Syssitia
Encyclopedia
The syssitia was, in Ancient Greece
, a common meal for men and youths in social or religious groups, especially in Crete
and Sparta
, though also in Megara
in the time of Theognis
(6th century BC) and Corinth
in the time of Periander
(7th century BC).
The banquets spoken of by Homer
relate to this tradition. Some reference to similar meals can be found in Carthage
and according to Aristotle
(Politics VII. 9), it prevailed still earlier amongst the Oenotrians
of Southern Italy
.
The origin of the syssitia is unknown; while Lycurgus certainly made use of the practice in Sparta
, we do not know whether he introduced the practice or developed an existing one.
. Before the 5th century BC this ritual was also referred to as the / andreia, literally, "belonging to men". Obligation was total; no person, not even the kings
, could be absent without good excuse, such as performance of a sacrifice. Lesser excuses, such as being away on a hunt, implied a requirement to provide a present to the table (Smith 1870) .
The participation at syssitia was, as for other aspects of agoge
, obligatory for membership in the Homoioi, the peers. Spartans were admitted starting at the age of twenty after a ritual described by Plutarch
in his Life of Lycurgus(ch 12):
.
Each person was supplied with a cup of mixed wine, which was filled again when required, although drunkenness was not tolerated. Following a main meal of black broth ( / melas zōmos), an επαικλον (epaiklon, or after-meal) was served, which consiseted of game, fruit, poultry and other delicacies. Alcman
(Frag. 31) tells us that at the banquets and drinking entertainments of the men it was fit for the guests to sing the paean. The arrangements were under the supervision of the Polemarch
.
Each member was required to contribute a monthly share to the common pot, the φιδίτης / phidites, of which the composition has been passed to us by Dicaearchus
(through Athenaeus
and Plutarch ibid., 12): 77 litres of barley
, 39 litres of wine, 3 kilograms of cheese, 1.5 kilograms of figs, and 10 Aegina
obolus
, which served to purchase meat. This served to prepare the main dish, the black broth ( / melas zōmos), of which Athenaeus has given us the ingredients: pork, salt, vinegar and blood.
The kleros, the allotment given to each Spartan and cultivated by Helots, was supposed to allow each citizen to pay their share. If this proved impossible, they were excluded from the syssitia. (Aristotle
, Politics, II, 9).
The number of members in each syssitia remains vague. According to Plutarch in Life of Lycurgus, there were approximately 15 men in each syssitia; but in his Life of Agis, the king divides his 4,500 citizens into 15 phidites of 400 or 200 members, that is 7 phidites of 400, 7 of 200, and 300 Hippeis
(elite Spartan guards).
, Pythian Odes, IX, 18) it is possible that in some of the Dorian states there were also syssitia of young unmarried women. The citizens were divided into messes which originally appear to have been along kinship lines, though vacancies were later filled at the discretion of the members. Ζευς 'Εταιρειος (Zeus Hetaireios) was the presiding deity.
According to Dosiadas, cited in Athenaeus
, each town in Crete had two public buildings; one for lodging strangers (koimitirion), and the andreion where the syssitia took place. The upper part had two tables for foreign guests, then tables for the citizen members, and a third table to the right of the entrance for Zeus Khenios; likely used for offerings and libations.
Cretan syssitia were distinguished by simplicity and temperance. They always sat at their tables, even in later times, when the custom of reclining had been introduced at Sparta. The entertainment began with prayer to the gods and libations. Each of the adult citizens received an equal portion of fare, with the exception of the Archon
, or "Master of the Tables" who was perhaps in ancient times one of the Kosmi, and more recently a member of the Gerousia
or council. The Archon received four portions; "one as a common citizen, a second as President, a third for the house or building, a fourth for the furniture"; which seems to imply that the care of the building and the provision of the necessary utensils and furniture was the Archon's responsibility. A free-born woman managed the tables and service; she openly took the best portion and presented it to the most eminent citizen present. She had three or four male assistants under her, each of whom again was provided with two menial servants). Strangers were served before the citizens, and even before the Archon. On each of the tables was placed a cup of mixed wine, from which the messmates of the same company drank. At the close of the meal this was replenished, but all intemperance was strictly forbidden by a special law.
