Modern Greek refers the varieties of Greek spoken in the modern era. The beginning of the "modern" period of the language is often symbolically assigned to the fall of the Byzantine Empire in 1453, even though that date marks no clear linguistic boundary and many characteristic modern features of the language had been present centuries earli... , often in English
English language
English is a West Germanic language that originated in Anglo-Saxon England and has lingua franca status in many parts of the world as a result of the military, economic, scientific, political and cultural influence of the British Empire in the 18th, 19th and early 20th centuries and that of the United States from the mid 20th century onwa... ; written with a lowercase 'e' in imitation of the logo) is a typesetting
Typesetting
Typesetting involves the presentation of textual material in graphic form on paper or some other Recording medium. Before the advent of desktop publishing, typesetting of printed material was produced in print shops by compositors or typesetters working by hand, and later with machines.... system designed and mostly written by Donald Knuth
Donald Knuth
Donald Ervin Knuth is a renowned computer science and Emeritus of the Art of Computer Programming at Stanford University.Author of the seminal multi-volume work The Art of Computer Programming , Knuth has been called the "father" of the run-time analysis, contributing to the development of, and systematizing formal mathematical techn... . Together with the METAFONT
METAFONT
Metafont is a programming language used to define outline font. It is also the name of the interpreter that executes Metafont code, generating the bitmap fonts that can be embedded into e.g.... language for font description and the Computer Modern
Computer Modern
Computer Modern is the family of typefaces used by default by the typesetting program TeX. It was created by Donald Knuth with his METAFONT program, and was most recently updated in 1992.... typeface
Typeface
In typography, a typeface is a set of one or more fonts, in one or more sizes, designed with stylistic unity, each comprising a coordinated set of glyphs.... s, it was designed with two main goals in mind: to allow anybody to produce high-quality books using a reasonable amount of effort, and to provide a system that would give the exact same results on all computers, now and in the future.
Modern Greek refers the varieties of Greek spoken in the modern era. The beginning of the "modern" period of the language is often symbolically assigned to the fall of the Byzantine Empire in 1453, even though that date marks no clear linguistic boundary and many characteristic modern features of the language had been present centuries earli... , often in English
English language
English is a West Germanic language that originated in Anglo-Saxon England and has lingua franca status in many parts of the world as a result of the military, economic, scientific, political and cultural influence of the British Empire in the 18th, 19th and early 20th centuries and that of the United States from the mid 20th century onwa... ; written with a lowercase 'e' in imitation of the logo) is a typesetting
Typesetting
Typesetting involves the presentation of textual material in graphic form on paper or some other Recording medium. Before the advent of desktop publishing, typesetting of printed material was produced in print shops by compositors or typesetters working by hand, and later with machines.... system designed and mostly written by Donald Knuth
Donald Knuth
Donald Ervin Knuth is a renowned computer science and Emeritus of the Art of Computer Programming at Stanford University.Author of the seminal multi-volume work The Art of Computer Programming , Knuth has been called the "father" of the run-time analysis, contributing to the development of, and systematizing formal mathematical techn... . Together with the METAFONT
METAFONT
Metafont is a programming language used to define outline font. It is also the name of the interpreter that executes Metafont code, generating the bitmap fonts that can be embedded into e.g.... language for font description and the Computer Modern
Computer Modern
Computer Modern is the family of typefaces used by default by the typesetting program TeX. It was created by Donald Knuth with his METAFONT program, and was most recently updated in 1992.... typeface
Typeface
In typography, a typeface is a set of one or more fonts, in one or more sizes, designed with stylistic unity, each comprising a coordinated set of glyphs.... s, it was designed with two main goals in mind: to allow anybody to produce high-quality books using a reasonable amount of effort, and to provide a system that would give the exact same results on all computers, now and in the future. Within the typesetting system, its name is formatted as .
TeX is considered by many to be the best way to typeset complex mathematical formulae. TeX is popular in academia
Academia
Academia, Academe, or the Academy are collective terms for the community of students and scholars engaged in higher education and research.... , especially in the mathematics
Mathematics
Mathematics is the study of quantity, structure, space, change, and related topics of pattern and form. Mathematicians seek out patterns whether found in numbers, space, natural science, computers, imaginary abstractions, or elsewhere.... and physics
Physics
Physics is the natural science which examines basic concepts such as energy, force, and spacetime and all that derives from these, such as mass, charge, matter and its Motion .... communities
Community
In biological terms, a community is a group of interacting organisms sharing an environment .In human communities, intention, belief, Natural resource, preferences, Need assessment, risks, and a number of other conditions may be present and common, affecting the Identity of the participants and their degree of cohesiveness.... . It has largely displaced Unix
Unix
Unix is a computer operating system originally developed in 1969 by a group of American Telephone & Telegraph employees at Bell Labs, including Ken Thompson , Dennis Ritchie, Douglas McIlroy, and Joe Ossanna.... troff
Troff
troff is a document processing system developed by AT&T for the Unix operating system.... , the other favored formatter, in many Unix installations, which use both for different purposes. It is now also being used for many other typesetting tasks, especially in the form of LaTeX
LaTeX
LaTeX is a document markup language and Word processor for the TeX typesetting program. Within the typesetting system, its name is styled as .... and other template packages.
Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions is an Internet standard that extends the format of electronic mail to support:* Text in character sets other than ASCII... Type for TeX is application/x-tex. TeX is free software
Free software
Free Software or software libre is software that can be used, studied, and modified without restriction, and which can be copied and redistributed in modified or unmodified form either without restriction, or with minimal restrictions only to ensure that further recipients can also do these things and to prevent consumer-facing hardware... .
The Art of Computer Programming is a comprehensive monograph written by Donald Knuth that covers many kinds of programming algorithms and their analysis.... was published in 1969, it was typeset using hot metal type set by a Monotype Corporation
Monotype Corporation
Monotype Imaging Inc. is a typesetting and typeface design company responsible for many developments in printing technology — in particular the Monotype machine which was the first fully mechanical typesetter — and the design and production of typefaces in the 19th and 20th centuries.... typecaster with a hot metal typesetting
Hot metal typesetting
Hot metal typesetting is a term used to encompass a range of different 19th century technologies to create or typesetting text for use in the letterpress method of printing.... machine from the 19th century which produced a "good classic style" appreciated by Knuth. When the second edition of the second volume was published, in 1976, the whole book had to be typeset again because the Monotype technology had been largely replaced by photographic techniques, and the original fonts were no longer available. However, when Knuth received the galley proof
Galley proof
In printing and publication, proofs are preliminary versions of publications. They may be uncut and Bookbinding, or in some cases electronic publishing.... s of the new book on 30 March 1977, he found them awful. Around that time, Knuth saw for the first time the output of a high-quality digital typesetting system, and became interested in digital typography. The disappointing galley proofs gave him the final motivation to solve the problem at hand once and for all by designing his own typesetting system. On May 13, 1977, he wrote a memo to himself describing the basic features of TeX.
