.
s, and 5 degrees for spin bowlers. Enforcing these nw measures proved problematic, as the laboratory based measurement systems used have a margin of error of at least 1 degree, and video based measurement systems were likely to have more, especially if inappropriately executed
A later study from 2000-2003 showed that bowling actions that looked normal to the naked eye in many of the worlds elite fast bowlers, had, on average 9 degrees of elbow extension during the bowling action. Many of the worlds elite bowlers who never had a problem with their bowling action from a legality point of view, recorded elbow extension measures between 10-15 degrees. This illustrated that a zero tolerance threshold, and the tiered thresholds implemented in the late 90's, had no or little scientific merit. The study, conducted by the Australian Institute of Sport Biomechanics department, lead by cricket biomechanist Dr. Marc Portus, involved taking three-dimensional video based biomechanical analyses during tour, test and one-day international matches in Melbourne, Sydney and Brisbane. Results from this work indicated that video based measurement error in such a scenario, using best practice methodologies, was 3 degrees. This report was submitted to the ICC in 2003, which instigated the review of the illegal action definition and processes .
Subsequent to this the ICC received data from laboratory based analyses, on the basis that these measurement environments are more controlled, involving more sophisticated meaurement technologies such as the Vicon Motion Analysis system. These were subject to less measurement error. Data was provided by the Australian Institute of Sport, the University of Western Australia and the Motion Analysis Corportation system from the University of Auckland. The ICC also carried out further video based three-dimensional analyses on all bowlers during the 2004 Champions Trophy
in England. Regardless of the biomechanical meausurement protocol used, a strikingly similar pattern emerged: the normal biomechanics of cricket bowling, whether it be spin or pace, features an element of elbow extension, averaging 8-10 degrees for all bowler types. In all cases elbow extension in the bowling action was very rarely zero.
The ICC formed an expert panel comprising biomechanists Professor Bruce Elliott of The University of Western Australia, Dr Marc Portus of the Australian Institute of Sport and Dr Paul Hurrion from the UK who presented during a forum of a special ICC cricket sub-committee for illegal bowling actions in late 2003 in Dubai. The sub-committee was David Richardson, Angus Fraser, Aravinda De Silva, Michael Holding, Tony Lewis and Tim May. After this meeting the ICC decided to raise the elbow extension tolerance threshold to 15 degrees for all bowlers. This limit was chosen after considering biomechanical findings from ~130 pace and spin bowlers, the scientific issues with measurement, and the notion that bowling actions appearing to be "throw-like", or illegal, were often measured to be well above 15 degrees of elbow extension (often in the 20's or even 30's).
The first step in this process is an independent review of the player's bowling action which is carried out by a member of the ICC panel of
human movement specialists, who will furnish the ICC with their report. If this report concludes that the player does have an illegal action, he is immediately suspended from all international cricket until he has remedied his action. If however, only a particular delivery is illegal, he can continue to bowl in international cricket provided he does not use the delivery in question until it has been remedied. Throughout the period of this independent assessment, the player can continue to bowl in international cricket.
If the player does not agree with the report, he can seek a hearing from a bowling review group made up of experts appointed by the ICC
. This group will review evidence and decide, by a simple majority vote, on the legality of the player's action. If the player is cleared the suspension will be lifted immediately. A player who has been suspended from international cricket can continue to play domestic cricket under the supervision of his cricket Board. A player who has been suspended can at any time apply for a reassessment of his action. This usually happens after the player has completed a period of remedial work on his action. This reassessment is carried out in the same manner as the independent review. If the review concludes that the player has remedied his action his suspension will be lifted with immediate effect and he can start bowling in international cricket.
If the player is reported and suspended a second time within two years of his last report, he is automatically suspended for a period of one year before he can apply for a reassessment of his action. This event usually ends up effectively terminating a player's international career.