Youths under eighteen accompanied their fathers to the syssitia along with orphans. In some places the youngest of the orphans waited on the men; in others this was done by all the boys. When not thus engaged, they were seated near to the men on a lower bench, and received only a half portion of meat: the eldest of the orphans appear to have received the same quantity as the men, but of a plainer description of fare. (Athenaeus IV, 143) The boys like the men had also a cup of mixed wine in common, which however was not replenished when emptied. The meals were generally cheerful, and accompanied by music and singing. It was followed by conversation, which was first directed to the public affairs of the state, and afterwards turned on valiant deeds in war and the exploits of illustrious men, whose praises might animate the younger hearers to an honourable emulation. While listening to this conversation, the youths seem to have been arranged in classes, each of which was placed under the superintendence of an officer especially appointed for this purpose; so that the syssitia were thus made to serve important political and educational ends.
Unlike the Spartan format (see above), in most Cretan cities,
Based on this, and Athenaeus, it appears that each citizen received their share directly, in order to pay part to the public table and another part to feed the females of the family. This practice however does not appear to have prevailed exclusively at all times and in all the cities of Crete. In Lyctus
, for instance, a colony from Sparta, the custom was different: the citizens of that town contributed to their respective tables a tenth of the produce of their estates; a practice which may be supposed to have obtained in other cities, where the public domains were not sufficient to defray the charges of the syssitia. But both at Lyctus and elsewhere, the poorer citizens were in all probability supported at the public cost.
The principal question which arises is how one building would accommodate the adult citizens and youths of towns like Lyctus
and Gortyna. Either the information is incorrect and there was more than one andreion in larger towns, or the number of citizens in each town was small; a hypothesis supported by Xenophon
, (Hellenica, III, 3) who reported only 40 citizens in a crowd of 4,000 in Sparta - Crete had similar very large numbers of non-citizens.
(I, 65) remarks that the Spartan syssitia led to troops "who fought with more bravery and a keener sense of shame than would have been the case with chance comrades" (Smith 1870)
While the syssitia, as opposed to symposia
, were originally based on simplicity and sobriety, over time in Sparta they became more indulgent and luxurious. Some attempts were made by Agis
to restore former discipline, but this ended in failure.
Ancient Greece
Ancient Greece is a civilization belonging to a period of Greek history that lasted from the Archaic period of the 8th to 6th centuries BC to the end of antiquity. Immediately following this period was the beginning of the Early Middle Ages and the Byzantine era. Included in Ancient Greece is the...
, a common meal for men and youths in social or religious groups, especially in Crete
Crete
Crete is the largest and most populous of the Greek islands, the fifth largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, and one of the thirteen administrative regions of Greece. It forms a significant part of the economy and cultural heritage of Greece while retaining its own local cultural traits...
and Sparta
Sparta
Sparta or Lacedaemon, was a prominent city-state in ancient Greece, situated on the banks of the River Eurotas in Laconia, in south-eastern Peloponnese. It emerged as a political entity around the 10th century BC, when the invading Dorians subjugated the local, non-Dorian population. From c...
, though also in Megara
Megara
Megara is an ancient city in Attica, Greece. It lies in the northern section of the Isthmus of Corinth opposite the island of Salamis, which belonged to Megara in archaic times, before being taken by Athens. Megara was one of the four districts of Attica, embodied in the four mythic sons of King...
in the time of Theognis
Theognis
Theognis was a member of the Thirty Tyrants of Athens . Lysias was able to escape from the house of Damnippus, where Theognis was guarding other aristocrats rounded up by the Thirty....