A sabbatical is a rest from work, a hiatus, typically lasting two or more months. The concept of a sabbatical has a source in several places in the Bible , where there is a commandment to desist from working the fields in the seventh year.... in 1978, but as it happened the language was frozen only in 1989, more than ten years later. Guy Steele happened to be at Stanford
Stanford University
Leland Stanford Junior University, commonly referred to as Stanford University or Stanford, is a private university research university located in Stanford, California, California, United States.... during the summer of 1978, when Knuth was developing his first version of TeX. When Steele returned to MIT
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
The Massachusetts Institute of Technology is a private university research university located in Cambridge, Massachusetts, Massachusetts, United States.... that fall, he rewrote TeX's I/O to run under the ITS
Incompatible Timesharing System
ITS, the Incompatible Timesharing System , was an early, revolutionary, and influential time-sharing operating system from Massachusetts Institute of Technology; it was developed principally by the MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory at MIT, with some help from Project MAC.... operating system. The first version of TeX was written in the SAIL programming language
SAIL programming language
SAIL, the Stanford Artificial Intelligence Language, was developed by Dan Swinehart and Bob Sproull of the Stanford AI Lab in 1970. It was originally a large ALGOL 60-like language for the PDP-10 and DECSYSTEM-20.... to run on a PDP-10
PDP-10
The PDP-10 was a mainframe computer manufactured by Digital Equipment Corporation from the late 1960s on; the name stands for "Programmed Data Processor model 10".... under Stanford's WAITS
WAITS
WAITS was a heavily-modified variant of Digital Equipment Corporation's Monitor operating system for the PDP-6 and PDP-10 mainframe computers, used at the Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory up until 1990; the mainframe computer it ran on also went by the name of "SAIL".... operating system. For later versions of TeX, Knuth invented the concept of literate programming
Literate programming
Literate programming is an approach to programming which was introduced by Donald Knuth. Knuth conceived literate programming as an alternative to the structured programming paradigm of the 1970s.... , a way of producing compilable source code
Source code
In computer science, source code is any collection of statements or declarations written in some human-readable computer programming language.... and high quality cross-linked documentation (typeset in TeX, of course) from the same original file. The language used is called WEB
Web
Web may refer to:... and produces programs in DEC PDP-10 Pascal.
A new version of TeX, rewritten from scratch and called TeX82, was published in 1982. Among other changes, the original hyphenation algorithm was replaced by a new algorithm written by Frank Liang. TeX82 also uses fixed-point arithmetic
Fixed-point arithmetic
In computing, a fixed-point number representation is a real data type for a number that has a fixed number of digits after the radix point . Fixed-point number representation can be compared to the more complicated floating point number representation.... instead of floating-point, to ensure reproducibility of the results across different computer hardware, and includes a real, Turing-complete
Turing completeness
In Computability theory , several closely-related terms are used to describe the "computational power" of a computational system :Turing completenessTuring equivalence universality... programming language, following intense lobbying by Guy Steele
Guy L. Steele, Jr.
Guy Lewis Steele Jr., , also known as "The Great Quux" and GLS , is an American computer scientist who has played an important role in designing and documenting several computer programming languages.... .
In 1989, Donald Knuth released new versions of TeX and METAFONT
METAFONT
Metafont is a programming language used to define outline font. It is also the name of the interpreter that executes Metafont code, generating the bitmap fonts that can be embedded into e.g.... . Despite his desire to keep the program stable, Knuth realised that 128 different characters for the text input were not enough to accommodate foreign languages; the main change in version 3.0 of TeX is thus the ability to work with 8-bits inputs, allowing 256 different characters in the text input.
Since version 3, TeX has used an idiosyncratic version numbering system, where updates have been indicated by adding an extra digit at the end of the decimal, so that the version number asymptotically
Asymptote
An asymptote of a real-valued function is a curve which describes the behavior of as either or tends to infinity.In other words, as one moves along the graph of in some direction, the distance between it and the asymptote eventually becomes smaller than any distance that one may specify, and as the x or y values approach infinity, the... approaches
Pi
Pi or p is a mathematical constant whose value is the ratio of any circle's circumference to its diameter in Euclidean geometry; this is the same value as the ratio of a circle's area to the square of its radius.... . This is a reflection of the fact that TeX is now very stable, and only minor updates are anticipated. The current version of TeX is 3.1415926; it was last updated in March 2008. The design was frozen after version 3.0, and no new feature or fundamental change will be added, so all newer versions will contain only bug
Software bug
A software bug is an error, flaw, mistake, failure, or fault in a computer program that prevents it from behaving as intended . Most bugs arise from mistakes and errors made by people in either a program's source code or its software architecture, and a few are caused by compilers producing incorrect code.... fixes. Even though Donald Knuth himself has suggested a few areas in which TeX could have been improved, he indicated that he firmly believes that having an unchanged system that will produce the same output now and in the future is more important than introducing new features. For this reason, he has stated that the "absolutely final change (to be made after my death)" will be to change the version number to , at which point all remaining bugs will become features.
Likewise, versions of METAFONT after 2.0 asymptotically approach e
E (mathematical constant)
The mathematical constant e is the unique real number such that the function ex has the same value as the derivative, for all values of x.... , and a similar change will be applied after Knuth's death.
However, since the source code of TeX is essentially in the public domain
Public domain
File:PD-icon.svgThe public domain is a range of abstract materials?commonly referred to as intellectual property?which are not owned or controlled by anyone.... (see below), other programmers are allowed (and explicitly encouraged) to improve the system, but are required to use another name to distribute the modified TeX, meaning that the source code can still evolve. For example, the Omega
Omega (TeX)
Omega is an extension of the TeX typesetting system that uses the Basic Multilingual Plane of Unicode. It was authored by John Plaice and Yannis Haralambous after TeX development was frozen in 1991, primarily to enhance TeX's multilingual typesetting abilities.... project was developed after 1991, primarily to enhance TeX's multilingual typesetting abilities. Donald Knuth himself created “unofficial” modified versions, such as TeX-XeT, which allows a user to mix texts written in left-to-right and right-to-left
Bi-directional text
Bi-directional text is used as some writing systems of the world, notably the Arabic alphabet , Persian_alphabet and Hebrew alphabet scripts, are written in a form known as right-to-left , in which writing begins at the right-hand side of a page and concludes at the left-hand side.... writing system
Writing system
A writing system is a type of symbolic system used to represent elements or statements expressible in language.... s in the same document.