In general, although players with suspect actions now tend to be reported for investigations rather than suffering a public trial in front of spectators by being no-balled, umpires still have the right to call bowlers on the field if necessary. Such a case might occur when a bowler decides to deliberately and obviously throw the odd ball in a manner akin to a javelin throw as a surprise. Such cases have occurred throughout history of a bowler whose general action is not of concern but for whatever reason has appeared to deliberately throw a ball with a vastly different action. The Australian Test bowler Laurie Nash
was once no-balled in such circumstances in the 1930s, with the journalists present opining that he had deliberately thrown the ball.
i bowler Shoaib Akhtar
and India
n bowler R. P. Singh were seen to extend their elbow joints by a negative
angle with respect to the upper arm. This phenomenon, also known as hyperextension, can give the illusion of throwing. However, in the report it was seen that R. P. Singh maintained this negative angle throughout his delivery stride, while Akhtar sometimes bowled a quicker delivery by flexing this hyperextension. These actions are not considered to be chucking as they are due to the unique architecture of their elbows, possibly a congenital condition. Since these cricketers have no control over this hyperextension it is permitted so long as their action is inside the 15 degree elbow extension tolerance threshold.
Cricket
Cricket is a bat-and-ball game played between two teams of 11 players on an oval-shaped field, at the centre of which is a rectangular 22-yard long pitch. One team bats, trying to score as many runs as possible while the other team bowls and fields, trying to dismiss the batsmen and thus limit the...
, throwing, commonly referred to as chucking, is an illegal bowling action which occurs when a bowler straightens their arm when delivering
Delivery (cricket)
A delivery or ball in cricket is a single action of bowling a cricket ball towards the batsman.During play of the game, a member of the fielding team is designated as the bowler, and bowls deliveries towards the batsman...
the ball. The Laws of Cricket
Laws of cricket
The laws of cricket are a set of rules established by the Marylebone Cricket Club which describe the laws of cricket worldwide, to ensure uniformity and fairness. There are currently 42 laws, which outline all aspects of how the game is played from how a team wins a game, how a batsman is...
specify that a bowler's arm must be fully extended and rotated about the shoulder to impart velocity to the ball. Throws are not allowed. If the umpire
Umpire (cricket)
In cricket, an umpire is a person who has the authority to make judgements on the cricket field, according to the Laws of Cricket...
deems that the ball has been thrown, he will call a no ball
No ball
In the sport of cricket a no ball is a penalty against the fielding team, usually as a result of an illegal delivery by the bowler. The delivery of a no ball results in one run to be added to the batting team's score, and an additional ball must be bowled...
which means the batsman cannot be given out from that delivery. Current regulations of the International Cricket Council
International Cricket Council
The International Cricket Council is the international governing body of cricket. It was founded as the Imperial Cricket Conference in 1909 by representatives from England, Australia and South Africa, renamed the International Cricket Conference in 1965, and took up its current name in 1989.The...
(ICC) set the legal limit of 15 degrees of permissible straightening of the elbow joint for all bowlers in international cricket. This law applies between the point at which the bowling arm passes above shoulder height and the point at which the ball is released.
The charge of 'throwing' against a bowler is one of the most serious and controversial that can be made in cricket, as a bowler with an illegal action cannot dismiss a batsman. This means the player cannot effectively participate in the game, and may not be selected again without significant change to the way they bowl.
Overview and history
LawLaws of cricket
The laws of cricket are a set of rules established by the Marylebone Cricket Club which describe the laws of cricket worldwide, to ensure uniformity and fairness. There are currently 42 laws, which outline all aspects of how the game is played from how a team wins a game, how a batsman is...
24, Clause 3 defines a fair delivery with respect to the arm:
- A ball is fairly delivered in respect of the arm if, once the bowler's arm has reached the level of the shoulder in the delivery swing, the elbow joint is not straightened partially or completely from that point until the ball has left the hand. This definition shall not debar a bowler from flexing or rotating the wrist in the delivery swing.
Before the advent of developed biomechanical and audiovisual technology, this law was implemented by the on-field umpires, who judged a delivery as illegal or "thrown" on visual judgement alone. The law against throwing has not changed in its essence since overarm bowling
Overarm bowling
In cricket, overarm bowling refers to a delivery in which the bowler's hand is above shoulder height. This is in contrast to a roundarm delivery, where the hand is between shoulder height and waist height; and an underarm delivery where the bowler's hand is below waist height.After roundarm was...
was legalised in 1864.