(6th century BC) and Corinth
Corinth
Corinth is a city and former municipality in Corinthia, Peloponnese, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality Corinth, of which it is the seat and a municipal unit...
in the time of Periander
Periander
Periander was the second tyrant of Corinth, Greece in the 7th century BC. He was the son of the first tyrant, Cypselus. Periander succeeded his father in 627 BC. He died in 585 BC....
(7th century BC).
The banquets spoken of by Homer
Homer
In the Western classical tradition Homer , is the author of the Iliad and the Odyssey, and is revered as the greatest ancient Greek epic poet. These epics lie at the beginning of the Western canon of literature, and have had an enormous influence on the history of literature.When he lived is...
relate to this tradition. Some reference to similar meals can be found in Carthage
Carthage
Carthage , implying it was a 'new Tyre') is a major urban centre that has existed for nearly 3,000 years on the Gulf of Tunis, developing from a Phoenician colony of the 1st millennium BC...
and according to Aristotle
Aristotle
Aristotle was a Greek philosopher and polymath, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. His writings cover many subjects, including physics, metaphysics, poetry, theater, music, logic, rhetoric, linguistics, politics, government, ethics, biology, and zoology...
(Politics VII. 9), it prevailed still earlier amongst the Oenotrians
Oenotrians
The Oenotrians were an ancient Italic people of unknown origin who inhabited a territory from Paestum to southern Calabria in southern Italy...
of Southern Italy
Italy
Italy , officially the Italian Republic languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Italy's official name is as follows:;;;;;;;;), is a unitary parliamentary republic in South-Central Europe. To the north it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and...
.
The origin of the syssitia is unknown; while Lycurgus certainly made use of the practice in Sparta
Sparta
Sparta or Lacedaemon, was a prominent city-state in ancient Greece, situated on the banks of the River Eurotas in Laconia, in south-eastern Peloponnese. It emerged as a political entity around the 10th century BC, when the invading Dorians subjugated the local, non-Dorian population. From c...
, we do not know whether he introduced the practice or developed an existing one.
Sparta
In Sparta, where the system was most evolved, they were also called pheiditia ( / , from / edō, to eat). The term is probably a corruption of / philitia ("love-feast"), a word corresponding to the Cretan Hetairia. This was a daily obligatory banquet comparable to a military messMess
A mess is the place where military personnel socialise, eat, and live. In some societies this military usage has extended to other disciplined services eateries such as civilian fire fighting and police forces. The root of mess is the Old French mes, "portion of food" A mess (also called a...
. Before the 5th century BC this ritual was also referred to as the / andreia, literally, "belonging to men". Obligation was total; no person, not even the kings
Kings of Sparta
Sparta was an important Greek city-state in the Peloponnesus. It was unusual among Greek city-states in that it maintained its kingship past the Archaic age. It was even more unusual in that it had two kings simultaneously, coming from two separate lines...
, could be absent without good excuse, such as performance of a sacrifice. Lesser excuses, such as being away on a hunt, implied a requirement to provide a present to the table (Smith 1870) .
The participation at syssitia was, as for other aspects of agoge
Agoge
The agōgē was the rigorous education and training regimen mandated for all male Spartan citizens, except for the firstborn son in the ruling houses, Eurypontid and Agiad. The training involved learning stealth, cultivating loyalty to one's group, military training The agōgē (Greek: ἀγωγή in Attic...
, obligatory for membership in the Homoioi, the peers. Spartans were admitted starting at the age of twenty after a ritual described by Plutarch
Plutarch
Plutarch then named, on his becoming a Roman citizen, Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus , c. 46 – 120 AD, was a Greek historian, biographer, essayist, and Middle Platonist known primarily for his Parallel Lives and Moralia...
in his Life of Lycurgus(ch 12):
"each man in the company took a little ball of soft bread, which they were to throw into a deep basin, which a waiter carried round upon his head; those that liked the person to be chosen dropped their ball into the basin without altering its figure, and those who disliked him pressed it between their fingers, and made it flat; and this signified as much as a negative voice. And if there were but one of these pieces in the basin, the suitor was rejected, so desirous were they that all the members of the company should be agreeable to each other. The basin was called caddichus, and the rejected candidate had a name thence derived. " .It was also possible for the young man to be presented by his erastes, the elder in a pederastic relationship
Pederasty in ancient Greece
Pederasty in ancient Greece was a socially acknowledged relationship between an adult and a younger male usually in his teens. It was characteristic of the Archaic and Classical periods...