The backslash is a typographical mark used chiefly in computing. It was first introduced to computers in 1960 by Bob Bemer. Sometimes called a reverse solidus or an oblique, it is the mirror image of the common slash .... and are grouped with curly braces
Bracket
Brackets are punctuation marks used in pairs to set apart or interject text within other text. In computer science, the term is sometimes said to strictly apply to the square or box type.... . However, almost all of TeX's syntactic properties can be changed on the fly which makes TeX input hard to parse by anything but TeX itself. TeX is a macro- and token-based language: many commands, including most user-defined ones, are expanded on the fly until only unexpandable tokens remain which get executed. Expansion itself is practically side-effect free. Tail recursion
Tail recursion
In computer science, tail recursion is a special case of Recursion_ in which the last operation of the function, the tail call, is a recursive call.... of macros takes no memory, and if-then-else constructs are available. This makes TeX a Turing-complete
Turing completeness
In Computability theory , several closely-related terms are used to describe the "computational power" of a computational system :Turing completenessTuring equivalence universality... language even at expansion level.
The system can be divided into four levels: in the first, characters are read from the input file and assigned a category code (sometimes called “catcode”, for short). Combinations of a backslash (really: any character of category zero) followed by letters (characters of category 11) or a single other character are replaced by a control sequence token. In this sense this stage is like lexical analysis, although it does not form numbers from digits. In the next stage, expandable control sequences (such as conditionals or defined macros) are replaced by their replacement text. The input for the third stage is then a stream of characters (including ones with special meaning) and unexpandable control sequences (typically assignments and visual commands). Here characters get assembled into a paragraph. TeX's paragraph breaking algorithm works by optimizing breakpoints over the whole paragraph. The fourth stage breaks the vertical list of lines and other material into pages.
The TeX system has precise knowledge of the sizes of all characters and symbols, and using this information, it computes the optimal arrangement of letters per line and lines per page. It then produces a DVI file (“DeVice Independent”) containing the final locations of all characters. This dvi file can be printed directly given an appropriate printer driver, or it can be converted to other formats. Nowadays, PDFTeX
PdfTeX
The computer program pdfTeX is an extension of Donald Knuth's typesetting program TeX, and was originally written and developed into a publicly usable product by H?n Th? Th?nh as a part of the work for his PhD thesis at the Faculty of Informatics, Masaryk University, Brno.... is often used which bypasses DVI generation altogether.
The base TeX system understands about 300 commands, called primitives. However, these low-level commands are rarely used directly by users, and most functionality is provided by format files (predumped memory images of TeX after large macro collections have been loaded). Knuth's original default format, which adds about 600 commands, is Plain TeX ([ftp://tug.ctan.org/pub/tex-archive/systems/knuth/dist/lib/plain.tex available from CTAN]). The most widely used format is LaTeX
LaTeX
LaTeX is a document markup language and Word processor for the TeX typesetting program. Within the typesetting system, its name is styled as .... , originally developed by Leslie Lamport
Leslie Lamport
Dr. Leslie Lamport is an United States computer science. A graduate of the Bronx High School of Science, he received a Bachelor's degree in mathematics from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1960, and Master's degree and Doctor of Philosophy degrees in mathematics from Brandeis University, respectively in 1963 and 1972.... , which incorporates document styles for books, letters, slides, etc, and adds support for referencing and automatic numbering of sections and equations. Another widely used format, AMS-TeX, is produced by the American Mathematical Society
American Mathematical Society
The American Mathematical Society is an association of professional mathematicians dedicated to the interests of mathematics research and scholarship, which it does with various publications and conferences as well as annual monetary awards and prizes to mathematicians.... , and provides many more user-friendly commands, which can be altered by journals to fit with their house style. Most of the features of AMS-TeX can be used in LaTeX by using the AMS “packages”. This is then referred to as AMS-LaTeX
AMS-LaTeX
AMS-LaTeX is a collection ofLaTeX document classes and packages developed for the American Mathematical Society . Its additions to LaTeX include the typesetting of multi-line and other mathematical statements, document classes, and fonts containing numerous mathematical symbols.... . Other formats include ConTeXt
Context
Context may refer to:* ConTeXt, a macro package for the TeX typesetting system* ConTEXT, a Windows text editor* Context , the relevant constraints of the communicative situation that influence language use, language variation and discourse... , used primarily for desktop publishing and written mostly by Hans Hagen
Hans Hagen
Hans Hagen is the developer of ConTeXt, a freely available macro package for the TeX typesetting system, and the owner of PRAGMA Advanced Document Engineering , a Netherlands-based company.... at Pragma.
A "Hello World" program is a computer program that prints out "Hello world!" on a display device. It is used in many introductory tutorials for teaching a programming language.... in plain TeX is:
Hello, World
\end % marks the end of the file; not shown in the final output
This might be in a file myfile.tex, as .tex is a common file extension for plain TeX files.
By default, everything that follows a percent sign on a line is a comment, ignored by TeX. Running TeX on this file (for example, by typing tex myfile.tex in a command line interpreter
Command line interpreter
A command-line interpreter is a computer program that reads lines of text entered by a user and interprets them in the context of a given operating system or programming language.... , or by calling it from a graphical user interface
Graphical user interface
A graphical user interface is a type of user interface which allows people to human-computer interaction such as computers; hand-held devices such as MP3 Players, Portable Media Players or Gaming devices; household appliances and office equipment.... ) will create an output file called myfile.dvi, representing the content of the page in a device independent format (DVI). The results can either be printed directly from a DVI viewer or converted to a more common format such as PostScript
PostScript
PostScript is a dynamically typed concatenative programming language programming language created by John Warnock and Charles Geschke in 1982. PostScript is best known for its use as a page description language in the electronic and desktop publishing areas.... using the dvips
Dvips
In computing, dvips is the most widely used program for converting the output of the TeX typesetting system into a printable form.TeX outputs DVI file format files, which as the name implies, are intended to be device independent.... program. This was because TeX natively uses bitmap fonts, which are only designed to display well at one particular size, whereas PostScript typically uses scalable Type 1 font
PostScript
PostScript is a dynamically typed concatenative programming language programming language created by John Warnock and Charles Geschke in 1982. PostScript is best known for its use as a page description language in the electronic and desktop publishing areas.... s. It is now possible to make dvips output scalable fonts with a bit of tweaking (newer versions of Ghostscript support it). TeX variants such as PDFTeX
PdfTeX
The computer program pdfTeX is an extension of Donald Knuth's typesetting program TeX, and was originally written and developed into a publicly usable product by H?n Th? Th?nh as a part of the work for his PhD thesis at the Faculty of Informatics, Masaryk University, Brno.... produce PDF files directly.
