The
Tatar language (
Tatar tele,
Tatarça,
Татар теле,
Татарча) is a
TurkicThe Turkic languages constitute a language family of some thirty languages, spoken by Turkic peoples across a vast area from Eastern Europe and the Mediterranean to Siberia and Western China, and are considered to be part of the proposed Altaic language family.Turkic languages are spoken by some...
languageA language is a system for encoding and decoding information. In its most common use, the term refers to so-called "natural languages" — the forms of communication considered peculiar to humankind. In linguistics the term is extended to refer to the human cognitive facility of creating and using...
spoken by the
TatarsTatars , sometimes spelled Tartars, are a Turkic ethnic group mainly inhabiting Russia, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Ukraine, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan and Afghanistan. They numbered 10 million in the late 20th Century, which includes all subgroups of Tatar people, such as...
.
Geographic distribution
Tatar is spoken in
RussiaRussia , officially known as both Russia and the Russian Federation , is a country in northern Eurasia . It is a semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects...
(about 5.3 million people),
Central AsiaAsia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east, and from southern Russia in the north to northern India in the south. It is also sometimes known as Middle Asia or Inner Asia, and is within the scope of the wider Eurasian continent.Various definitions of its...
,
UkraineUkraine is a country in Eastern Europe. It is bordered by Russia to the east; Belarus to the north; Poland, Slovakia, and Hungary to the west; Romania and Moldova to the southwest; and the Black Sea and Sea of Azov to the south. The city of Kiev is both the capital and the largest city of...
,
PolandPoland , officially the Republic of Poland , is a country in Central Europe . Poland is bordered by Germany to the west; the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south; Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania to the east; and the Baltic Sea and Kaliningrad Oblast, a Russian exclave, to the north...
,
ChinaChina is a cultural region, an ancient civilization, and, depending on perspective, a national or multinational entity extending over a large area in East Asia....
,
FinlandFinland , officially the Republic of Finland
, is a Nordic country and democracy situated in the Fennoscandian region of northern Europe. It borders Sweden on the west, Russia on the east, and Norway on the north, while Estonia lies to its south across the Gulf of Finland...
and
TurkeyTurkey , known officially as the Republic of Turkey
, is a Eurasian country that stretches across the Anatolian peninsula in Western Asia and Thrace in the Balkan region of southeastern Europe...
.
Tatar is also native for 400,000
BashkirsThe Bashkirs, are Turkic people indigenous to Bashkortostan, Russia. Groups of Bashkirs also live in the republic of Tatarstan, as well as in Perm Krai and Chelyabinsk, Orenburg, Kurgan, Sverdlovsk, Samara, and Saratov Oblasts of Russia.-Overview:...
, especially those living in
UfaUfa is the capital of the Republic of Bashkortostan, Russia Ufa is the one of the largest cities of Russia, administrative, political, economic, scientific and cultural center of the republic. Population: 1,021,500 ; 1,042,437...
, and some thousands of
MarisThe Mari are a Volga-Finnic people who have traditionally lived along the Volga and Kama rivers in Russia. The majority of Maris today live in the Mari El Republic, with significant populations in the Tatarstan and Bashkortostan republics...
. Mordva's Qaratay group also speak Tatar. 94% of ethnic Tatar claimed knowledge of Tatar language during the 2002 census.
Official status
Tatar is the official language of the Republic of Tatarstan. The
official scriptAn official script is a script that is specifically designated to be official in the constitutions or other applicable laws of countries, states, and other territories....
of Tatar language is based on the
Cyrillic alphabetThe Cyrillic script writing system isan alphabet developed in the First Bulgarian Empire, and used in the Slavic national languages of Russian, Bulgarian, Belarusian, Rusyn, Serbian, Macedonian, and Ukrainian, and in the non-Slavic languages of Moldovan, Kazakh, Uzbek, Kyrgyz, Tajik, Tuvan, and...
with some additional letters not used in Slavic languages. Sometimes other scripts are used, mostly Latin and Arabic. All official sources in Tatarstan use Cyrillic at their web-sites and publishing. In other cases, where Tatar has no official status, the use of a specific alphabet depends on the preference of the author. Guides in Tatarstan are published in two alphabets.
