The Anarchy
Encyclopedia
The Anarchy or The Nineteen-Year Winter was a period of English history
during the reign (1135–1154) of King Stephen
, which was characterised by civil war and unsettled government. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
describes it as a time during which "Christ and his saints slept".
The period was marked by a succession crisis between the supporters of Stephen and those of his cousin, the Empress Matilda
. Though Stephen was crowned king, the state of war prevented effective government in England for much of his reign. The issue was resolved only shortly before Stephen's death, when he signed the Treaty of Wallingford
, which named Matilda's son Henry Curtmantle
as his heir. Henry was crowned king upon Stephen's death in 1154, establishing the Plantagenet dynasty
as Kings of England.
(reigned 1100–1135), whose only legitimate son William Adelin
died in 1120 in the "White Ship
" disaster. As there was no legally defined line of succession at the time it was unclear who would now succeed to the throne upon Henry I's death. Henry named his daughter Matilda
as heir to his throne and forced his barons, including Stephen, to swear allegiance to her several times.
Matilda however was an unpopular choice among the English ruling class. No woman had ever ruled England in her own right and Matilda had spent almost all of her adult life outside of England. Furthermore Matilda's second husband Geoffrey of Anjou did not enjoy a good reputation in England as he hailed from Anjou
, whose rulers were resented by the Normans for their attempts to conquer the duchy
of Normandy
.
, Count of Blois
, Stephen entered London and was acclaimed king by the townspeople. At Winchester
, with the support of his younger brother Henry
, who was bishop
there, he secured the treasury and the support of both Archbishop William Corbeil and the future Chief Justiciar Roger of Salisbury
. The barons ratified the usurpation, with the opposition of Matilda's illegitimate half-brother Robert of Gloucester
.
The Archbishop of Canterbury
and Pope Innocent II
sided with Stephen. Matilda was in France at the time of her father's death and thus unable to prevent Stephen’s usurpation. Although she protested Stephen's assumption of the throne, the situation in Anjou and Stephen's overwhelming political support prevented her from mounting an immediate military challenge of her own. Matilda's best hope for striking an immediate blow lay with her uncle King David I of Scotland
who invaded Northumberland
, nominally on her behalf. Little actual fighting took place, but Thurstan
, Archbishop of York
, won the Battle of the Standard
on Stephen's behalf in August 1138. Thereafter, King David's support for Matilda's cause was lacklustre and he eventually struck a deal with Stephen and kept for himself most of territorial gains he had made during the war.
Within a few years of his coronation, Stephen's lack of political skills caused widespread discord among the nobles. Stephen made a series of poor decisions that caused resentment amongst his former supporters and caused many to consider switching their allegiance to Matilda. His own brother, Henry, Bishop of Winchester, turned against him due to his arrest of prominent bishops, which Henry perceived as an attack on the church itself. Matilda, sensing an opportunity, planned to strike.
Matilda landed in England in 1139. Her arrival was part of a two pronged strategy by her and her husband Geoffrey, who were collectively known as the Angevins, after their power base in the French province of Anjou
. The plan called for Geoffrey to attack Stephen's possessions in Normandy from Anjou while Matilda would attempt to overthrow Stephen in England. She received support from her illegitimate half-brother Robert of Gloucester. Matilda was staying as a guest at Arundel Castle
when Stephen's army arrived and took possession of the fortress without a fight. Though Matilda was now at Stephen's mercy, astonishingly he granted her safe passage to Bristol
where she was reunited with Robert of Gloucester. Another prominent opposing earl, Ranulf of Chester
, Robert of Gloucester’s son-in-law, moved on Lincoln and captured the castle. Despite having made peace with Ranulf, Stephen responded to a plea from the citizens of Lincoln to attack the castle.
Stephen's sojourn at Lincoln proved disastrous. While Stephen was besieging the castle
, Robert of Gloucester arrived to lift the siege putting Stephen's army to flight. On 2 February 1141 Stephen was captured after suffering a head wound and sent to Bristol
as a prisoner. With Stephen now effectively deposed
, Matilda marched on London and quickly gained control of the city. After receiving the backing of the church she prepared for her coronation. The citizens of London rose up against her however and she was obliged to flee the capital for Oxford
. In September of 1141, Robert of Gloucester fell into the hands of Stephen's wife, Matilda of Boulogne
, and the captain of her Flemish mercenaries, William of Ypres
, Earl of Kent
following the rout of Winchester
. Matilda decided to get Robert back via a prisoner exchange
for Stephen, who returned to the throne. Stephen now held the advantage and besieged Matilda at Oxford Castle
. Facing total defeat, she made a daring escape. Her night time flight over the frozen Thames to Wallingford has become legendary.