Mathematical example
TeX provides a text syntax for mathematical formulae. For example, the well-known quadratic formula
Quadratic equation
In mathematics, a quadratic equation is a polynomial equation of the second degree of a polynomial. The general form iswhere a ? 0. The letters a, b, and c are called coefficients: the quadratic coefficient a is the coefficient of x2, the linear coefficient b is the coefficient of x, and c i... would appear as:
The quadratic formula is $-b \pm \sqrt \over 2a$
\end
and the output would resemble:
The formula is printed in a way a person would write by hand, or typeset the equation. In a document, entering mathematics mode is done by starting with a $, then entering a formula in TeX semantics and closing again with another $. Knuth explained in a jest that he chose the dollar sign to indicate the beginning and end of mathematical mode in plain TeX because typesetting mathematics was traditionally supposed to be expensive. Display mathematics (mathematics presented centered on a new line) is similar but uses $$ instead of $. For example, the above with the quadratic formula in display math:
The quadratic formula is $$-b \pm \sqrt \over 2a$$
\end
renders as
Novel aspects
The TeX software incorporates several aspects that were not available, or were of lower quality, in other typesetting programs at the time when TeX was released. Some of the innovations are based on interesting algorithms, and have led to a number of theses for Knuth's students. While some of these discoveries have now been incorporated into other typesetting programs, others, such as the rules for mathematical spacing, are still unique.
Mathematical spacing
Since the primary goal of TeX was the high-quality typesetting of his book The Art of Computer Programming, Knuth gave a lot of attention to the choice of proper spacing rules for mathematical formulae. He took three bodies of work that he considered as standards of excellence for mathematical typography: the books typeset by Addison-Wesley
Addison-Wesley
Addison?Wesley is a book publishing imprint of Pearson PLC, best known for computer books. As well as publishing books, Addison?Wesley distributes its technical titles through the Safari Books Online e-reference service.... , the publisher of The Art of Computer Programming, in particular the work done by Hans Wolf; editions of the mathematical journal Acta Mathematica
Acta Mathematica
Acta Mathematica is a journal publishing original research papers in all fields of mathematics. The journal was founded by G?sta Mittag-Leffler in 1882 and is published by Institut Mittag-Leffler, a research institute for mathematics belonging to the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.... dating from around 1910; and a copy of Indagationes Mathematicae
Indagationes Mathematicae
Indagationes Mathematicae is a mathematics journal, published quarterly by the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, department of Mathematical Sciences.... , a Dutch
Netherlands
The Netherlands is a country that is part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. It is a parliamentary democratic constitutional monarchy. The Netherlands is located in North-West Europe, and bordered by the North Sea to the north and west, Belgium to the south, and Germany to the east.... mathematics journal. Knuth looked closely at these examples to derive a set of spacing rules for TeX. While TeX provides some basic rules and the tools needed to specify proper spacing, the exact parameters depend on the font used to typeset the formula. For example, the spacing for Knuth's Computer Modern
Computer Modern
Computer Modern is the family of typefaces used by default by the typesetting program TeX. It was created by Donald Knuth with his METAFONT program, and was most recently updated in 1992.... fonts has been precisely fine-tuned over the years and is now frozen, but when other fonts, such as AMS Euler
AMS Euler
AMS Euler is an upright cursive typeface, commissioned by the American Mathematical Society and designed and created by Hermann Zapf with the assistance of Donald Knuth.... , were used by Knuth for the first time, new spacing parameters had to be defined.
Hyphenation and justification
In comparison with manual typesetting, the problem of justification
Justification (typesetting)
In typesetting, justification is the typographic alignment setting of typography or s within a column or "measure" to align along both the left and right Margin .... is easy to solve with a digital system such as TeX, which, provided that good points for line breaking have been defined, can automatically spread the spaces between words to fill in the line. The problem is thus to find the set of breakpoints that will give the most pleasing result. Many line breaking algorithms use a first-fit approach, where the breakpoints for each line are determined one after the other, and no breakpoint is changed after it has been chosen. Such a system is not able to define a breakpoint depending on the effect that it will have on the following lines. In comparison, the total-fit line breaking algorithm used by TeX and developed by Donald Knuth and Michael Plass considers all the possible breakpoints in a paragraph, and finds the combination of line breaks that will produce the most globally pleasing arrangement.
Formally, the algorithm defines a value called badness associated with each possible line break; the badness is increased if the spaces on the line must stretch or shrink too much to make the line the correct width. Penalties are added if a breakpoint is particularly undesirable: for example, if a word must be hyphenated, if two lines in a row are hyphenated, or if a very loose line is immediately followed by a very tight line. The algorithm will then find the breakpoints that will minimize the sum of squares of the badness (including penalties) of the resulting lines. If the paragraph contains possible breakpoints, the number of situations that must be evaluated naively is . However, by using the method of dynamic programming
Dynamic programming
In mathematics and computer science, dynamic programming is a method of solving problems that exhibit the properties of overlapping subproblems and optimal substructure .... , the complexity of the algorithm can be brought down to (see Big O notation
Big O notation
In mathematics, big O notation describes the asymptotic analysis of a function when the argument tends towards a particular value or infinity, usually in terms of simpler functions.... ). Further simplifications (for example, not testing extremely unlikely breakpoints such as a hyphenation in the first word of a paragraph) lead to an efficient algorithm whose running time is almost always of order . However, in general, a thesis by Michael Plass shows how the page breaking problem can be NP-complete
NP-complete
In computational complexity theory, the complexity class NP-complete is a class of problems having two properties:* Any given solution to the problem can be verified quickly ; the set of problems with this property is called NP .... because of the added complication of placing figures. A similar algorithm is used to determine the best way to break paragraphs across two pages, in order to avoid widows or orphans
Orphan (typesetting)
In typesetting, a widow is the final line of a paragraph if it falls at the top of the following page [or column] of text, separated from the remainder of the paragraph on the previous page [or column].... (lines that appear alone on a page while the rest of the paragraph is on the following or preceding page).