The Tatar language was made a
de facto official language in Russia in 1917 (for the first time since 1552, when the Kazan Khanate was annexed by Russia), but only in the Tatar–Bashkir Soviet Socialist Republic. Tatar is also considered the official language in
Idel-Ural StateIdel-Ural literally means "Volga-Ural" in Tatar.Historically it refers to a short-lived Tatar republic with its centre in Kazan which united Tatars, Bashkirs and the Chuvash in the turmoil of the Russian Civil War...
. One should note, however, that
Bolshevist Russia did not recognize
official languages as such; however, there were a number of languages that could be used in trial in some republics. In the Soviet era, Tatar was such a language in
BashkortostanThe Republic of Bashkortostan or Bashkiria is a federal subject of Russia . It is located between the Volga River and the Ural Mountains...
,
Mari ElMari El Republic is a federal subject of Russia . The direct romanization of the republic's Russian and Mari names are Respublika Mariy El and Marii El Respublik, respectively. The republic is also sometimes called Mariy El or Marii El in English...
and other regions of the
Russian SFSRThe Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic , also called the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic, the Russian SFSR and the RSFSR for short, was the largest and most populous of the fifteen Soviet republics of the Soviet Union and became the Russian...
.
The usage of Tatar declined from the 1930s onwards. In the 1980s it was not studied in city schools, not even by Tatar pupils. Although the language was used in rural schools, Tatar-speaking pupils had little chance to enter a university, because all higher education was in Russian.
According to some, Tatar is no longer an endangered language, although it is still a low prestige language. Higher education in Tatar can only be found in
TatarstanRepublic of Tatarstan is a federal subject of the Russian Federation . Its size is 68,000 km² with a population of 3,800,000. Its capital is Kazan...
, and is restricted to the humanities. In other regions Tatar is primarily a spoken language and the number of speakers as well as their proficiency tends to decrease. Tatar is popular as a written language only in Tatar-speaking areas where schools with Tatar language lessons are situated. On the other hand, Tatar is the only language in use in rural
districts of TatarstanThis is a list of units of administrative division of the Republic of Tatarstan, a federal subject of Russia.Tatarstan is located in the center of the East European Plain, between the Volga and the Kama Rivers, stretching east towards the Ural Mountains...
.
Dialects of Tatar
There are 3 main dialects of Tatar: Western (Mişär or Mishar), Middle (Qazan), and Eastern (Siberian). All of these dialects also have subdivisions.
Mişär
In the Western (Mişär) dialect
Ç is pronounced (southern or lambir mishars) and as (northern mishars or nizhgars).
C is pronounced . There are no differences between
v and
w,
q and
k,
g and
ğ in the Mişär dialect. (The Cyrillic alphabet doesn't have special letters for
q,
ğ and
w, so Mişär speakers have no difficulty reading Tatar written in Cyrillic.)
This is the dialect spoken by the
Tatar minority of FinlandThe Finnish Tatar community, about 800 people, is recognized as a national minority by the government of Finland, which considers their language as a non-territorial language under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages....
.
Minzälä
In the Minzälä subdialect of the Middle Dialect
z is pronounced , as opposed to other dialects where it is silent.
Slang
In bilingual cities people often pronounce
x instead of
h,
k instead of
q,
g instead of
ğ ,
v instead of
w. This could be viewed as an influence of the Russian language. Another theory is that these cities were places where both the western and middle dialects were used.
The influence of Russian is significant. Russian words and phrases are used with Tatar grammar or Russian grammar in Tatar texts. Some Russian verbs are taken entirely, un-nativized, and followed with
itärgä. Some English words and phrases are also used.
There was a distinct cryptolect, the
GäpThe Yaña Bistä slang, Yaña Bistä gäbe or simply Gäp was a distinct cryptolect of the Tatar language, spoken in Yaña Bistä of Kazan, traditionally known by its high crime rate. This socialect has another vocabulary and grammar than standard Tatar and now is extinct.The modern Tatar slang is also...
, spoken predominantly in
KazanKazan is the capital city of the Republic of Tatarstan, Russia, and one of Russia's largest cities. It is a major industrial, commercial and cultural center, and remains the most important center of Tatar culture. Since April 2009 Kazan has the legal right to brand itself as the "Third Capital" of...
, but now it is extinct or near extinction.
Siberian Tatar
Siberian Tatars pronounce [ts] instead of
ç, [j] instead of
c and sometimes [p] and [t] instead of
b and
d. There are also grammatical differences within the dialect, scattered across Siberia.
