Sufism or
, also spelled as
tasavvuf and
tasavvof, is generally understood to be the inner, mystical dimension of
IslamIslam Islam Islam ( al-’islām,
[There are ten pronunciations of Islam in English, differing in whether the first or second syllable has the stress, whether the s is or , and whether the a is pronounced as in father, as in cat, or (when the stress is on the i) as in the a of sofa...]
. A practitioner of this tradition is generally known as a
, though some adherents of the tradition reserve this term only for those practitioners who have attained the goals of the Sufi tradition. Another name used for the Sufi seeker is
dervishA Dervish or Darvesh is someone treading a Sufi Muslim ascetic path or "Tariqah", known for their extreme poverty and austerity, similar to mendicant friars in Christianity or Hindu/Buddhist/Jain sadhus....
.
Classical Sufi scholars have defined Sufism as "a science whose objective is the reparation of the heart and turning it away from all else but God." Alternatively, in the words of the renowned
DarqawiThe Darqawiyya or Darqawa Sufi order was a revivalist branch of the Shadhiliyah brotherhood. The Darqawa consisted of the followers of Sheikh Muhammad al-Arabi al-Darqawi . The movement, which became one of the leading orders in Morocco, exalted poverty and asceticism. It gained widespread support...
Sufi teacher Ahmad ibn Ajiba, "a science through which one can know how to travel into the
presence of the DivineDivine presence, presence of God, or simply presence is a concept in religion, spirituality, and theology that deals with God's omnipotent abilities to be "present" with human beings...
, purify one’s inner self from filth, and beautify it with a variety of praiseworthy traits."
During the primary stages of Sufism, Sufis were characterised by their particular attachment to
dhikrDhikr is an Islamic devotional act. It often includes the repetition of the names of God, supplications and aphorisms from hadith literature and sections of the Qur'an...
"remembrance [of God]" and
asceticismAsceticism describes a life-style characterized by abstinence from various sorts of worldly pleasures often with the aim of pursuing religious and spiritual goals...
. Sufism arose among a number of Muslims as a reaction against the worldliness of the early Umayyad Caliphate (661-750 CE). The Sufi movement has spanned several continents and cultures over a millennium, at first expressed through Arabic, then through Persian, Turkish and a dozen other languages.
ṭuruqṬarīqah means "way, path, method" and refers to an Islamic religious order; in Sufism, it is conceptually related to ḥaqīqah "truth", the ineffable ideal that is the pursuit of the tradition. Thus one starts with Islamic law, the exoteric or mundane practice of Islam and then is initiated onto the...
"Orders", which are either Sunnī or Shī‘ī in doctrine, mostly trace their origins from the
Islamic ProphetMuslims regard as prophets of Islam those non-divine humans chosen by Allah . Mere humans rely on revelation or tradition to identify prophets....
MuhammadMuhammad ibn ‘Abdullāh , is the founder of the religion of Islam [ إِسْلامْ ] and is regarded by Muslims as a messenger and prophet of , the last and the greatest law-bearer in a series of Islamic prophets as taught by the...
through his cousin
‘Alī' was the cousin and son-in-law of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, and ruled over the Islamic Caliphate from 656 to 661...
, with the notable exception of the
NaqshbandiNaqshbandi is one of the major tasawwuf orders of Islam. The order is considered to be a "sober" order as many following the Naqshbandi Sufi way have chosen the silent dhikr of the Heart, rather than the vocalized forms of dhikr common in other orders.The Naqshbandi Order is the only Sufi order...
who trace their origins through the first
CaliphThe Caliph is the head of state in a Caliphate, and the title for the leader of the Islamic Ummah, an Islamic community ruled by the Shari'ah. It is a transliterated version of the Arabic word which means "successor" or "representative"...
,
Abu BakrAbu Bakr As-Siddiq was Muhammad's father-in-law, closest companion and adviser, who succeeded to the Prophet's political and administrative functions, thereby initiating the office of the caliphate. He was also the first convert to Islam...
.