TeX's line breaking algorithm has been adopted by several other programs, such as Adobe InDesign
Adobe InDesign
Adobe InDesign is a desktop publishing software computer application produced by Adobe Systems which can be used to create posters, flyers, and brochures.... , a desktop publishing
Desktop publishing
Desktop publishing combines a personal computer and WYSIWYG page layout software to create publication documents on a computer for either Publishing or small scale local Multifunction printer output and distribution.... application, and the GNU
GNU
GNU is a computer operating system composed entirely of free software. Its name is a recursive acronym for GNU's Not Unix; it was chosen because its design is Unix-like, but differs from Unix by being free software and containing no Unix code.... fmt Unix
Unix
Unix is a computer operating system originally developed in 1969 by a group of American Telephone & Telegraph employees at Bell Labs, including Ken Thompson , Dennis Ritchie, Douglas McIlroy, and Joe Ossanna.... command line utility.
If no suitable line break can be found for a line, the system will try to hyphen
Hyphen
A hyphen is a punctuation mark. It is used both to join words and also to separate syllables of a single word. It is often confused with the dash , which are longer and have different uses, and with the minus sign which is also longer.... ate a word. The original version of TeX used a hyphenation algorithm
Hyphenation algorithm
A hyphenation algorithm is a set of rules that decides at which points a word can be broken over two lines with a hyphen. For example, a hyphenation algorithm might decide that impeachment can be broken as impeach-ment or im-peachment, but not, say, as impe-achment.... based on a set of rules for the removal of prefixes and suffixes of words, and for deciding if it should insert a break between the two consonants in a pattern of the form vowel
Vowel
In phonetics, a vowel is a sound in spoken language, such as English ah! or oh! , pronounced with an open vocal tract so that there is no build-up of air pressure at any point above the glottis.... –consonant
Consonant
In articulatory phonetics, a consonant is a speech sound that is articulated with complete or partial closure of the upper vocal tract, the upper vocal tract being defined as that part of the vocal tract that lies above the larynx.... –consonant
Consonant
In articulatory phonetics, a consonant is a speech sound that is articulated with complete or partial closure of the upper vocal tract, the upper vocal tract being defined as that part of the vocal tract that lies above the larynx.... –vowel
Vowel
In phonetics, a vowel is a sound in spoken language, such as English ah! or oh! , pronounced with an open vocal tract so that there is no build-up of air pressure at any point above the glottis.... (which is possible most of the time). TeX82 introduced a new hyphenation algorithm, designed by Frank Liang in 1983, to assign priorities to breakpoints in letter groups. A list of hyphenation patterns is first generated automatically from a corpus of hyphenated words (a list of 50,000 words). If TeX must find the acceptable hyphenation positions in the word encyclopedia, for example, it will consider all the subwords of the extended word .encyclopedia., where . is a special marker to indicate the beginning or end of the word. The list of subwords include all the subwords of length 1 (., e, n, c, y, etc), of length 2 (.e, en, nc, etc), etc, up to the subword of length 14, which is the word itself, including the markers. TeX will then look into its list of hyphenation patterns, and find subwords for which it has calculated the desirability of hyphenation at each position. In the case of our word, 11 such patterns can be matched, namely
1c4l4, 1cy, 1d4i3a, 4edi, e3dia, 2i1a, ope5d, 2p2ed, 3pedi, pedia4, y1c. For each position in the word, TeX will calculate the maximum value obtained among all matching pattern, yielding en1cy1c4l4o3p4e5d4i3a4. Finally, the acceptable positions are those indicated by an odd
Even and odd numbers
In mathematics, the parity of an object states whether it is even or odd.This concept begins with integers. An even number is an integer that is "evenly divisible" by 2, i.e., divisible by 2 without remainder; an odd number is an integer that is not evenly divisible by 2.... number, yielding the acceptable hyphenations en-cy-clo-pe-di-a. This system based on subwords allows the definition of very general patterns (such as 2i1a), with low indicative numbers (either odd or even), which can then be superseded by more specific patterns (such as 1d4i3a) if necessary. These patterns find about 90% of the hyphens in the original dictionary; more importantly, they do not insert any spurious hyphen. In addition, a list of exceptions (words for which the patterns do not predict the correct hyphenation) are included with the Plain TeX format; additional ones can be specified by the user.
METAFONT
METAFONT, not strictly part of TeX, is a font description system which allows the designer to describe characters algorithmically. It uses Bézier curve
Bézier curve
In the mathematics field of numerical analysis, a B?zier curve is a parametric curve important in computer graphics and related fields.Generalizations of B?zier curves to higher dimensions are called B?zier surfaces, of which the B?zier triangle is a special case.... s in a fairly standard way to generate the actual characters to be displayed, but Knuth devotes lots of attention to the rasterizing
Font rasterization
Font rasterization is the process of converting text from a vector graphics description to a Raster graphics or bitmap description. This often involves some anti-aliasing on screen text to make it smoother and easier to read.... problem on bitmap
Raster graphics
In computer graphics, a raster graphics image or bitmap, is a data structure representing a generally Rectangle grid of pixels, or points of color, viewable via a Computer display, paper, or other display medium.... ped displays. Another thesis, by John Hobby, further explores this problem of digitizing “brush trajectories”. This term derives from the fact that METAFONT describes characters as having been drawn by abstract brushes (and erasers).
It is possible to use TeX and LaTeX without METAFONT. Adobe PostScript (“Type 1”) fonts may be used instead. (La)TeX expects fonts to be supplied as bitmaps at specific point sizes, while PostScript is a vector (outline) description scalable over a wide range, so this does introduce some minor complications. Nonetheless, with the help of some prewritten packages, (La)TeX can be made to use PostScript fonts. Further note that “Type 1” or “T1” can refer in documentation to two very different things: the TeX T1 character encoding scheme to map byte values to glyphs, and Adobe PostScript fonts.
Macro language
TeX provides an unusual macro language; the definition of a macro not only includes a list of commands but also the syntax of the call. Macros are completely integrated with a full-scale interpreted compile-time language that also guides processing.
TeX's macro level of operation is lexical, but it is a built-in facility of TeX, that makes use of syntax interpretation. Comparing with most widely used lexical preprocessors
Preprocessor
In computer science, a preprocessor is a Computer program that processes its input data to produce output that is used as input to another program.... like M4
M4 (computer language)
m4 is a general purpose macro processor designed by Brian Kernighan and Dennis Ritchie. The name m4 stands for macro, i.e. m plus 4 characters.... , it differs slightly, as the body of a macro gets tokenized at definition time, that is, it is not completely raw text. Except for a few very special cases, this gives the same behaviour.