In the early 1880s there were a number of bowlers who were widely considered to have unfair actions, with the Lancashire
Lancashire County Cricket Club
Lancashire County Cricket Club represents the historic county of Lancashire in cricket's County Championship. The club was founded in 1864 as a successor to Manchester Cricket Club and has played at Old Trafford since then...
pair of Jack Crossland and George Nash
George Nash (cricketer)
George Nash was an English professional cricketer during the 1880s. Nash played as a slow left-arm orthodox bowler for Lancashire, and later in Minor Counties cricket for his native Buckinghamshire.-Life and career:...
coming in for particular criticism. After playing for Kent
Kent County Cricket Club
Kent County Cricket Club is one of the 18 first class county county cricket clubs which make up the English and Welsh national cricket structure, representing the county of Kent...
against Lancashire in 1885, when he faced the bowling of Crossland and Nash, Lord Harris decided to take action. He persuaded the Kent committee to cancel the return fixture. Later that season, Crossland was found to have broken his residential qualification for Lancashire by living in Nottinghamshire, and Nash dropped out of the side. Thus the two counties resumed playing each other the following season. Harris's Wisden obituarist wrote: "...there can be no doubt the action of Lord Harris, even if it did not entirely remove the throwing evil, had a very healthy effect on the game."
Sydney Pardon
Sydney Pardon
Sydney Herbert Pardon was a sports journalist who was the editor of Wisden Cricketers' Almanack for 35 editions, from 1891 until his death. He took over following the death of his brother, Charles. Of all the editors of the publication, he was arguably the greatest...
, the editor of Wisden, accused quick bowler Ernest Jones
Ernest Jones
Alfred Ernest Jones was a British neurologist and psychoanalyst, and Sigmund Freud’s official biographer. Jones was the first English-speaking practitioner of psychoanalysis and became its leading exponent in the English-speaking world where, as President of both the British Psycho-Analytical...
of throwing during Australia's tour of England in 1896 but it was left to an Australian umpire, Jim Phillips
Jim Phillips
James Phillips was a Victorian First-class cricketer and Test match umpire....
, to "call" Jones for throwing in the Melbourne Test in 1897. The same umpire ended the great C.B. Fry's bowling career by calling him for throwing. Pardon considered the end of the famous Corinthian's bowling career "a case of long-delayed justice".
Phillips went on to call Lancashire and England fast bowler Arthur Mold
Arthur Mold
Arthur Webb Mold was an English professional cricketer who played first-class cricket for Lancashire County Cricket Club between 1889 and 1901. He played three Test matches for England in 1893 and was a Wisden Cricketer of the Year in 1892. A fast bowler, he was one of the most effective bowlers...
in 1900 and 1901, so effectively ending his productive career. Mold took 1,673 wickets in first-class cricket at only 15.54 apiece, bowling at high pace with a sharp 'break back' from just a four pace run up, but his bowling had always attracted as much controversy as praise. He took 192 wickets in 1895 and was a Wisden Cricketer of the Year in 1892 but he left the first class scene after the 1901 season after Phillips' intervention.
The Australian aboriginal fast bowler Eddie Gilbert
Eddie Gilbert (cricketer)
Eddie Gilbert was a Queensland Aboriginal cricketer. He was an exceptionally fast bowler.-Early years:...
was another fast bowler who generated extreme pace from a remarkably short run. Just 5 feet 7 inches tall and nine stone in weight he took wickets at a prodigious rate in the late 1920s in Queensland club cricket. He was chosen for Queensland against New South Wales Colts in 1930 and took 6 wickets, but the Brisbane Courier's correspondent "Long On" was moved to describe his whipped catapult action as "almost a throw". He was picked for Queensland's Sheffield Shield side and bowled with great success. Queensland selectors responded to complaints from New South Wales by filming his arm action in slow motion but took no action against him. His most famous spell came against Don Bradman on 6 November 1931. He dismissed the NSW opener with his first ball, a vicious bouncer, then knocked Bradman's bat out of his hands with the next. The next delivery knocked Bradman over and the third had him caught behind. A month later, playing against Victoria, he was repeatedly called for throwing. He played on for Queensland, bowling at a reduced pace, and in 1934-35 headed the Queensland averages. He was a victim of legislation outlawing intimidatory bowling, in the wake of the Bodyline affair, and retired in 1936, having taken 87 first class wickets at 29.21. He later suffered from mental illness.