According to some modern proponents, such as
Idries ShahIdries Shah , also known as Idris Shah, né Sayed Idries el-Hashimi , was an author and teacher in the Sufi tradition who wrote over three dozen critically acclaimed books on topics ranging from psychology and spirituality to travelogues and culture studies.Born in India, the descendant...
, the Sufi philosophy is universal in nature, its roots predating the arising of Islam and the other modern-day religions; likewise, some Muslims feel that Sufism is outside the sphere of Islam, although generally scholars of Islam contend that it is simply the name for the inner or esoteric dimension of Islam.
Etymology
The lexical root of
Sufi is variously traced to
"
woolWool is a fibrous protein derived from the specialized skin cells called follicles. The wool is taken from animals in the Caprinae family, principally sheep, but the hair of certain species of other mammals including: goats, llamas, and rabbits may also be called wool...
", referring either to the simple cloaks the early Muslim ascetics wore, or possibly to
"purity". The two were combined by al-Rudhabari who said, "The Sufi is the one who wears wool on top of purity." The wool cloaks were sometimes a designation of their initiation into the Sufi order. The early Sufi orders considered the wearing of this coat an imitation of Isa bin Maryam (Jesus). Sufism is known as "Islamic Mysticism," in which Muslims seek to find divine love and knowledge through direct personal experience of God. Mysticism is defined as the experience of mystical union or direct communion with ultimate reality, and the belief that direct knowledge of God, spiritual truth, or ultimate reality can be attained through subjective experience (as intuition or insight).
Others suggest the origin of the word
is from
"Companions of the Porch", who were a group of impoverished Muslims during the time of
MuhammadMuhammad ibn ‘Abdullāh , is the founder of the religion of Islam [ إِسْلامْ ] and is regarded by Muslims as a messenger and prophet of , the last and the greatest law-bearer in a series of Islamic prophets as taught by the...
who spent much of their time on the veranda of the Prophet's mosque, devoted to prayer and eager to memorize each new increment of the Qur'ān as it was revealed. Yet another etymology, advanced by the 10th century
PersianThe Persian people are the majority ethnic group in Iran. However, there are sub-groups who speak the Persian language as their mother tongue throughout the Iranian plateau. The term Persian has also a supra-ethnic significance and has been historically referred to a part of Iranian peoples...
historian Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī is that the word is linked with Greek word sophia "wisdom".
Basic views
While all Muslims believe that they are on the pathway to God and will become close to God in Paradise — after death and after the "Final Judgment" — Sufis also believe that it is possible to draw closer to God and to more fully embrace the
Divine PresenceDivine presence, presence of God, or simply presence is a concept in religion, spirituality, and theology that deals with God's omnipotent abilities to be "present" with human beings...
in this life. The chief aim of all Sufis is to seek the pleasing of God by working to restore within themselves the primordial state of
fitraFitra is an Arabic word meaning 'innate human nature'. However, other common translations include "primordial nature" and "innate disposition", intuition, instinct or insight...
, described in the Qur'an. In this state nothing one does defies God, and all is undertaken by the single motivation of
love of God' , Modern Persian eshgh, Turkish aşk, Azerbaijani , means "love". The word is derived from ‘ashiqah, a vine: the common belief is that when love takes its root in the heart of a lover, everything other than God is effaced. In Islam's Sufi and mystic doctrine it is a concept which refers to "divine...
. A secondary consequence of this is that the seeker may be led to abandon all notions of dualism or multiplicity, including a conception of an individual
selfSelf is broadly defined as the essential qualities that make a person distinct from all others. The task in philosophy is defining what these qualities are, and there have been a number of different approaches...
, and to realize the Divine
UnityTawhid is the concept of monotheism in Islam. It holds God is one and unique ....
.
Thus Sufism has been characterized as the science of the states of the lower self (the ego), and the way of purifying this lower self of its reprehensible traits, while adorning it instead with what is praiseworthy,
whether or not this process of cleansing and purifying the heart is in time rewarded by esoteric knowledge of God. This can be conceived in terms of two basic types of law (
fiqhFiqh is Islamic jurisprudence. Fiqh is an expansion of the Sharia Islamic law—based directly on the Quran and Sunnah—that complements Shariah with evolving rulings/interpretations of Islamic jurists....