The TeX macro language has been successfully used to extend TeX to, for instance, LaTeX
LaTeX
LaTeX is a document markup language and Word processor for the TeX typesetting program. Within the typesetting system, its name is styled as .... and ConTeXt
Context
Context may refer to:* ConTeXt, a macro package for the TeX typesetting system* ConTEXT, a Windows text editor* Context , the relevant constraints of the communicative situation that influence language use, language variation and discourse... .
Development
The original source code for the current TeX software is written in WEB
Web
Web may refer to:... , a mixture of documentation written in TeX and a Pascal subset in order to ensure portability. For example, TeX does all of its dynamic allocation itself from fixed-size arrays and uses only fixed-point arithmetic
Fixed-point arithmetic
In computing, a fixed-point number representation is a real data type for a number that has a fixed number of digits after the radix point . Fixed-point number representation can be compared to the more complicated floating point number representation.... for its internal calculations. As a result, TeX has been ported to almost all operating system
Operating system
An operating system is an interface between hardware and applications; it is responsible for the management and coordination of activities and the sharing of the limited resources of the computer.... s, usually by using the web2c program to convert the source code into C
C (programming language)
C is a general-purpose computer programming language originally developed in 1972 by Dennis Ritchie at the Bell Telephone Laboratories to implement the Unix operating system.... instead of directly compiling the Pascal code.
Knuth has kept a very detailed log of all the bugs he has corrected and changes he has made in the program since 1982; , the list contains 427 entries, not including the version modification that should be done after his death as the final change in TeX. Donald Knuth offers monetary awards
Knuth reward check
In the preface of each of his books and on his website, computer scientist Donald Knuth offers to cheerfully pay a reward of $2.56 to the first finder of each error in one of his published books , whether it be technical, typographical, or historical.... to people who find and report a bug in TeX. The award per bug started at $2.56 (one "hexadecimal dollar") and doubled every year until it was frozen at its current value of $327.68. Knuth, however, has lost relatively little money as there have been very few bugs claimed. In addition, people have been known to frame a check proving they found a bug in TeX instead of cashing it.
Packages
TeX is usually provided in the form of an easy-to-install bundle of TeX itself along with METAFONT
METAFONT
Metafont is a programming language used to define outline font. It is also the name of the interpreter that executes Metafont code, generating the bitmap fonts that can be embedded into e.g.... and all the necessary fonts, documents formats, and utilities needed to use the typesetting system. On UNIX
Unix
Unix is a computer operating system originally developed in 1969 by a group of American Telephone & Telegraph employees at Bell Labs, including Ken Thompson , Dennis Ritchie, Douglas McIlroy, and Joe Ossanna.... -compatible systems, including Linux
Linux
Linux is a generic term referring to Unix-like computer operating systems based on the Linux kernel. Their development is one of the most prominent examples of free and open source software collaboration; typically all the underlying source code can be used, freely modified, and redistributed by anyone under the terms of the GNU GPL license... and Mac OS X
Mac OS X
Mac OS X is a line of computer operating systems developed, marketed, and sold by Apple Inc., and since 2002 has been included with all new Macintosh computer systems.... , TeX is distributed in the form of the teTeX
TeTeX
teTeX is a TeX software distribution for Unix-like systems. As of May 2006 teTeX is no longer actively maintained and its former maintainer Thomas Esser recommended TeX Live as the replacement.... distribution and more recently the TeX Live
TeX Live
TeX Live is a TeX software_distribution which is advertised as the replacement of its no-longer supported counterpart TeTeX .TeX Live has been developed since 1996 by collaboration among the TeX user groups worldwide, including the TeX Users Group.... distribution. On Microsoft Windows
Microsoft Windows
Microsoft Windows is a series of software operating systems and graphical user interfaces produced by Microsoft. Microsoft first introduced an operating environment named Windows in November 1985 as an add-on to MS-DOS in response to the growing interest in graphical user interfaces .... , there is the MiKTeX
MiKTeX
MiKTeX is a TeX/LaTeX distribution for Microsoft Windows that is developed by Christian Schenk.Significant features of MiKTeX are its ability to update itself by downloading new versions of previously installed components and packages, and an easy installation process.... distribution (enhanced by ) and the [https://xemtex.groups.foundry.supelec.fr/xemtex-web-gb-2-5.html fpTeX] distribution.
Several document processing systems are based on TeX, notably jadeTeX, which uses TeX as a backend for printing from James Clark
James Clark (XML expert)
James Clark, is the author of Groff and Expat and has done much work with open-source software and XML. Born in London, and educated at Charterhouse School and Merton College, Oxford, Clark has lived in Bangkok, Thailand since 1995, and is now a permanent resident.... 's DSSSL Engine, the Arbortext
Arbortext
Arbortext is an XML-based publishing system available from Parametric Technology Corporation. Arbortext was also the name of the privately-held company in Ann Arbor, Michigan that developed and maintained the software from 1989 to 2005.... publishing system, and Texinfo
Texinfo
Texinfo is a typesetting syntax used for generating documentation in both on-line and printed form with a single source file. It is implemented by a free software computer program of the same name, created and made available by the GNU Project.... , the GNU
GNU
GNU is a computer operating system composed entirely of free software. Its name is a recursive acronym for GNU's Not Unix; it was chosen because its design is Unix-like, but differs from Unix by being free software and containing no Unix code.... documentation processing system. TeX has been the official typesetting package for the GNU operating system
GNU
GNU is a computer operating system composed entirely of free software. Its name is a recursive acronym for GNU's Not Unix; it was chosen because its design is Unix-like, but differs from Unix by being free software and containing no Unix code.... since 1984.
XeTeX is a TeX Typesetting using Unicode and supporting modern font technologies such as OpenType or Apple Advanced Typography. It is written and maintained by Jonathan Kew and distributed under the MIT License.... is a new TeX engine that supports Unicode
Unicode
Unicode is a computing industry standard allowing computers to consistently represent and manipulate Character expressed in most of the world's writing systems.... . Originally making use of advanced Mac OS X
Mac OS X
Mac OS X is a line of computer operating systems developed, marketed, and sold by Apple Inc., and since 2002 has been included with all new Macintosh computer systems.... -specific font technologies, it now supports OpenType
OpenType
OpenType is a scalable format for computer fonts initially developed by Microsoft, with Adobe Systems later joining in. OpenType as a technology was announced publicly in 1996 and had a significant number of OpenType fonts shipping by 2000?2001.... and is available on Linux and Microsoft Windows.