Matilda kept up the fight and was joined by her young son Henry Curtmantle
but by this time the war was going badly for her. Matilda's army had suffered heavy losses in the Rout of Winchester and it was only by the personal bravery of Robert of Gloucester that a complete annihilation was averted. Since that defeat Matilda had been reduced to fighting a defensive war. Stephen held control over the south-east of England while Matilda's forces dominated the south-west. Neither side was strong enough to strike a decisive blow and the conflict lapsed into a slow and grinding war of attrition
which devastated the country. Matilda's husband Geoffrey was occupied with the conquest and pacification of Normandy and was unable to offer her assistance. Robert of Gloucester was clearly Matilda's most valuable asset in the struggle and his death in 1147 was a disaster for the Angevin cause. Following Robert's death, Matilda's forces quickly fell apart and she was forced to flee England in 1148.
“and his great administrative dynasty, Stephen actually robbed himself of the very corps of technicians who understood and exercised his government.” Many talented scribes fled the royal chancery following Stephen’s attack on Roger. This led to a sharp decrease in charters and personnel movement. Other bureaus also found themselves short staffed. He replaced many local bureaucrats with ones who had very little administrative experience, so that his intelligence system broke down and kept him one step behind his enemies (Kealey, 201–217). After King Stephen was captured by Robert of Gloucester at the Battle of Lincoln in 1141, his administration was one-quarter the size it had been when he began his reign (Kealey, 216).
Stephen allowed the barons, in their quest for land and castles, to become tyrants to their subjects. There was no strong central leadership in the land, and landowners took the law into their own hands, exercising arbitrary taxes and penalties. The reign of King Stephen became “nineteen long winters, when Christ and his saints slept.” (Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, Peterborough Chronicle)
The landowners sought to exact rent, taxes, and labour and they did so using tyrannical methods. In a letter from Abbot Gilbert Foliot’s to the Bishop of Worcester
regarding landowner William de Beauchamp, the abbot complains:
King Stephen either did nothing to control his tyrannical barons or he did not have the strength of presence to enforce good behaviour. The Peterborough Chronicle offers an eye-witness account of the civil war and its suffering. According to its author, Stephen was a 'softe and gode' man who 'no justice did', followed by the comments that 'Crist and alle his sayntes slept' and 'mare thanne we cunnen sæin, we tholeden xix wintre for ure sinnes' ("more than we can say, we suffered 19 winters for our sins"). There was no strong central leadership in the land. There were pockets of order and control but it was not a united kingdom. It is because of the lack of rule, the lack of security, and the lack of safety that the era is referred to as 'the Anarchy'.
following Robert of Gloucester's death in 1147. Stephen himself was ageing and in poor health by this time. Stephen had wanted his eldest surviving son Eustace to be crowned co-regent during his own lifetime in order to strengthen his claim to the succession. The Pope
however refused to allow this and even put England under an interdict
for a time during the squabble.
Matilda and her husband Geoffrey continued the fight against Stephen in his territories on the French mainland. They had effectively wrested control of Normandy from Stephen's followers by 1144 and Geoffrey was formally recognised as Duke of Normandy
by the French king. However a series of rebellions in their newly conquered territories forced them to consolidate power and prevented them from an immediate return to England following Matilda's expulsion in 1148.
Matilda and Geoffrey's son Henry Curtmantle, by this time a skilled military tactician and determined opponent, arrived in England early in January 1153. Henry crossed the English Channel with an invasion fleet of 36 ships transporting a force of 3,000 footmen and 140 horses. Faced with wavering barons led by William d'Aubigny, 1st Earl of Arundel
, Stephen arranged a temporary truce. Stephen's son and heir Eustace continued to oppose a settlement with Henry. However, Eustace died suddenly in August 1153, effectively putting an end to organised resistance to Henry's claim to the throne. Stephen's only surviving legitimate son William of Blois did not actively oppose Henry's claim. He would later be named Earl of Surrey after Henry became king.
Stephen and Henry signed the Treaty of Wallingford
(also known as the Treaty of Winchester), in November 1153. In it Stephen would be allowed to remain king in exchange for formal recognition of Henry as his legitimate heir to the throne. Although Matilda was still alive she passed her succession rights to Henry in order to secure her dynasty
. Since Henry's army controlled the country, Stephen was essentially a figurehead for the remainder of his reign. When Stephen died in 1154, Henry and his wife Eleanor of Aquitaine
were crowned King and Queen of England at Westminster Abbey effectively putting an end to The Anarchy. Henry and Eleanor's ascension to the throne of England was the cornerstone of their new Angevin Empire
which controlled a vast expanse of territory in the British Isles and continental Europe stretching from the Scottish border to the Pyrenees
mountains.
ists, the Anarchy has furnished the background of some major fictional portrayals.