.
Each person was supplied with a cup of mixed wine, which was filled again when required, although drunkenness was not tolerated. Following a main meal of black broth ( / melas zōmos), an επαικλον (epaiklon, or after-meal) was served, which consiseted of game, fruit, poultry and other delicacies. Alcman
Alcman
Alcman was an Ancient Greek choral lyric poet from Sparta. He is the earliest representative of the Alexandrinian canon of the nine lyric poets.- Family :...
(Frag. 31) tells us that at the banquets and drinking entertainments of the men it was fit for the guests to sing the paean. The arrangements were under the supervision of the Polemarch
Polemarch
A polemarch was a senior military title in various ancient Greek city states . The title is composed out of the polemos and archon and translates as "warleader" or "warlord", one of the nine archontes appointed annually in Athens...
.
Each member was required to contribute a monthly share to the common pot, the φιδίτης / phidites, of which the composition has been passed to us by Dicaearchus
Dicaearchus
Dicaearchus of Messana was a Greek philosopher, cartographer, geographer, mathematician and author. Dicaearchus was Aristotle's student in the Lyceum. Very little of his work remains extant. He wrote on the history and geography of Greece, of which his most important work was his Life of Greece...
(through Athenaeus
Athenaeus
Athenaeus , of Naucratis in Egypt, Greek rhetorician and grammarian, flourished about the end of the 2nd and beginning of the 3rd century AD...
and Plutarch ibid., 12): 77 litres of barley
Barley
Barley is a major cereal grain, a member of the grass family. It serves as a major animal fodder, as a base malt for beer and certain distilled beverages, and as a component of various health foods...
, 39 litres of wine, 3 kilograms of cheese, 1.5 kilograms of figs, and 10 Aegina
Aegina
Aegina is one of the Saronic Islands of Greece in the Saronic Gulf, from Athens. Tradition derives the name from Aegina, the mother of Aeacus, who was born in and ruled the island. During ancient times, Aegina was a rival to Athens, the great sea power of the era.-Municipality:The municipality...
obolus
Obolus
The obol was an ancient silver coin. In Classical Athens, there were six obols to the drachma, lioterally "handful"; it could be excahnged for eight chalkoi...
, which served to purchase meat. This served to prepare the main dish, the black broth ( / melas zōmos), of which Athenaeus has given us the ingredients: pork, salt, vinegar and blood.
The kleros, the allotment given to each Spartan and cultivated by Helots, was supposed to allow each citizen to pay their share. If this proved impossible, they were excluded from the syssitia. (Aristotle
Aristotle
Aristotle was a Greek philosopher and polymath, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. His writings cover many subjects, including physics, metaphysics, poetry, theater, music, logic, rhetoric, linguistics, politics, government, ethics, biology, and zoology...
, Politics, II, 9).
The number of members in each syssitia remains vague. According to Plutarch in Life of Lycurgus, there were approximately 15 men in each syssitia; but in his Life of Agis, the king divides his 4,500 citizens into 15 phidites of 400 or 200 members, that is 7 phidites of 400, 7 of 200, and 300 Hippeis
Hippeis
Hippeis was the Greek term for cavalry. The Hippeus was the second highest of the four Athenian social classes, made of men who could afford to maintain a war horse in the service of the state. The rank may be compared to Roman Equestrians and medieval knights. Among the Athenians, it referred to...
(elite Spartan guards).