Numerous extensions and companion programs for TeX exist, among them BibTeX
BibTeX
BibTeX is Reference management software for formatting bibliography. The BibTeX tool is typically used together with the LaTeX document preparation system.... for bibliographies (distributed with LaTeX), pdfTeX
PdfTeX
The computer program pdfTeX is an extension of Donald Knuth's typesetting program TeX, and was originally written and developed into a publicly usable product by H?n Th? Th?nh as a part of the work for his PhD thesis at the Faculty of Informatics, Masaryk University, Brno.... , which bypasses dvi and produces output in Adobe Systems
Adobe Systems
Adobe Systems Incorporated is an United States computer Computer software company headquartered in San Jose, California, USA. The company has historically focused upon the creation of multimedia and creativity software products, with a more-recent foray into rich Internet application software development.... ' Portable Document Format
Portable Document Format
Portable Document Format is a file format created by Adobe Systems in 1993 for document exchange. PDF is used for representing two-dimensional documents in a manner independent of the application software, hardware, and operating system.... , and Omega
Omega (TeX)
Omega is an extension of the TeX typesetting system that uses the Basic Multilingual Plane of Unicode. It was authored by John Plaice and Yannis Haralambous after TeX development was frozen in 1991, primarily to enhance TeX's multilingual typesetting abilities.... , which allows TeX to use the Unicode
Unicode
Unicode is a computing industry standard allowing computers to consistently represent and manipulate Character expressed in most of the world's writing systems.... character set. Most TeX extensions are available for free from CTAN
CTAN
CTAN is an acronym for the Comprehensive TeX Archive Network.It is the authoritative place where TeX related material and software can be found for download.... , the Comprehensive TeX Archive Network.
Editors
There are a variety of editors designed to work with TeX.
GNU TeXmacs is a Free software scientific word processor component of the GNU project, which was "inspired" by both TeX and GNU Emacs, but shares no code with either of the two programs it is named after.... text editor is a WYSIWYG
WYSIWYG
WYSIWYG , is an acronym for What You See Is What You Get, used in computing to describe a system in which content displayed during editing appears very similar to the final output, which might be a printed document, web page, slide presentation or even the lighting for a theatrical event.... scientific text editor that is intended to be compatible with TeX and Emacs
Emacs
Emacs is a class of feature-rich text editors, usually characterized by their extensibility. Emacs has, perhaps, more editing commands than any other editor or word processor, numbering over 1,000.... . It uses Knuth's fonts, and can generate TeX output.
is a document processor following the self-coined "what you see is what you mean" paradigm , as opposed to the WYSIWYG ideas used by word processors.... is a “What You See is What You Mean” document processor which runs on a variety of platforms including Linux, Windows (newer versions require Windows 2000 or later) or Mac OS X (using a non-native Qt
Qt (toolkit)
Qt is a cross-platform application development framework, widely used for the development of graphical user interface programs , and also used for developing non-GUI programs such as console tools and servers.... front-end).
TeXShop is a Free software TeX editor and previewer for Mac OS X. It is licensed under the GNU General Public License.It was developed by American mathematician, Professor Richard Koch.... for Mac OS X
Mac OS X
Mac OS X is a line of computer operating systems developed, marketed, and sold by Apple Inc., and since 2002 has been included with all new Macintosh computer systems.... , and WinShell
WinShell
WinShell is a freeware, closed-source multilingual software integrated development environment for LaTeX and TeX for Windows developed by Ingo H.... for Windows
Microsoft Windows
Microsoft Windows is a series of software operating systems and graphical user interfaces produced by Microsoft. Microsoft first introduced an operating environment named Windows in November 1985 as an add-on to MS-DOS in response to the growing interest in graphical user interfaces .... are similar tools and provide integrated development environment (IDE) for working with LaTeX or TeX. For KDE
KDE
KDE is a free software project based around its flagship product, a desktop environment for Unix-like systems. The goal of the project is to provide basic desktop functions and applications for daily needs as well as tools and documentation for developers to write stand-alone applications for the system.... , Kile
Kile
Kile is a TeX/LaTeX text editor providing a user friendly environment to edit TeX/LaTeX source code. It runs on Unix-like systems including Mac OS X and Linux with the Qt libraries installed.... provides such an IDE.
GNU Emacs has various built-in and third party packages with support for TeX, the major one being AUCTeX
AUCTeX
AUCTEX is an extensible package for writing and formatting TeX files in GNU Emacs and XEmacs.It provides the most extensive LaTeX editing support available for a general purpose editor.... . For Vim
Vim (text editor)
Vim is a text editor first released by Bram Moolenaar in 1991 for the Amiga computer. The name "Vim" is an acronym for "Vi IMproved" because Vim was created as an extended version of the vi editor, with many additional features designed to be helpful in editing program source code.... there is the .
License
Donald Knuth has indicated several times that the source code of TeX has been placed into the "public domain," and he strongly encourages modifications or experimentations with this source code. However, since the code is still copyrighted, it is technically free
Free software
Free Software or software libre is software that can be used, studied, and modified without restriction, and which can be copied and redistributed in modified or unmodified form either without restriction, or with minimal restrictions only to ensure that further recipients can also do these things and to prevent consumer-facing hardware... /open-source software
Open-source software
Open source software is defined as computer software for which the source code and certain other rights normally reserved for copyright holders are provided under a computer software license that meets the Open Source Definition or that is in the public domain.... but is not in the public domain
Public domain
File:PD-icon.svgThe public domain is a range of abstract materials?commonly referred to as intellectual property?which are not owned or controlled by anyone.... in the legal sense. In particular, since Knuth highly values the reproducibility of the output of all versions of TeX, any changed version must not be called , TeX, or anything confusingly similar. To enforce this rule, any implementation of the system must pass a test suite called the TRIP test before being allowed to be called TeX. The question of license is somewhat confused by the statements included at the beginning of the TeX source code, which indicate that “all rights are reserved. Copying of this file is authorized only if (...) you make absolutely no changes to your copy”. However, this restriction should be interpreted as a prohibition to change the source code as long as the file is called tex.web. This interpretation is confirmed later in the source code when the TRIP test is mentioned (“If this program is changed, the resulting system should not be called ‘’”).
The American Mathematical Society is an association of professional mathematicians dedicated to the interests of mathematics research and scholarship, which it does with various publications and conferences as well as annual monetary awards and prizes to mathematicians.... has also claimed a trademark
TradeMark
TradeMark is a tall, primarily residential, skyscraper in Charlotte, North Carolina. It was completed in 2007 and has 28 floors. There are 200 hundred residential units.... for TeX, which was rejected, because at the time this was tried (early 1980s), “TEX” (all caps) was registered by Honeywell
Honeywell
Honeywell is a major United States multinational corporation list of conglomerates company that produces a variety of consumer products, engineering services, and aerospace systems for a wide variety of customers, from private consumers to major corporations and governments.... for the “Text EXecutive” text processing system.