History of England
The history of England concerns the study of the human past in one of Europe's oldest and most influential national territories. What is now England, a country within the United Kingdom, was inhabited by Neanderthals 230,000 years ago. Continuous human habitation dates to around 12,000 years ago,...
during the reign (1135–1154) of King Stephen
Stephen of England
Stephen , often referred to as Stephen of Blois , was a grandson of William the Conqueror. He was King of England from 1135 to his death, and also the Count of Boulogne by right of his wife. Stephen's reign was marked by the Anarchy, a civil war with his cousin and rival, the Empress Matilda...
, which was characterised by civil war and unsettled government. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle is a collection of annals in Old English chronicling the history of the Anglo-Saxons. The original manuscript of the Chronicle was created late in the 9th century, probably in Wessex, during the reign of Alfred the Great...
describes it as a time during which "Christ and his saints slept".
The period was marked by a succession crisis between the supporters of Stephen and those of his cousin, the Empress Matilda
Empress Matilda
Empress Matilda , also known as Matilda of England or Maude, was the daughter and heir of King Henry I of England. Matilda and her younger brother, William Adelin, were the only legitimate children of King Henry to survive to adulthood...
. Though Stephen was crowned king, the state of war prevented effective government in England for much of his reign. The issue was resolved only shortly before Stephen's death, when he signed the Treaty of Wallingford
Treaty of Wallingford
The Treaty of Wallingford of 1153, aka Treaty of Winchester or as the Treaty of Westminster, was an agreement that effectively ended the civil war known as the Anarchy, caused by a dispute between Empress Matilda and her cousin King Stephen of England over the English crown...
, which named Matilda's son Henry Curtmantle
Henry II of England
Henry II ruled as King of England , Count of Anjou, Count of Maine, Duke of Normandy, Duke of Aquitaine, Duke of Gascony, Count of Nantes, Lord of Ireland and, at various times, controlled parts of Wales, Scotland and western France. Henry, the great-grandson of William the Conqueror, was the...
as his heir. Henry was crowned king upon Stephen's death in 1154, establishing the Plantagenet dynasty
House of Plantagenet
The House of Plantagenet , a branch of the Angevins, was a royal house founded by Geoffrey V of Anjou, father of Henry II of England. Plantagenet kings first ruled the Kingdom of England in the 12th century. Their paternal ancestors originated in the French province of Gâtinais and gained the...
as Kings of England.
Origin
Stephen was a favourite nephew of King Henry I of EnglandHenry I of England
Henry I was the fourth son of William I of England. He succeeded his elder brother William II as King of England in 1100 and defeated his eldest brother, Robert Curthose, to become Duke of Normandy in 1106...
(reigned 1100–1135), whose only legitimate son William Adelin
William Adelin
William , surnamed Adelin , was the son of Henry I of England by his wife Matilda of Scotland, and was thus heir-apparent to the throne. His early death without issue caused a succession crisis.William was born in Winchester...
died in 1120 in the "White Ship
White Ship
The White Ship was a vessel that sank in the English Channel near the Normandy coast off Barfleur, on 25 November 1120. Only one of those aboard survived. Those who drowned included William Adelin, the only surviving legitimate son and heir of King Henry I of England...
" disaster. As there was no legally defined line of succession at the time it was unclear who would now succeed to the throne upon Henry I's death. Henry named his daughter Matilda
Empress Matilda
Empress Matilda , also known as Matilda of England or Maude, was the daughter and heir of King Henry I of England. Matilda and her younger brother, William Adelin, were the only legitimate children of King Henry to survive to adulthood...
as heir to his throne and forced his barons, including Stephen, to swear allegiance to her several times.
Matilda however was an unpopular choice among the English ruling class. No woman had ever ruled England in her own right and Matilda had spent almost all of her adult life outside of England. Furthermore Matilda's second husband Geoffrey of Anjou did not enjoy a good reputation in England as he hailed from Anjou
Anjou
Anjou is a former county , duchy and province centred on the city of Angers in the lower Loire Valley of western France. It corresponds largely to the present-day département of Maine-et-Loire...
, whose rulers were resented by the Normans for their attempts to conquer the duchy
Duchy
A duchy is a territory, fief, or domain ruled by a duke or duchess.Some duchies were sovereign in areas that would become unified realms only during the Modern era . In contrast, others were subordinate districts of those kingdoms that unified either partially or completely during the Medieval era...
of Normandy
Normandy
Normandy is a geographical region corresponding to the former Duchy of Normandy. It is in France.The continental territory covers 30,627 km² and forms the preponderant part of Normandy and roughly 5% of the territory of France. It is divided for administrative purposes into two régions:...
.