Vowels
Phonemically, Tatar may be argued to have two vowel heights, high and low. The low vowels are two,
frontA front vowel is a type of vowel sound used in some spoken languages. The defining characteristic of a front vowel is that the tongue is positioned as far forward as possible in the mouth without creating a constriction that would be classified as a consonant. Front vowels are sometimes also called...
and
backA back vowel is a type of vowel sound used in some spoken languages. The defining characteristic of a back vowel is that the tongue is positioned as far back as possible in the mouth without creating a constriction that would be classified as a consonant. Back vowels are sometimes also called dark...
, whereas the high vowels are eight: front and back,
roundIn phonetics, vowel roundedness refers to the amount of rounding in the lips during the articulation of a vowel. That is, it is vocalic labialization. When pronouncing a rounded vowel, the lips form a circular opening, while unrounded vowels are pronounced with the lips relaxed...
and unround,
longIn linguistics, vowel length is the perceived duration of a vowel sound. Often the chroneme, or the "longness", acts like a consonant, and may etymologically be one such as in Australian English...
and short. However, phonetically, the short high vowels are reduced: they are mid-centralized. They are therefore generally transcribed with mid vowel letters such as
e and
o: high front
i ü, high back
ï u, reduced (mid) front
e ö, reduced (mid) back
ë o, and low
ä, a. The high back unrounded vowel
ï is only found in Russian loans, though the native diphthong
ëy, which only occurs word-finally, has been argued to be phonemically
ï..
Phonetically, the native vowels are approximately high , reduced (
ë may be mid-low), and low . In polysyllabic words, the front-back distinction is lost in reduced vowels: all become mid-central. Reduced vowels in unstressed position are frequently elided. Low back is rounded word-initially and after , as in
bala 'child'. In Russian loans there are also , , and
Historically, the Turkic high vowels have become the Tatar reduced series, whereas the Turkic mid vowels have replaced them. Thus Kazakh
til 'language' and
kün 'day' correspond to Tatar
tel and
kön, while Kazakh
men 'I',
kol 'hand', and
kök 'sky' are in Tatar
min, kul, kük.
- Old:
Tatar has 16 vowel symbols representing a variable number of sounds. Tatar exhibits
vowel harmonyVowel harmony is a type of long-distance assimilatory phonological process involving vowels that occurs in some languages. In languages with vowel harmony, there are constraints on what vowels may be found near each other....
, with some of the vowels considered front and others back.
Front vowels: ä , â , e , é , i , ó , ö , ü
Back vowels: , á , í , ı , o , u–ú
The usage of
í, â, á, ó, ú, é is not universal, and sometimes
ıy,
a,
ya,
yo,
yu and
e are used instead.
Some of them are found only in Slavic
loanwordA loanword is a word borrowed from one language and incorporated into another.-General:By contrast, a calque or loan translation is a related concept, whereby it is the meaning or idiom that is borrowed rather than the lexical item itself.The word loanword is itself a calque of the German...
s, such as é, ó, long o, long ı. Acute in
á, ó, ú denotes palatalisation, but sometimes a palatalisated consonant is marked by following
y before the vowel. This is only a problem for Russian loanwords.
The commonly pronounced 10 vowels are native Tatar vowels:
a–ä, u–ü, í–i, o–ö, ı–e. The last two pairs are considered to be short vowels. They also could mean a long vowels, but only in loanwords. and are not considered to be independent vowels. Loaned vowels are considered to be back vowels.
Consonants
caption | The consonants of Tatar
|
Bilabial |
Labio-dental |
Labio-velar |
DentalIn linguistics, a dental consonant or dental is a consonant that is articulated with the tongue against the upper teeth, such as , , , and in some languages...
|
AlveolarAlveolar consonants are articulated with the tongue against or close to the superior alveolar ridge, which is called that because it contains the alveoli of the superior teeth...
|
Post-alveolar |
Palatal |
VelarVelars are consonants articulated with the back part of the tongue against the soft palate, the back part of the roof of the mouth, known also as the velum)....
|
Post-velar |
GlottalGlottal consonants, also called laryngeal consonants, are consonants articulated with the glottis. Many phoneticians consider them, or at least the so-called fricatives, to be transitional states of the glottis without a point of articulation as other consonants have; in fact, some do not consider...