An epidemic of throwing plagued cricket in the 1950s. Umpire Frank Chester
Frank Chester (umpire)
Frank Chester was an English first-class cricketer and notable international cricket umpire.Chester was an all-rounder, a left-handed middle-order batsman and a slow left-arm bowler, who played 55 first-class matches for county side Worcestershire as a teenager from 1912 to 1914...
wanted to no-ball the South African Cuan McCarthy
Cuan McCarthy
-External links:****...
for throwing in 1951, but was blocked by the authorities at Lords, Plum Warner
Plum Warner
Sir Pelham Francis Warner MBE , affectionately and better known as Plum Warner, or even "the Grand Old Man" of English cricket was a Test cricketer....
commenting diplomatically "These people are our guests".
Surrey and England left-arm spinner Tony Lock
Tony Lock
Graham Anthony Richard Lock was an English cricketer, who played primarily as a left-arm spinner. He played in forty nine Tests for England taking 174 wickets at 25.58 each.-Life and career:...
was generally thought to throw his dangerous faster ball, on one occasion Doug Insole inquiring if he had been 'bowled or run out' after Lock had shattered his stumps.
Left-arm paceman Ian Meckiff
Ian Meckiff
Ian Meckiff is a former cricketer who represented Australia in 18 Tests between 1957 and 1963...
helped Australia to regain the Ashes in 1958-59 but feelings ran high in the England team and press that Meckiff, and others, bowled outside the laws and spirit of the game. Elder statesmen on both sides, including Gubby Allen
Gubby Allen
Sir George Oswald Browning "Gubby" Allen, CBE was a cricketer who played for Middlesex, Cambridge University, MCC and England. Australian-born, Allen was a fast bowler and hard-hitting lower-order batsman, who captained England in eleven Test matches...
and Don Bradman, resolved to clear the air before Australia's tour of England in 1961. In 1963–64, Meckiff was called by Colin Egar
Colin Egar
Colin John "Col" Egar was an Australian Test cricket umpire.Born in Malvern, South Australia, Egar umpired 29 Test matches between 1960 and 1969.- First-class debut :...
in the First Test against South Africa in Brisbane
Brisbane
Brisbane is the capital and most populous city in the Australian state of Queensland and the third most populous city in Australia. Brisbane's metropolitan area has a population of over 2 million, and the South East Queensland urban conurbation, centred around Brisbane, encompasses a population of...
, ending his career.
21 year old South African Geoff Griffin, who had already been called when playing for Natal, was called in May 1960 while playing against MCC at Lords and his test career was ended by umpire Frank Lee
Frank Lee (cricketer)
Frank Stanley Lee, born at St. John's Wood on July 24, 1905 and died in Westminster on March 30, 1982 was an English first-class cricketer and an umpire who officiated in Test matches....
who called him four times during the Second Test. Remarkably he claimed a hat trick during the test, but South Africa lost by an innings, prompting an exhibition match to be staged as the Queen was due to visit the ground. Griffin was called by umpire Syd Buller
Syd Buller
John Sydney Buller, MBE was an English first-class cricketer, and notable international cricket umpire....
, ending an over bowling underarm when he was no balled again for not informing the umpire of a change of action.
West Indian fast bowler Charlie Griffith
Charlie Griffith
Charles Christopher Griffith is a former West Indian cricketer who played in 28 Tests from 1960 to 1969. He formed a lethal fast bowling partnership with Wes Hall during the 1960s...
, perhaps the most feared fast bowler of his generation, was often suspected of throwing his faster ball although he was not called in Test matches and the promising career of Derbyshire's Harold Rhodes
Harold Rhodes
Harold Rhodes was the inventor of the Army Air Corps Piano, the Pre-piano and the Rhodes piano. Rhodes started his career by running piano schools around the United States.-External links:* * * *...
was stunted by constant speculation about the legality of his action. He was 'called' while playing against the South African tourists in 1960 by Paul Gibb
Paul Gibb
Paul Gibb was an English cricketer, who played in eight Tests for England from 1938 to 1946. He also played first-class cricket for Cambridge University and Yorkshire, mostly as a batsman but occasionally also keeping wicket.Gibb was educated at St Edward's School, Oxford, and played first-class...
but through he was eventually cleared and played on with great success for Derbyshire though the decade, he played just twice for England.