Conflict between Stephen and Matilda
On Henry's death in 1135 Stephen rushed to London. Although the barons seemed to be leaning towards his elder brother, TheobaldTheobald II of Champagne
Theobald the Great was Count of Blois and of Chartres as Theobald IV from 1102 and was Count of Champagne and of Brie as Theobald II from 1125....
, Count of Blois
Blois
Blois is the capital of Loir-et-Cher department in central France, situated on the banks of the lower river Loire between Orléans and Tours.-History:...
, Stephen entered London and was acclaimed king by the townspeople. At Winchester
Winchester
Winchester is a historic cathedral city and former capital city of England. It is the county town of Hampshire, in South East England. The city lies at the heart of the wider City of Winchester, a local government district, and is located at the western end of the South Downs, along the course of...
, with the support of his younger brother Henry
Henry of Blois
Henry of Blois , often known as Henry of Winchester, was Abbot of Glastonbury Abbey from 1126, and Bishop of Winchester from 1129 to his death.-Early life and education:...
, who was bishop
Bishop
A bishop is an ordained or consecrated member of the Christian clergy who is generally entrusted with a position of authority and oversight. Within the Catholic Church, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox Churches, in the Assyrian Church of the East, in the Independent Catholic Churches, and in the...
there, he secured the treasury and the support of both Archbishop William Corbeil and the future Chief Justiciar Roger of Salisbury
Roger of Salisbury
Roger was a Norman medieval Bishop of Salisbury and the seventh Lord Chancellor and Lord Keeper of England.-Life:...
. The barons ratified the usurpation, with the opposition of Matilda's illegitimate half-brother Robert of Gloucester
Robert, 1st Earl of Gloucester
Robert Fitzroy, 1st Earl of Gloucester was an illegitimate son of King Henry I of England. He was called "Rufus" and occasionally "de Caen", he is also known as Robert "the Consul"...
.
The Archbishop of Canterbury
Archbishop of Canterbury
The Archbishop of Canterbury is the senior bishop and principal leader of the Church of England, the symbolic head of the worldwide Anglican Communion, and the diocesan bishop of the Diocese of Canterbury. In his role as head of the Anglican Communion, the archbishop leads the third largest group...
and Pope Innocent II
Pope Innocent II
Pope Innocent II , born Gregorio Papareschi, was pope from 1130 to 1143, and was probably one of the clergy in personal attendance on the antipope Clement III .-Early years:...
sided with Stephen. Matilda was in France at the time of her father's death and thus unable to prevent Stephen’s usurpation. Although she protested Stephen's assumption of the throne, the situation in Anjou and Stephen's overwhelming political support prevented her from mounting an immediate military challenge of her own. Matilda's best hope for striking an immediate blow lay with her uncle King David I of Scotland
David I of Scotland
David I or Dabíd mac Maíl Choluim was a 12th-century ruler who was Prince of the Cumbrians and later King of the Scots...
who invaded Northumberland
Northumberland
Northumberland is the northernmost ceremonial county and a unitary district in North East England. For Eurostat purposes Northumberland is a NUTS 3 region and is one of three boroughs or unitary districts that comprise the "Northumberland and Tyne and Wear" NUTS 2 region...
, nominally on her behalf. Little actual fighting took place, but Thurstan
Thurstan
Thurstan or Turstin of Bayeux was a medieval Archbishop of York, the son of a priest. He served kings William II and Henry I of England before his election to the see of York in 1114. Once elected, his consecration was delayed for five years while he fought attempts by the Archbishop of Canterbury...
, Archbishop of York
Archbishop of York
The Archbishop of York is a high-ranking cleric in the Church of England, second only to the Archbishop of Canterbury. He is the diocesan bishop of the Diocese of York and metropolitan of the Province of York, which covers the northern portion of England as well as the Isle of Man...
, won the Battle of the Standard
Battle of the Standard
The Battle of the Standard, sometimes called the Battle of Northallerton, in which English forces repelled a Scottish army, took place on 22 August 1138 on Cowton Moor near Northallerton in Yorkshire. The Scottish forces were led by King David I of Scotland...
on Stephen's behalf in August 1138. Thereafter, King David's support for Matilda's cause was lacklustre and he eventually struck a deal with Stephen and kept for himself most of territorial gains he had made during the war.
Within a few years of his coronation, Stephen's lack of political skills caused widespread discord among the nobles. Stephen made a series of poor decisions that caused resentment amongst his former supporters and caused many to consider switching their allegiance to Matilda. His own brother, Henry, Bishop of Winchester, turned against him due to his arrest of prominent bishops, which Henry perceived as an attack on the church itself. Matilda, sensing an opportunity, planned to strike.
Matilda landed in England in 1139. Her arrival was part of a two pronged strategy by her and her husband Geoffrey, who were collectively known as the Angevins, after their power base in the French province of Anjou
Anjou
Anjou is a former county , duchy and province centred on the city of Angers in the lower Loire Valley of western France. It corresponds largely to the present-day département of Maine-et-Loire...