Crete
The ancient Cretan name for the syssitia was also andreia, the singular of which ( | andreion) is used to denote the building or public hall where they were given. The name ( Hetairiai was also used. As in Sparta, these meals were for male citizens and youths only. Based on at least one source, however, (PindarPindar
Pindar , was an Ancient Greek lyric poet. Of the canonical nine lyric poets of ancient Greece, his work is the best preserved. Quintilian described him as "by far the greatest of the nine lyric poets, in virtue of his inspired magnificence, the beauty of his thoughts and figures, the rich...
, Pythian Odes, IX, 18) it is possible that in some of the Dorian states there were also syssitia of young unmarried women. The citizens were divided into messes which originally appear to have been along kinship lines, though vacancies were later filled at the discretion of the members. Ζευς 'Εταιρειος (Zeus Hetaireios) was the presiding deity.
According to Dosiadas, cited in Athenaeus
Athenaeus
Athenaeus , of Naucratis in Egypt, Greek rhetorician and grammarian, flourished about the end of the 2nd and beginning of the 3rd century AD...
, each town in Crete had two public buildings; one for lodging strangers (koimitirion), and the andreion where the syssitia took place. The upper part had two tables for foreign guests, then tables for the citizen members, and a third table to the right of the entrance for Zeus Khenios; likely used for offerings and libations.
Cretan syssitia were distinguished by simplicity and temperance. They always sat at their tables, even in later times, when the custom of reclining had been introduced at Sparta. The entertainment began with prayer to the gods and libations. Each of the adult citizens received an equal portion of fare, with the exception of the Archon
Archon
Archon is a Greek word that means "ruler" or "lord", frequently used as the title of a specific public office. It is the masculine present participle of the verb stem ἀρχ-, meaning "to rule", derived from the same root as monarch, hierarchy, and anarchy.- Ancient Greece :In ancient Greece the...
, or "Master of the Tables" who was perhaps in ancient times one of the Kosmi, and more recently a member of the Gerousia
Gerousia
The Gerousia was the Spartan senate . It was made up of 60 year old Spartan males. It was created by the Spartan lawgiver Lycurgus in the seventh century BC, in his Great Rhetra...
or council. The Archon received four portions; "one as a common citizen, a second as President, a third for the house or building, a fourth for the furniture"; which seems to imply that the care of the building and the provision of the necessary utensils and furniture was the Archon's responsibility. A free-born woman managed the tables and service; she openly took the best portion and presented it to the most eminent citizen present. She had three or four male assistants under her, each of whom again was provided with two menial servants). Strangers were served before the citizens, and even before the Archon. On each of the tables was placed a cup of mixed wine, from which the messmates of the same company drank. At the close of the meal this was replenished, but all intemperance was strictly forbidden by a special law.
Youths under eighteen accompanied their fathers to the syssitia along with orphans. In some places the youngest of the orphans waited on the men; in others this was done by all the boys. When not thus engaged, they were seated near to the men on a lower bench, and received only a half portion of meat: the eldest of the orphans appear to have received the same quantity as the men, but of a plainer description of fare. (Athenaeus IV, 143) The boys like the men had also a cup of mixed wine in common, which however was not replenished when emptied. The meals were generally cheerful, and accompanied by music and singing. It was followed by conversation, which was first directed to the public affairs of the state, and afterwards turned on valiant deeds in war and the exploits of illustrious men, whose praises might animate the younger hearers to an honourable emulation. While listening to this conversation, the youths seem to have been arranged in classes, each of which was placed under the superintendence of an officer especially appointed for this purpose; so that the syssitia were thus made to serve important political and educational ends.
Unlike the Spartan format (see above), in most Cretan cities,
...of all the fruits of the earth and cattle raised on the public lands, and of the tribute which is paid by the Perioeci, one portion is assigned to the Gods and to the service of the state, and another to the common meals, so that men, women, and children are all supported out of a common stock.
(AristotleAristotleAristotle was a Greek philosopher and polymath, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. His writings cover many subjects, including physics, metaphysics, poetry, theater, music, logic, rhetoric, linguistics, politics, government, ethics, biology, and zoology...