In more recent times bowlers such as England's James Kirtley
James Kirtley
Robert James Kirtley is a former English Test cricketer, who was born on the 10 January 1975 in Eastbourne in the county of Sussex. He is a right arm fast to medium bowler and a right hand batsman. After prep school at St.Andrews School, Eastbourne, he was educated at Clifton College.-First ODI:His...
, Australia's Brett Lee
Brett Lee
Brett Lee is an Australian cricketer.After breaking into the Australian Test team, Lee was recognised as one of the fastest bowlers in world cricket...
and Pakistan's Shoaib Akhtar
Shoaib Akhtar
Shoaib Akhtar is a former Pakistani right arm fast bowler in cricket, who is regarded as the fastest bowler in the history of cricket. He set an official world record by achieving the fastest delivery, when he clocked in at 161.3 km/h in his bowling speed, twice at a cricket match against...
and Shabbir Ahmed
Shabbir Ahmed
Shabbir Ahmed is a Pakistani cricketer. He is a line-and-length pace bowler who took eight wickets for 109 runs on his Test debut against Bangladesh in the first of their 2003-04 three-Test series...
have fallen under the microscope to varying degrees.
Recent controversy
Muttiah MuralitharanMuttiah Muralitharan
Muttiah Muralitharan , often referred to as Murali, is a former Sri Lankan cricketer who was rated the greatest Test match bowler ever by Wisden Cricketers' Almanack in 2002...
, one of the modern era's most celebrated exponents of spin bowling has been dogged by controversy over his bowling action for much of his international career. Since his debut, he has been under scrutiny from umpires due to an unusual hyperextension of his congenitally bent arm during delivery. Despite initial criticism, the first occasion when his action became a real issue was when Australian umpire Darrell Hair
Darrell Hair
Darrell Bruce Hair is an Australian former Test match cricket umpire, from New South Wales. He stood on the Emirates International panel of umpires from 2002 to 2003, before he, along with fellow Australian Simon Taufel, and New Zealander Billy Bowden, was appointed to the ICC Elite umpire panel...
called him for throwing during the Boxing Day
Boxing Day
Boxing Day is a bank or public holiday that occurs on 26 December, or the first or second weekday after Christmas Day, depending on national or regional laws. It is observed in Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the United Kingdom and some other Commonwealth nations. In Ireland, it is recognized as...
Test in Melbourne, 1995. Biomechanical trials exonerated him in the eyes of the ICC, but some players, umpires and spectators remain unconvinced. Hair has publicly stated that he would call Murali for throwing again, given the opportunity, and considered his bowling action "diabolical". The inability of cricket's officials to agree on the legality of Muralitharan's action, and the reluctance of other umpires to call him for throwing meant Hair was isolated and was later excluded from officiating in matches involving Sri Lanka. Subsequent biomechanical tests exonerated Muralitharan's action, showing that he did not extend his arm any more than many other bowlers with legal actions. Unfortunately this testing has not cleared his action in the eyes of many observers, who still find his action suspicious as the extension of the arm differs between bowling in testing and in game situations, and also when he bowls particular deliveries.
Since the mid-1990s when Pakistani off-spinner Saqlain Mushtaq
Saqlain Mushtaq
Saqlain Mushtaq is a Pakistani cricketer, regarded as one of the finest off spin bowlers of all time.He is best known for pioneering the "doosra", which he employed to great effect during his career...
pioneered the doosra
Doosra
A doosra is a particular type of delivery by an off-spin bowler in the sport of cricket, invented by Pakistani cricketer Saqlain Mushtaq. The term means " second ", or " other " in Urdu...
, off spinners who have bowled with a non-classical action that can produce this delivery have routinely been reported and investigated for throwing, although none have been sanctioned. Such bowlers include Harbhajan Singh
Harbhajan Singh
Harbhajan Singh Plaha , commonly known as Harbhajan Singh, is an Indian cricketer. A specialist bowler, he has the second-highest number of Test wickets by an off spinner, behind Sri Lanka's Muttiah Muralitharan....