), an outer law concerned with actions, and an inner law concerned with the human heart. The outer law consists of rules pertaining to worship, transactions, marriage, judicial rulings, and criminal law — what is often referred to, a bit too broadly, as
shariah. The inner law of Sufism consists of rules about repentance from sin, the purging of contemptible qualities and evil traits of character, and adornment with virtues and good character.
To enter the way of Sufism, the seeker begins by finding a teacher, as the connection to the teacher is considered necessary for the growth of the pupil. The teacher, to be genuine, must have received the authorization to teach (
ijazahAn ijazah is a certificate used primarily by Muslims to indicate that one has been authorized by a higher authority to transmit a certain subject or text of Islamic knowledge...
) of another Master of the Way, in an unbroken succession (
silsilahSilsilah is an Arabic word meaning chain.- Historical importance :Centuries ago, Arabia did not have schools for formal education. Students went to masters who taught them. Upon completion of their study, they received ijazah which acted as the certification of education. A graduate then acted...
) leading back to Sufism's origin with the Prophet Muhammad. It is the transmission of the divine light from the teacher's heart to the heart of the student, rather than of worldly knowledge transmitted from mouth to ear, that allows the adept to progress. In addition, the genuine teacher will be utterly strict in his adherence to the Divine Law.
Scholars and adherents of Sufism are unanimous in agreeing that Sufism cannot be learned through books. To reach the highest levels of success in Sufism typically requires that the disciple live with and serve the teacher for many, many years. For instance,
Baha-ud-Din Naqshband BukhariBaha-ud-Din Naqshband Bukhari was the founder of what would become one of the largest and most influential Sufi Muslim orders, the Naqshbandi.-Biography:Concerning his life much information is lacking...
, considered founder of the
NaqshbandiNaqshbandi is one of the major tasawwuf orders of Islam. The order is considered to be a "sober" order as many following the Naqshbandi Sufi way have chosen the silent dhikr of the Heart, rather than the vocalized forms of dhikr common in other orders.The Naqshbandi Order is the only Sufi order...
Order, served his first teacher, Sayyid Muhammad Baba As-Samasi, for 20 years, until as-Samasi died. He subsequently served several other teachers for lengthy periods of time. The extreme arduousness of his spiritual preparation is illustrated by his service, as directed by his teacher, to the weak and needy members of his community in a state of complete humility and tolerance for many years. When he believed this mission to be concluded, his teacher next directed him to care for animals, curing their sicknesses, cleaning their wounds, and assisting them in finding provision. After many years of this he was next instructed to spend many years in the care of dogs in a state of humility, and to ask them for support.
As a further example, the prospective adherent of the
MevleviThe Mevlevi Order, or the Mevlevilik or Mevleviye are a Sufi order founded in Konya by the followers of Jalal ad-Din Muhammad Balkhi-Rumi, a 13th century Persian poet, Islamic jurist, and theologian. They are also known as the Whirling Dervishes due to their famous practice of whirling as a form...
Order would have been ordered to serve in the kitchens of a hospice for the poor for 1,001 days prior to being accepted for spiritual instruction, and a further 1,001 days in solitary retreat as a precondition of completing that instruction.
Some teachers, especially when addressing more general audiences, or mixed groups of Muslims and non-Muslims, make extensive use of
parableA parable is a brief, succinct story, in prose or verse, that illustrates a moral or religious lesson. It differs from a fable in that fables use animals, plants, inanimate objects, and forces of nature as characters, while parables generally feature human characters.Some scholars of the New...
,
allegoryAllegory is a figurative mode of representation conveying a meaning other than the literal. An allegory is a device that can be presented in literary form, such as a poem or novel, or in visual form, such as in painting or sculpture...