PoliticsPoliticsPolitics is a process by which groups of people make collective decisions. The term is generally applied to the art or science of running governmental or state affairs, including behavior within civil governments, but also applies to institutions, fields, and special interest groups such as the...
II. 10 (Bekker 1272a)
Based on this, and Athenaeus, it appears that each citizen received their share directly, in order to pay part to the public table and another part to feed the females of the family. This practice however does not appear to have prevailed exclusively at all times and in all the cities of Crete. In Lyctus
Lyctus
Lyctus or Lyttos , was one of the most considerable cities in ancient Crete, which appears in the Homeric catalogue. Lyttos is now a village in the municipality of Minoa Pediada.-Lyctus in mythology:...
, for instance, a colony from Sparta, the custom was different: the citizens of that town contributed to their respective tables a tenth of the produce of their estates; a practice which may be supposed to have obtained in other cities, where the public domains were not sufficient to defray the charges of the syssitia. But both at Lyctus and elsewhere, the poorer citizens were in all probability supported at the public cost.
The principal question which arises is how one building would accommodate the adult citizens and youths of towns like Lyctus
Lyctus
Lyctus or Lyttos , was one of the most considerable cities in ancient Crete, which appears in the Homeric catalogue. Lyttos is now a village in the municipality of Minoa Pediada.-Lyctus in mythology:...
and Gortyna. Either the information is incorrect and there was more than one andreion in larger towns, or the number of citizens in each town was small; a hypothesis supported by Xenophon
Xenophon
Xenophon , son of Gryllus, of the deme Erchia of Athens, also known as Xenophon of Athens, was a Greek historian, soldier, mercenary, philosopher and a contemporary and admirer of Socrates...
, (Hellenica, III, 3) who reported only 40 citizens in a crowd of 4,000 in Sparta - Crete had similar very large numbers of non-citizens.
Significance
The syssitia patently served to bring kinship groups together, and in having those who would fight together eat together in peacetime, a strong bond was formed. The syssitia in effect became an extended family, where all were "children of the state". It also ensured a separation between subject classes and citizens, and in Sparta additional separation based on station and wealth. They were thus a strong tool for developing nationalism. HerodotusHerodotus
Herodotus was an ancient Greek historian who was born in Halicarnassus, Caria and lived in the 5th century BC . He has been called the "Father of History", and was the first historian known to collect his materials systematically, test their accuracy to a certain extent and arrange them in a...
(I, 65) remarks that the Spartan syssitia led to troops "who fought with more bravery and a keener sense of shame than would have been the case with chance comrades" (Smith 1870)
While the syssitia, as opposed to symposia
Symposium
In ancient Greece, the symposium was a drinking party. Literary works that describe or take place at a symposium include two Socratic dialogues, Plato's Symposium and Xenophon's Symposium, as well as a number of Greek poems such as the elegies of Theognis of Megara...
, were originally based on simplicity and sobriety, over time in Sparta they became more indulgent and luxurious. Some attempts were made by Agis
Agis IV
Agis IV , the elder son of Eudamidas II, was the 24th king of the Eurypontid dynasty of Sparta. Posterity has reckoned him an idealistic but impractical monarch.-Succession:...
to restore former discipline, but this ended in failure.
See also
- Diet of Ancient GreeceDiet of Ancient GreeceAncient Greek cuisine was characterized by its frugality, reflecting agricultural hardship. It was founded on the "Mediterranean triad": wheat, olive oil, and wine....
- SymposiumSymposiumIn ancient Greece, the symposium was a drinking party. Literary works that describe or take place at a symposium include two Socratic dialogues, Plato's Symposium and Xenophon's Symposium, as well as a number of Greek poems such as the elegies of Theognis of Megara...
- AzoriaAzoriaAzoria is an archaeological site on a double-peaked hill overlooking the Gulf of Mirabello in eastern Crete in the Greek Aegean. "Azoria" is a local toponym, not apparently an ancient place name or epigraphically-attested Greek city...
, Crete (possible 6th century BC andreion recovered in excavations at the site)