|
| Plosives |
p /p/ |
b /b/ |
|
|
t /t/ |
d /d/ |
|
|
|
k /k/ |
g /ɡ/ |
q /q/ |
|
|
| Nasals A nasal consonant is produced with a lowered velum in the mouth, allowing air to escape freely through the nose. The oral cavity still acts as a resonance chamber for the sound, but the air does not escape through the mouth as it is blocked by the lips or tongue...
|
m /m/ |
|
|
n /n/ |
|
|
|
ñ /ŋ, ɴ*/ |
|
| Fricatives |
|
f /f/ |
v /v/ |
|
s /s/ |
z /z/ |
|
ş /ʃ/
ç /tɕ~ɕ/ |
j /ʒ/
c /dʑ~ʑ/ |
|
|
|
x /χ/ |
ğ /ʁ~ɢ/ |
h /h/ |
| Trill Trill is a type of vibration; it may refer to:* trill , a type of musical ornament* trill consonant, a type of sound used in some languages...
|
|
|
|
|
r /r/ |
|
|
|
|
|
| Approximant |
|
|
w /w/ |
|
|
|
y /j/ ([j~ɪ]) |
|
|
|
| Lateralapproximant |
|
|
|
|
|
l /l/ |
|
|
|
|
- ñ has two allophones—/ŋ/ in front-vowel words and /ɴ/ in back-vowel words.
Most of these phonemes are common to or have equivalents in all Turkic languages. The post-velar consonants are allophones of the velars before back vowels.
The phonemes , , and are only found in loanwords in Literary Tatar. is also of foreign origin, but is also found in native words, e.g.
yafraq "leaf".
Pronunciation of loanwords
While the consonants , and are not native to Tatar, they are well established. However, Tatars usually substitute fricatives for affricates, for example for , or for , and for . Nevertheless, literary traditions recommend the pronunciation of affricates in loanwords.
(
hamzaHamza is a letter in the Arabic alphabet, representing the glottal stop . Hamza is not one of the 28 "full" letters, and owes its existence to historical orthographical inconsistencies in early Islamic times...
) is a sound found in
ArabicArabic is a Central Semitic language, thus related to and classified alongside other Semitic languages such as Hebrew and the Neo-Aramaic languages. In terms of speakers, the Arabic macrolanguage is the largest member of the Semitic language family. It is spoken by more than 280 million people as...
loanwords and Islamic prayers. It is usually in loanwords.
Palatalisation
Palatalisation is not common in Tatar. As a result, speakers have no problem using the Arabic and Jaŋalif scripts, neither of which has an accepted method for indicating palatisation.
In general, Russian words with palatalisation have entered into the speech of bilingual Tatars since the 1930s. When writing in the Cyrillic alphabet Russian words were spelled as they are in Russian. In today's Latin orthography, palatalisation is sometimes represented by an
acute diacriticThe acute accent is a diacritic mark used in many modern written languages with alphabets based on the Latin, Cyrillic, and Greek scripts.-History:An early precursor of the acute accent was the apex, used in Latin inscriptions to mark long vowels....
under the vowel.
Some Tatars speak Russian without palatalisation, which is known as a
Tatar accent.
Syllable types
- V (ı-lıs, u-ra, ö-rä)
- VC (at-law, el-geç, ir-kä)
- CV (qa-la, ki-ä, su-la)
- CVC (bar-sa, sız-law, köç-le, qoş-çıq)
- VCC (ant-lar, äyt-te, ilt-kän)
- CVCC (tört-te, qart-lar, 'qayt-qan)
Stress is on the final syllable.
Phonetic replacement
Tatar
phonotacticsPhonotactics is a branch of phonology that deals with restrictions in a language on the permissible combinations of phonemes. Phonotactics defines permissible syllable structure, consonant clusters, and vowel sequences by means of phonotactical constraints.Phonotactic constraints are language...
dictate many pronunciation changes.
Unrounded vowels may be pronounced as rounded after o or ö:
qorı /qoro/
borın /boron/
közge /közgö/
sorı /soro/)
Nasals are assimilated to following stops:
unber /umber/
mengeç /meñgeç/
Voicing may also undergo
assimilationAssimilation is a common phonological process by which the phonetics of a speech segment becomes more like that of another segment in a word . A common example of assimilation would be "don't be silly" where the and in "don't" are assimilated to and by the following , where said naturally in...