. The plan called for Geoffrey to attack Stephen's possessions in Normandy from Anjou while Matilda would attempt to overthrow Stephen in England. She received support from her illegitimate half-brother Robert of Gloucester. Matilda was staying as a guest at Arundel Castle
Arundel Castle
Arundel Castle in Arundel, West Sussex, England is a restored medieval castle. It was founded by Roger de Montgomery on Christmas Day 1067. Roger became the first to hold the earldom of Arundel by the graces of William the Conqueror...
when Stephen's army arrived and took possession of the fortress without a fight. Though Matilda was now at Stephen's mercy, astonishingly he granted her safe passage to Bristol
Bristol
Bristol is a city, unitary authority area and ceremonial county in South West England, with an estimated population of 433,100 for the unitary authority in 2009, and a surrounding Larger Urban Zone with an estimated 1,070,000 residents in 2007...
where she was reunited with Robert of Gloucester. Another prominent opposing earl, Ranulf of Chester
Ranulph de Gernon, 2nd Earl of Chester
Ranulf II was an Anglo-Norman potentate who inherited the honour of the palatine county of Chester upon the death of his father Ranulf le Meschin, 3rd Earl of Chester...
, Robert of Gloucester’s son-in-law, moved on Lincoln and captured the castle. Despite having made peace with Ranulf, Stephen responded to a plea from the citizens of Lincoln to attack the castle.
Stephen's sojourn at Lincoln proved disastrous. While Stephen was besieging the castle
Battle of Lincoln (1141)
The Battle of Lincoln or First Battle of Lincoln occurred on 2 February 1141. In it Stephen of England was captured, imprisoned and effectively deposed while Empress Matilda ruled for a short time.-Account:...
, Robert of Gloucester arrived to lift the siege putting Stephen's army to flight. On 2 February 1141 Stephen was captured after suffering a head wound and sent to Bristol
Bristol
Bristol is a city, unitary authority area and ceremonial county in South West England, with an estimated population of 433,100 for the unitary authority in 2009, and a surrounding Larger Urban Zone with an estimated 1,070,000 residents in 2007...
as a prisoner. With Stephen now effectively deposed
Deposition (politics)
Deposition by political means concerns the removal of a politician or monarch. It may be done by coup, impeachment, invasion or forced abdication...
, Matilda marched on London and quickly gained control of the city. After receiving the backing of the church she prepared for her coronation. The citizens of London rose up against her however and she was obliged to flee the capital for Oxford
Oxford
The city of Oxford is the county town of Oxfordshire, England. The city, made prominent by its medieval university, has a population of just under 165,000, with 153,900 living within the district boundary. It lies about 50 miles north-west of London. The rivers Cherwell and Thames run through...
. In September of 1141, Robert of Gloucester fell into the hands of Stephen's wife, Matilda of Boulogne
Matilda of Boulogne
Matilda I was suo jure Countess of Boulogne. She was also queen consort of England as the wife of King Stephen.-Biography:...
, and the captain of her Flemish mercenaries, William of Ypres
William of Ypres
William of Ypres , styled count of Flanders, was King Stephen of England's chief lieutenant during the English civil wars of 1139–54...
, Earl of Kent
Earl of Kent
The peerage title Earl of Kent has been created eight times in the Peerage of England and once in the Peerage of the United Kingdom.See also Kingdom of Kent, Duke of Kent.-Earls of Kent, first creation :*Godwin, Earl of Wessex...
following the rout of Winchester
Rout of Winchester
In the Rout of Winchester on September 14, 1141 the army of Stephen of England, led by his queen Matilda of Boulogne and William of Ypres, defeated the army of Empress Matilda's Angevin faction, commanded by Earl Robert of Gloucester...
. Matilda decided to get Robert back via a prisoner exchange
Prisoner exchange
A prisoner exchange or prisoner swap is a deal between opposing sides in a conflict to release prisoners. These may be prisoners of war, spies, hostages, etc...
for Stephen, who returned to the throne. Stephen now held the advantage and besieged Matilda at Oxford Castle
Oxford Castle
Oxford Castle is a large, partly ruined Norman medieval castle situated on the west edge of Oxford in Oxfordshire, England. The original moated, wooden motte and bailey castle was replaced with stone in the 11th century and played an important role in the conflict of the Anarchy...
. Facing total defeat, she made a daring escape. Her night time flight over the frozen Thames to Wallingford has become legendary.