, Shoaib Malik
Shoaib Malik
Shoaib Malik is a Pakistani cricket player and former captain. He made his One-Day International debut in 1999 against the West Indies and his Test debut in 2001 against Bangladesh. He has taken over 100 ODI wickets, and has a batting average in the mid 30s in both Test and ODI cricket...
, Marlon Samuels
Marlon Samuels
Marlon Nathaniel Samuels is a West Indian cricketer. Samuels made his Test debut in Australia in 2000, and his One Day International debut against Sri Lanka in Nairobi during the ICC Knockout Trophy in the same year....
, Mohammad Hafeez
Mohammad Hafeez
Mohammad Hafeez is a Pakistani cricketer. He is a right-handed batsman and a right-arm Slow bowler...
and Johan Botha.
Biomechanics & Modifications to the Throwing Laws
Testing conducted in the 1990s in England revealed that during a delivery virtually all bowlers flex and extend their arms naturally to some degree as it rotates around the shoulder. This testing revealed that the strict Laws of Cricket which banned any flexing of the arm were impossible to follow. At this time a set of tiered tolerance thresholds for the amount of allowable elbow extension, or straightening, were implemented: 10 degrees for fast bowlers, 7.5 degrees for medium pacerSeam bowling
Seam bowling is a phrase used for a bowling technique in cricket whereby the ball is deliberately bowled on to its seam, to cause a random deviation. Practitioners are known as seam bowlers or seamers....
s, and 5 degrees for spin bowlers. Enforcing these nw measures proved problematic, as the laboratory based measurement systems used have a margin of error of at least 1 degree, and video based measurement systems were likely to have more, especially if inappropriately executed
A later study from 2000-2003 showed that bowling actions that looked normal to the naked eye in many of the worlds elite fast bowlers, had, on average 9 degrees of elbow extension during the bowling action. Many of the worlds elite bowlers who never had a problem with their bowling action from a legality point of view, recorded elbow extension measures between 10-15 degrees. This illustrated that a zero tolerance threshold, and the tiered thresholds implemented in the late 90's, had no or little scientific merit. The study, conducted by the Australian Institute of Sport Biomechanics department, lead by cricket biomechanist Dr. Marc Portus, involved taking three-dimensional video based biomechanical analyses during tour, test and one-day international matches in Melbourne, Sydney and Brisbane. Results from this work indicated that video based measurement error in such a scenario, using best practice methodologies, was 3 degrees. This report was submitted to the ICC in 2003, which instigated the review of the illegal action definition and processes .
Subsequent to this the ICC received data from laboratory based analyses, on the basis that these measurement environments are more controlled, involving more sophisticated meaurement technologies such as the Vicon Motion Analysis system. These were subject to less measurement error. Data was provided by the Australian Institute of Sport, the University of Western Australia and the Motion Analysis Corportation system from the University of Auckland. The ICC also carried out further video based three-dimensional analyses on all bowlers during the 2004 Champions Trophy
ICC Champions Trophy
The ICC Champions Trophy is a One Day International cricket tournament, second in importance only to the Cricket World Cup. It was inaugurated as the ICC Knock Out tournament in 1998 and has been played every two years since, changing its name to the Champions Trophy in 2002...
in England. Regardless of the biomechanical meausurement protocol used, a strikingly similar pattern emerged: the normal biomechanics of cricket bowling, whether it be spin or pace, features an element of elbow extension, averaging 8-10 degrees for all bowler types. In all cases elbow extension in the bowling action was very rarely zero.
The ICC formed an expert panel comprising biomechanists Professor Bruce Elliott of The University of Western Australia, Dr Marc Portus of the Australian Institute of Sport and Dr Paul Hurrion from the UK who presented during a forum of a special ICC cricket sub-committee for illegal bowling actions in late 2003 in Dubai. The sub-committee was David Richardson, Angus Fraser, Aravinda De Silva, Michael Holding, Tony Lewis and Tim May. After this meeting the ICC decided to raise the elbow extension tolerance threshold to 15 degrees for all bowlers. This limit was chosen after considering biomechanical findings from ~130 pace and spin bowlers, the scientific issues with measurement, and the notion that bowling actions appearing to be "throw-like", or illegal, were often measured to be well above 15 degrees of elbow extension (often in the 20's or even 30's).