:
küzsez /küssez/
Unstressed vowels may be
syncopatedIn phonology, syncope is the loss of one or more sounds from the interior of a word; especially, the loss of an unstressed vowel.-Syncope as a historical sound change:...
or
reducedVowel reduction is the term in phonetics that refers to various changes in the acoustic quality of vowels , which are related to changes in stress, sonority, duration, loudness, articulation, or position in the word , and which are perceived as "weakening"...
:
urını /urnı/
kilene /kilne/
bezne /bĕzne/
kerdem /kĕrdem/
qırğıç /qĭrğıç/
Vowels may also be
elidedElision is the omission of one or more sounds in a word or phrase, producing a result that is easier for the speaker to pronounce. Sometimes, sounds may be elided for euphonic effect....
:
qara urman /qar'urman/
kilä ide /kilä'yde/
turı uram /tur'uram/
bula almím /bul'almím/
In
consonant clusterIn linguistics, a consonant cluster is a group of consonants which have no intervening vowel. In English, for example, the groups and are consonant clusters in the word splits....
s longer than two phones,
ı or
e (whichever is dictated by
vowel harmonyVowel harmony is a type of long-distance assimilatory phonological process involving vowels that occurs in some languages. In languages with vowel harmony, there are constraints on what vowels may be found near each other....
) is inserted into speech as an epenthetic vowel.
tekst → /tekest/
bank → /banık/ (not /bañk/)
Final devoicing is also frequent:
tabíb (doctor) → [tabíp]
Plural
- After vowels, consonants, hard: -lar (bala-lar, abí-lar, kitap-lar, qaz-lar, malay-lar, qar-lar, ağaç-lar)
- After vowels, consonants, soft: -lär (äni-lär, sölge-lär, däftär-lär, kibet-lär, süz-lär, bäbkä-lär, mäktäp-lär, xäref-lär)
- After nasals, hard: -nar (uram-nar, urman-nar, tolım-nar, moñ-nar, tañ-nar, şalqan-nar)
- After nasals, soft: -när (ülän-när, keläm-när, çräm-när, iñ-när, ciñ-när, isem-när)
Writing system
Tatar has been written in a number of different alphabets.
Writing was adopted from the
Bolgar languageBulgar was the language of the Bulgars. Very few records exist of the language and little of them is understood...
, which used the
Orkhon scriptThe Old Turkic script is the alphabet used by the Göktürk and other early Turkic Khanates from at least the 8th century to record the Old Turkic language. It was later used by the Uyghur Empire...
, before the 920s. Later, the
Arabic alphabetThe Arabic alphabet is the script used for writing several languages of Asia and Africa, such as Arabic and Urdu. After the Latin alphabet, it is the second-most widely used alphabet around the world....
was also used, as well as the Latin and Cyrillic alphabets.
Pre–1928
Before 1928 Tatar was written with a variant of the Arabic alphabet (
Iske imlaİske imlâ is a variant of the Arabic alphabet, used for the Tatar language before 1920 and the Old Tatar language. This alphabet can be referred to as old only to contrast it with Yaña imla....
...- 1920; Yanga imla 1920-1928).
1927–1938
In the
Soviet UnionThe Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a constitutionally socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991. The name is a translation of the , tr. Soyuz Sovetskikh Sotsialisticheskikh Respublik, abbreviated СССР, SSSR. The common short name is Soviet Union, from , Sovetskiy Soyuz...
Tatar was written with a
LatinThe Latin alphabet, also called the Roman alphabet, is the most widely used alphabetic writing system in the world today. It evolved from the western variety of the Greek alphabet called the Cumaean alphabet, and was initially developed by the ancient Romans to write the Latin language.During the...
orthography called Jaŋalif.
Cyrillic
In
TatarstanRepublic of Tatarstan is a federal subject of the Russian Federation . Its size is 68,000 km² with a population of 3,800,000. Its capital is Kazan...
(a republic of Russia where Tatar is most commonly used) and all other parts of
RussiaRussia , officially known as both Russia and the Russian Federation , is a country in northern Eurasia . It is a semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects...
a
Cyrillic alphabetThe Cyrillic script writing system isan alphabet developed in the First Bulgarian Empire, and used in the Slavic national languages of Russian, Bulgarian, Belarusian, Rusyn, Serbian, Macedonian, and Ukrainian, and in the non-Slavic languages of Moldovan, Kazakh, Uzbek, Kyrgyz, Tajik, Tuvan, and...
is used to write Tatar; also in
KazakhstanKazakhstan , officially the Republic of Kazakhstan, is a country situated in Eurasia that is ranked as the ninth largest country in the world. It is also the world's largest landlocked country. Its territory of 2,727,300 km² is greater than Western Europe...