Use of TeX
In several technical fields, in particular computer science, mathematics and physics, TeX has become a de facto standard. Many thousands of books have been published using TeX, including books published by Addison-Wesley
Addison-Wesley
Addison?Wesley is a book publishing imprint of Pearson PLC, best known for computer books. As well as publishing books, Addison?Wesley distributes its technical titles through the Safari Books Online e-reference service.... , Cambridge University Press
Cambridge University Press
Cambridge University Press is a printer and publisher granted a Royal Letters Patent by Henry VIII of England in 1534. It is the world's oldest continually operating book publisher.... , Elsevier
Elsevier
Elsevier, the world's largest publisher of medical and scientific literature, forms part of the Reed Elsevier group. Based in Amsterdam, the company has substantial operations in the United Kingdom, USA and elsewhere.... , Oxford University Press
Oxford University Press
Oxford University Press is a publisher and a department of the University of Oxford in England. It is the largest university press in the world, being larger than all the American university presses combined with Cambridge University Press.... and Springer
Springer Science+Business Media
Springer Science+Business Media or Springer is a worldwide publishing company based in Germany, which publishes textbooks, academic reference books, and peer-reviewed topical journals, with a focus on science, technology, mathematics, and medicine.... . Numerous journals in these fields are produced using TeX or LaTeX, allowing authors to submit their raw manuscript written in TeX.
While many publications in other fields, including dictionaries and legal publications, have been produced using TeX, it has not been as successful as in more technical fields, in particular because TeX was primarily designed for mathematics. When he designed TeX, Donald Knuth did not believe that a single typesetting system would fit everyone's needs; instead, he designed many hooks inside the program so that it would be possible to write extensions, and released the source code, hoping that publishers would design versions tailored to their needs. While such extensions have been created (including some by Knuth himself), most people have extended TeX only using macros and it has remained a system associated with technical typesetting.
Pronouncing and writing "TeX"
The name TeX is intended to be . The letters of the name are meant to represent the capital Greek
Greek alphabet
The Greek alphabet is a set of twenty-four letters that has been used to write the Greek language since the late 9th century BC or early 8th century BCE.... letters tau
Tau
Tau is the 19th letter of the Greek alphabet. In the system of Greek numerals it has a value of 300. This letter in English is pronounced , but in Modern Greek, this letter's name is pronounced .... , epsilon
Epsilon
Epsilon is the fifth letter of the Greek alphabet, corresponding phonetically to a close-mid front unrounded vowel /e/. It is also the primary letter used in Real Analysis.... , and chi
Chi (letter)
Chi is the 22nd letter of the Greek alphabet, pronounced as [kai] in English. Its value in Ancient Greek was an aspirated voiceless velar plosive .... , as TeX is the abbreviation of t???? (????? – techne), Greek for both "art" and "craft", which is also the root word of technical. English speakers often pronounce it , like the first syllable of technical.
The name is properly typeset with the "E" below the baseline and reduced spacing between the letters. This is done, as Donald Knuth mentions in his TeXbook, to distinguish ?e? from other system names such as TEX, the Text EXecutive processor (developed by Honeywell Information Systems). Fans like to proliferate names from the word “TeX” — such as TeXnician (user of TeX software), TeXpert, TeXhacker (TeX programmer), TeXmaster (competent TeX programmer), TeXhax, and TeXnique.
Community
Notable entities in the TeX community include the TeX Users Group, which publishes TUGboat
Tugboat
A tugboat, or tug, is a boat used to maneuver, primarily by towing or pushing, other ships in harbors, over the open sea or through rivers and canals.... and The PracTeX Journal
The PracTeX Journal
The PracTeX Journal, or simply PracTeX, also known as TPJ, is an online journal focussing on practical use of the TeX typesetting system.... , and Deutschsprachige Anwendervereinigung TeX
Deutschsprachige Anwendervereinigung TeX
Deutschsprachige Anwendervereinigung TeX e. V. is the German language TeX users group. With more than 2000 members it is one of the largest TeX users groups worldwide.... , a large user group in Germany. The TeX Users Group was founded in 1980 for educational and scientific purposes, provides an organization for those who have an interest in typography and font design, and are users of the TeX
TeX
TeX is a typesetting system designed and mostly written by Donald Knuth. Together with the METAFONT language for font description and the Computer Modern typefaces, it was designed with two main goals in mind: to allow anybody to produce high-quality books using a reasonable amount of effort, and to provide a system that would give the exact... typesetting system invented by Donald Knuth
Donald Knuth
Donald Ervin Knuth is a renowned computer science and Emeritus of the Art of Computer Programming at Stanford University.Author of the seminal multi-volume work The Art of Computer Programming , Knuth has been called the "father" of the run-time analysis, contributing to the development of, and systematizing formal mathematical techn... . TUG is run by and for its members and represents the interests of TeX users worldwide. TUG publishes the journal
Scientific journal
In academic publishing, a scientific journal is a periodical publication intended to further the progress of science, usually by reporting new research.... TUGboat
Tugboat
A tugboat, or tug, is a boat used to maneuver, primarily by towing or pushing, other ships in harbors, over the open sea or through rivers and canals.... three times per year, covering a wide range of topics in digital typography relevant to TeX.
The following tables compare general and technical information for a number of document markup languages. Please see the individual markup languages' articles for further information....
Mathematical Markup Language is an application of XML for describing mathematics notations and capturing both its structure and content. It aims at integrating mathematical formulae into World Wide Web documents....
A formula editor is a name for a computer program that is used to typeset mathematical works or formulae.Formula editors typical serve two purposes:...
The program texvc validates LaTeX mathematical expressions and converts them to HTML, MathML, or Portable Network Graphics graphics. It was written by Tomasz Wegrzanowski and is integrated into MediaWiki....
PSTricks is a set of macros that allow the inclusion of PostScript drawings directly inside TeX or LaTeX code.It is originally the work of Professor Timothy Van Zandt and in recent years it has been maintained by Denis Girou, Sebastian Rahtz and Herbert Voss....
External links
Simon Eveson. .
gallery of typesetting examples
Eijkhout, Victor.
[ftp://ftp.gwdg.de/pub/dante/info/impatient/book.pdf TeX for the Impatient (PDF)]