Matilda kept up the fight and was joined by her young son Henry Curtmantle
Henry II of England
Henry II ruled as King of England , Count of Anjou, Count of Maine, Duke of Normandy, Duke of Aquitaine, Duke of Gascony, Count of Nantes, Lord of Ireland and, at various times, controlled parts of Wales, Scotland and western France. Henry, the great-grandson of William the Conqueror, was the...
but by this time the war was going badly for her. Matilda's army had suffered heavy losses in the Rout of Winchester and it was only by the personal bravery of Robert of Gloucester that a complete annihilation was averted. Since that defeat Matilda had been reduced to fighting a defensive war. Stephen held control over the south-east of England while Matilda's forces dominated the south-west. Neither side was strong enough to strike a decisive blow and the conflict lapsed into a slow and grinding war of attrition
War of Attrition
The international community and both countries attempted to find a diplomatic solution to the conflict. The Jarring Mission of the United Nations was supposed to ensure that the terms of UN Security Council Resolution 242 would be observed, but by late 1970 it was clear that this mission had been...
which devastated the country. Matilda's husband Geoffrey was occupied with the conquest and pacification of Normandy and was unable to offer her assistance. Robert of Gloucester was clearly Matilda's most valuable asset in the struggle and his death in 1147 was a disaster for the Angevin cause. Following Robert's death, Matilda's forces quickly fell apart and she was forced to flee England in 1148.
Stephen as a ruler
King Stephen was uninterested in the administrative side of kingship. In 1139, when he attacked Roger of SalisburyRoger of Salisbury
Roger was a Norman medieval Bishop of Salisbury and the seventh Lord Chancellor and Lord Keeper of England.-Life:...
“and his great administrative dynasty, Stephen actually robbed himself of the very corps of technicians who understood and exercised his government.” Many talented scribes fled the royal chancery following Stephen’s attack on Roger. This led to a sharp decrease in charters and personnel movement. Other bureaus also found themselves short staffed. He replaced many local bureaucrats with ones who had very little administrative experience, so that his intelligence system broke down and kept him one step behind his enemies (Kealey, 201–217). After King Stephen was captured by Robert of Gloucester at the Battle of Lincoln in 1141, his administration was one-quarter the size it had been when he began his reign (Kealey, 216).
Stephen allowed the barons, in their quest for land and castles, to become tyrants to their subjects. There was no strong central leadership in the land, and landowners took the law into their own hands, exercising arbitrary taxes and penalties. The reign of King Stephen became “nineteen long winters, when Christ and his saints slept.” (Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, Peterborough Chronicle)
The landowners sought to exact rent, taxes, and labour and they did so using tyrannical methods. In a letter from Abbot Gilbert Foliot’s to the Bishop of Worcester
Worcester
The City of Worcester, commonly known as Worcester, , is a city and county town of Worcestershire in the West Midlands of England. Worcester is situated some southwest of Birmingham and north of Gloucester, and has an approximate population of 94,000 people. The River Severn runs through the...
regarding landowner William de Beauchamp, the abbot complains:
King Stephen either did nothing to control his tyrannical barons or he did not have the strength of presence to enforce good behaviour. The Peterborough Chronicle offers an eye-witness account of the civil war and its suffering. According to its author, Stephen was a 'softe and gode' man who 'no justice did', followed by the comments that 'Crist and alle his sayntes slept' and 'mare thanne we cunnen sæin, we tholeden xix wintre for ure sinnes' ("more than we can say, we suffered 19 winters for our sins"). There was no strong central leadership in the land. There were pockets of order and control but it was not a united kingdom. It is because of the lack of rule, the lack of security, and the lack of safety that the era is referred to as 'the Anarchy'.
After Matilda's escape
Unrest continued throughout Stephen's reign, even after Matilda returned to AnjouAnjou
Anjou is a former county , duchy and province centred on the city of Angers in the lower Loire Valley of western France. It corresponds largely to the present-day département of Maine-et-Loire...
following Robert of Gloucester's death in 1147. Stephen himself was ageing and in poor health by this time. Stephen had wanted his eldest surviving son Eustace to be crowned co-regent during his own lifetime in order to strengthen his claim to the succession. The Pope
Pope
The Pope is the Bishop of Rome, a position that makes him the leader of the worldwide Catholic Church . In the Catholic Church, the Pope is regarded as the successor of Saint Peter, the Apostle...
however refused to allow this and even put England under an interdict
Interdict (Roman Catholic Church)
In Roman Catholic canon law, an interdict is an ecclesiastical censure that excludes from certain rites of the Church individuals or groups, who nonetheless do not cease to be members of the Church.-Distinctions in canon law:...
for a time during the squabble.