Process once a bowler is reported
If an umpire or match official deems that a bowler is contravening law 23.4, he details this in the match report which is passed on the match referee. Within 24 hours of the conclusion of the match, the match referee provides the team manager and the ICC with a copy of the match report. A media statement is also issued that the player has been reported.The first step in this process is an independent review of the player's bowling action which is carried out by a member of the ICC panel of
human movement specialists, who will furnish the ICC with their report. If this report concludes that the player does have an illegal action, he is immediately suspended from all international cricket until he has remedied his action. If however, only a particular delivery is illegal, he can continue to bowl in international cricket provided he does not use the delivery in question until it has been remedied. Throughout the period of this independent assessment, the player can continue to bowl in international cricket.
If the player does not agree with the report, he can seek a hearing from a bowling review group made up of experts appointed by the ICC
International Cricket Council
The International Cricket Council is the international governing body of cricket. It was founded as the Imperial Cricket Conference in 1909 by representatives from England, Australia and South Africa, renamed the International Cricket Conference in 1965, and took up its current name in 1989.The...
. This group will review evidence and decide, by a simple majority vote, on the legality of the player's action. If the player is cleared the suspension will be lifted immediately. A player who has been suspended from international cricket can continue to play domestic cricket under the supervision of his cricket Board. A player who has been suspended can at any time apply for a reassessment of his action. This usually happens after the player has completed a period of remedial work on his action. This reassessment is carried out in the same manner as the independent review. If the review concludes that the player has remedied his action his suspension will be lifted with immediate effect and he can start bowling in international cricket.
If the player is reported and suspended a second time within two years of his last report, he is automatically suspended for a period of one year before he can apply for a reassessment of his action. This event usually ends up effectively terminating a player's international career.
In general, although players with suspect actions now tend to be reported for investigations rather than suffering a public trial in front of spectators by being no-balled, umpires still have the right to call bowlers on the field if necessary. Such a case might occur when a bowler decides to deliberately and obviously throw the odd ball in a manner akin to a javelin throw as a surprise. Such cases have occurred throughout history of a bowler whose general action is not of concern but for whatever reason has appeared to deliberately throw a ball with a vastly different action. The Australian Test bowler Laurie Nash
Laurie Nash
Laurence John "Laurie" Nash was a Test cricketer and Australian rules footballer. An inductee into the Australian Football Hall of Fame, Nash was a member of South Melbourne's 1933 premiership team, captained South Melbourne in 1937 and was the team's leading goal kicker in 1937 and 1945...
was once no-balled in such circumstances in the 1930s, with the journalists present opining that he had deliberately thrown the ball.
Hyperextension
In a recent report by scientists commissioned by the ICC it was shown that PakistanPakistan
Pakistan , officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan is a sovereign state in South Asia. It has a coastline along the Arabian Sea and the Gulf of Oman in the south and is bordered by Afghanistan and Iran in the west, India in the east and China in the far northeast. In the north, Tajikistan...
i bowler Shoaib Akhtar
Shoaib Akhtar
Shoaib Akhtar is a former Pakistani right arm fast bowler in cricket, who is regarded as the fastest bowler in the history of cricket. He set an official world record by achieving the fastest delivery, when he clocked in at 161.3 km/h in his bowling speed, twice at a cricket match against...
and India
India
India , officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world...
n bowler R. P. Singh were seen to extend their elbow joints by a negative
Negative
- Science and mathematics :* Negative number* Negative mass* Negative energy * Electrical polarity* Negative result * Negative lenses, uses to describe diverging optics, see lens - Photography :...
angle with respect to the upper arm. This phenomenon, also known as hyperextension, can give the illusion of throwing. However, in the report it was seen that R. P. Singh maintained this negative angle throughout his delivery stride, while Akhtar sometimes bowled a quicker delivery by flexing this hyperextension. These actions are not considered to be chucking as they are due to the unique architecture of their elbows, possibly a congenital condition. Since these cricketers have no control over this hyperextension it is permitted so long as their action is inside the 15 degree elbow extension tolerance threshold.