.
Modern Latin
A
Latin alphabetThe Latin alphabet, also called the Roman alphabet, is the most widely used alphabetic writing system in the world today. It evolved from the western variety of the Greek alphabet called the Cumaean alphabet, and was initially developed by the ancient Romans to write the Latin language.During the...
-based system has been used mostly in
TatarstanRepublic of Tatarstan is a federal subject of the Russian Federation . Its size is 68,000 km² with a population of 3,800,000. Its capital is Kazan...
since 2000 and generally on the
InternetThe Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use the standardized Internet Protocol Suite to serve billions of users worldwide...
, although this has been less common more recently due to the
RussiaRussia , officially known as both Russia and the Russian Federation , is a country in northern Eurasia . It is a semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects...
n law that all
official languageAn official language is a language that is given a special legal status in a particular country, state, or other territory. Typically a nation's official language will be the one used in that nation's courts, parliament and administration. However, official status can also be used to give a...
s of Russia must be written in Cyrillic.
History
Tatar's ancestors are the extinct
BolgarBulgar was the language of the Bulgars. Very few records exist of the language and little of them is understood...
and Kipchak languages.
Crimean TatarThe Crimean Tatar language , also known as Crimean and Crimean Turkish is the language of the Crimean Tatars. It is spoken in Crimea, Central Asia , and the Crimean Tatar diasporas in Turkey, Romania, Bulgaria...
is not closely related.
The literary Tatar language is based on Tatar's Middle dialect and the
Old Tatar languageOld Tatar language was a literary language used among the Muslim Tatars from the Middle Ages till the 19th century....
(İske Tatar Tele). Both are members of the
KypchakThe Kypchak languages , are a major branch of the Turkic language family spoken by more than 12 million people in an area spanning from Lithuania to China.-Linguistic features:...
group of
Turkic languagesThe Turkic languages constitute a language family of some thirty languages, spoken by Turkic peoples across a vast area from Eastern Europe and the Mediterranean to Siberia and Western China, and are considered to be part of the proposed Altaic language family.Turkic languages are spoken by some...
, although they are also partly derived from the ancient Volga
Bolgar languageBulgar was the language of the Bulgars. Very few records exist of the language and little of them is understood...
.
The Tatar language strongly influenced most of the
Finno-Ugric languagesFinno-Ugric is a group of languages in the Uralic language family, comprising Finnish, Estonian, Hungarian and related languages.It comprises the Finno-Permic and Ugric language families.-Status:...
in the
Volga RiverThe Volga is the largest river in Europe in terms of length, discharge, and watershed. It flows through western Russia, and is widely viewed as the national river of Russia. Out of the twenty largest cities of Russia, eleven, including its capital Moscow, are situated in the Volga's drainage basin...
area.
Examples
- äye – yes
- yuq – no
- isänme(sez)/sawmı(sız) – hello
- sälâm – hi
- saw bul(ığız)/xuş(ığız) – bye bye
- zínhar öçen – please
- räxmät – thank you
- ğafu it(egez) - excuse me
- min – I
- sin – you (sg.)
- ul – he / she / it
- bez – we
- sez – you (pl.)
- alar – they
- millät – nation
- İngliz(çä) – English
Further reading
- Bukharaev, R., & Matthews, D. J. (2000). Historical anthology of Kazan Tatar verse: voices of eternity. Richmond, Surrey: Curzon. ISBN 0700710779
- PEN (Organization). (1998). Tatar literature today. Kazan: Magarif Publishers.
- Poppe, N. N. (1963). Tatar manual: descriptive grammar and texts with a Tatar-English glossary. Bloomington: Indiana University.
External links
Language studies
Forums
- Tatar mailing list
- Tatar forum
- IRC channel [irc://irc.freenode.net/tatar #tatar] on the freenode
freenode, formerly known as Open Projects Network, is a popular IRC network used to discuss peer-directed projects. Their servers are all accessible from the domain name [irc://chat.freenode.net chat.freenode.net], which load balances connections by using the actual servers in rotation...
network
History and literature
Dictionaries