Matilda and her husband Geoffrey continued the fight against Stephen in his territories on the French mainland. They had effectively wrested control of Normandy from Stephen's followers by 1144 and Geoffrey was formally recognised as Duke of Normandy
Duke of Normandy
The Duke of Normandy is the title of the reigning monarch of the British Crown Dependancies of the Bailiwick of Guernsey and the Bailiwick of Jersey. The title traces its roots to the Duchy of Normandy . Whether the reigning sovereign is a male or female, they are always titled as the "Duke of...
by the French king. However a series of rebellions in their newly conquered territories forced them to consolidate power and prevented them from an immediate return to England following Matilda's expulsion in 1148.
Matilda and Geoffrey's son Henry Curtmantle, by this time a skilled military tactician and determined opponent, arrived in England early in January 1153. Henry crossed the English Channel with an invasion fleet of 36 ships transporting a force of 3,000 footmen and 140 horses. Faced with wavering barons led by William d'Aubigny, 1st Earl of Arundel
William d'Aubigny, 1st Earl of Arundel
William d'Aubigny, 1st Earl of Lincoln and 1st Earl of Arundel , also known as William d'Albini, was son of William d'Aubigny, 'Pincerna' of Old Buckenham Castle in Norfolk, and Maud Bigod, daughter of Roger Bigod, 1st Earl of Norfolk.-Marriage and Issue:The younger William was an important member...
, Stephen arranged a temporary truce. Stephen's son and heir Eustace continued to oppose a settlement with Henry. However, Eustace died suddenly in August 1153, effectively putting an end to organised resistance to Henry's claim to the throne. Stephen's only surviving legitimate son William of Blois did not actively oppose Henry's claim. He would later be named Earl of Surrey after Henry became king.
Stephen and Henry signed the Treaty of Wallingford
Treaty of Wallingford
The Treaty of Wallingford of 1153, aka Treaty of Winchester or as the Treaty of Westminster, was an agreement that effectively ended the civil war known as the Anarchy, caused by a dispute between Empress Matilda and her cousin King Stephen of England over the English crown...
(also known as the Treaty of Winchester), in November 1153. In it Stephen would be allowed to remain king in exchange for formal recognition of Henry as his legitimate heir to the throne. Although Matilda was still alive she passed her succession rights to Henry in order to secure her dynasty
Dynasty
A dynasty is a sequence of rulers considered members of the same family. Historians traditionally consider many sovereign states' history within a framework of successive dynasties, e.g., China, Ancient Egypt and the Persian Empire...
. Since Henry's army controlled the country, Stephen was essentially a figurehead for the remainder of his reign. When Stephen died in 1154, Henry and his wife Eleanor of Aquitaine
Eleanor of Aquitaine
Eleanor of Aquitaine was one of the wealthiest and most powerful women in Western Europe during the High Middle Ages. As well as being Duchess of Aquitaine in her own right, she was queen consort of France and of England...
were crowned King and Queen of England at Westminster Abbey effectively putting an end to The Anarchy. Henry and Eleanor's ascension to the throne of England was the cornerstone of their new Angevin Empire
Angevin Empire
The term Angevin Empire is a modern term describing the collection of states once ruled by the Angevin Plantagenet dynasty.The Plantagenets ruled over an area stretching from the Pyrenees to Ireland during the 12th and early 13th centuries, located north of Moorish Iberia. This "empire" extended...
which controlled a vast expanse of territory in the British Isles and continental Europe stretching from the Scottish border to the Pyrenees
Pyrenees
The Pyrenees is a range of mountains in southwest Europe that forms a natural border between France and Spain...
mountains.
Battles of The Anarchy
- Battle of Lincoln (1141)Battle of Lincoln (1141)The Battle of Lincoln or First Battle of Lincoln occurred on 2 February 1141. In it Stephen of England was captured, imprisoned and effectively deposed while Empress Matilda ruled for a short time.-Account:...
- Battle of ClitheroeBattle of ClitheroeThe Battle of Clitheroe was a battle between a force of Scots and English knights and men at arms which took place on 10 June 1138 during the period of The Anarchy. The battle was fought on the southern edge of the Bowland Fells, at Clitheroe, Lancashire. It took place in the course of an invasion...
- Battle of the StandardBattle of the StandardThe Battle of the Standard, sometimes called the Battle of Northallerton, in which English forces repelled a Scottish army, took place on 22 August 1138 on Cowton Moor near Northallerton in Yorkshire. The Scottish forces were led by King David I of Scotland...
- Rout of WinchesterRout of WinchesterIn the Rout of Winchester on September 14, 1141 the army of Stephen of England, led by his queen Matilda of Boulogne and William of Ypres, defeated the army of Empress Matilda's Angevin faction, commanded by Earl Robert of Gloucester...
The Anarchy in fiction
Although not traditionally a popular period with historical novelHistorical novel
According to Encyclopædia Britannica, a historical novel is-Development:An early example of historical prose fiction is Luó Guànzhōng's 14th century Romance of the Three Kingdoms, which covers one of the most important periods of Chinese history and left a lasting impact on Chinese culture.The...
ists, the Anarchy has furnished the background of some major fictional portrayals.
- George ShipwayGeorge ShipwayGeorge Shipway was a British author best known for his historical novels, but he also tried his hand at political satire in his book The Chilian Club.Shipway was born in 1908, and served in the Indian Cavalry until 1946. He died in 1982...
's novel Knight in Anarchy (1969) centres on a knight sworn to Geoffrey de Mandeville as he tries to gain power in the Anarchy. - Cecelia HollandCecelia Holland-Biography:She was born December 31, 1943 in Henderson, Nevada, and began writing at the age of twelve, recording the stories she made up for her own entertainment. From the beginning, her focus was on history because "being twelve, I had precious few stories of my own...
's The Earl, also published as Hammer for Princes (1971), gives a vivid description of the last year of the struggle, Prince Henry's invasion of England and his eventual recognition as King Stephen's heir. - Graham ShelbyGraham ShelbyGraham Shelby is a British historical novelist. He worked as a copywriter and book-reviewer before embarking on a series of historical novels, mainly set in the twelfth century.-List of works:...
's 1972 novel The Oath and the Sword (aka The Villains of the Piece), focuses on Empress Matilda's faithful supporter Brien FitzCountBrien FitzCountBrien FitzCount , held the lordships of Wallingford and Abergavenny, and was a staunch supporter of the Empress Matilda during the Anarchy of King Stephen's reign in England in the 1140s.- Illegitimate Birth :He was the illegitimate son of Alan IV, Duke of Brittany...
, Lord of Wallingford, through the years of the Anarchy. - Jean Plaidy's Passionate Enemies (c. 1976) from her multi-volume treatment of the British monarchy, captures the mood of the period and the personalities of Matilda and Stephen.
- Ellis Peters set her series of Brother Cadfael books (published 1977 – 1994) against the background of the Anarchy.
- Diana NormanDiana NormanDiana Norman was a British author and journalist writing historical fiction and non-fiction. She was born in Devon...
's novel Morning Gift (published in 1985) follows the trials of a Norman noblewoman as she struggles to keep safe her lands, her young son, and her people during the period of the Anarchy. - Ken FollettKen FollettKen Follett is a Welsh author of thrillers and historical novels. He has sold more than 100 million copies of his works. Four of his books have reached the number 1 ranking on the New York Times best-seller list: The Key to Rebecca, Lie Down with Lions, Triple, and World Without End.-Early...
's novel The Pillars of the EarthThe Pillars of the EarthThe Pillars of the Earth is a historical novel by Ken Follett published in 1989 about the building of a cathedral in the fictional town of Kingsbridge, England. It is set in the middle of the 12th century, primarily during the Anarchy, between the time of the sinking of the White Ship and the...
(published in 1989) is set during this time, and was adapted to an eight part TV miniseries debuting in the U.S. on Starz and Canada on The Movie Network/Movie Central on July 23, 2010. It premiered in the UK on Channel 4Channel 4Channel 4 is a British public-service television broadcaster which began working on 2 November 1982. Although largely commercially self-funded, it is ultimately publicly owned; originally a subsidiary of the Independent Broadcasting Authority , the station is now owned and operated by the Channel...
, October 16, 2010, and on CBC TelevisionCBC TelevisionCBC Television is a Canadian television network owned by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, the national public broadcaster.Although the CBC is supported by public funding, the television network supplements this funding with commercial advertising revenue, in contrast to CBC Radio which are...
January 8, 2011. - Sharon Kay PenmanSharon Kay PenmanSharon Kay Penman is an American historical novelist, published in the UK as Sharon Penman. She is best known for the Welsh Princes trilogy and the Plantagenet series. In addition, she has written four medieval mysteries, the first of which, The Queen's Man, was a finalist in 1996 for the Best...
's 750-page novel When Christ and His Saints Slept (published in 1995) gives a comprehensive and informative view of the entire power struggle. - Elizabeth ChadwickElizabeth ChadwickElizabeth Chadwick is an author of historical fictions. She is a member of Regia Anglorum, a Medieval reenactment organisation.-Biography:Elizabeth Chadwick was born in Bury, Lancashire. She moved with her family to Scotland when she was four years old and spent her childhood in the village of...
's A Place Beyond Courage (published 2008, Sphere) is set during the Anarchy, focusing on the life of John FitzGilbert the MarshalJohn Marshal (Earl Marshal)John FitzGilbert the Marshal was a minor Anglo-Norman nobleman during the reign of King Stephen, and fought in the 12th century civil war on the side of the Empress Matilda. Since at least 1130 and probably earlier, he had been the royal marshal to King Henry I...
. Her most recent novel The Lady of the English focuses on Matilda and on Henry's young wife Adeliza.