, and
metaphorA metaphor is a figure of speech concisely comparing two things, saying that one is the other. The English metaphor derives from the 16th c...
. Although approaches to teaching vary among different Sufi orders, Sufism as a whole is primarily concerned with direct personal experience, and as such has sometimes been compared to other, non-Islamic forms of
mysticismMysticism is the pursuit of communion with, identity with, or conscious awareness of an ultimate reality, divinity, spiritual truth, or God through direct experience, intuition, instinct or insight. Mysticism usually centers on a practice or practices intended to nurture those experiences or...
(e.g., as in the books of
Seyyed Hossein NasrSeyyed Hossein Nasr is an Iranian University Professor of Islamic studies at George Washington University, and a prominent Islamic philosopher...
).
Sufism, which is a general term for Muslim mysticism, sprang up largely in reaction against the worldliness which infected Islam when its leaders became the powerful and wealthy rulers of multitudes of people and were influenced by foreign cultures. Harun al-Rashid, eating off gold and silver, toying with a harem of scented beauties, surrounded by an impenetrable retinue of officials, eunuchs and slaves, was a far cry from the stern simplicity of an Umar, who lived in the modest house, wore patched clothes and could be approached by any of his followers.
The typical early Sufi lived in a cell of in a mosque and taught a small band of disciples. The extent to which Sufism was influenced by Buddhist and Hindu mysticism, and by the example Christian hermits and monks, is disputed, but self-discipline and concentration on God quickly led to the belief that by quelling the self and through loving ardour for God it was possible to maintain a union with the divine in which the human self melted away.
Bayazid Tayfur al-Bistami
Bayazid is considered to be "of the six bright stars in the firmament of the Prophet (sallallaahu 'alaihi wa sallam)", and a link in the Golden Chain of the Naqshibandi Tariqah. Bayazid al-Bistami was the first one to spread the reality of Annihilation (Fana'), whereby the Mystic becomes fully absorbed to the point of becoming unaware of himself or the objects around him. Every existing thing seems to vanish, and he feels free of every barrier that could stand in the way of his viewing the Remembered One. In one of these states, Bayazid cried out: "Praise to Me, for My greatest Glory!" Bistami's belief in the Unity of all religions became apparent when asked the question: "How does Islam view other religions?" His reply was "All are vehicles and a path to God's Divine Presence." From a young age, he left his mother stating to her that he could not serve Allah and his mother at the same time.
Ibn Arabi
Muhyiddin Muhammad b. 'Ali
'Arabi]http://www.ibnarabisociety.org/ (or Ibn al-'Arabi) is considered to be one of the most important Sufi masters, although he never founded any order (
tariqa). His writings, especially al-Futuhat al-Makkiyya and Fusus al-hikam, have been studied within all the Sufi orders as the clearest expression of
tawhid (Divine Unity), though because of their recondite nature they were often only given to initiates. Later those who followed his teaching became known as the school of
wahdat al-wujud (the Oneness of Being). He himself considered his writings to have been divinely inspired. As he expressed the Way to one of his close disciples, his legacy is that 'you should never ever abandon your servanthood (ubudiyya), and that there may never be in your soul a longing for any existing thing'.
The following quotations give a flavour of his teaching: 'Whoever witnesses without ceasing what he was created for, in both this world and the next, is the Perfect Servant, the intended goal of the cosmos, the deputy of the whole cosmos'. 'The self is an ocean without a shore. There is no end to the contemplation of it in this world or the next'. 'God seeks from you your heart and gives to you all that you are. So purify and cleanse it [the heart] through presence, wakefulness and reverential fear'.
Junayd
Junayd al-Baghdadi (830-910 AD) was one of the great early Sufis and is a central figure in the golden chain of many Sufi orders. He laid the groundwork for sober mysticism in contrast to that of God-intoxicated Sufis like al-Hallaj, Bayazid Bastami and Abusaeid Abolkheir. In the process of trial of al-Hallaj, his former disciple, Caliph of the time demanded his fatwa and he issued this fatwa: "From the outward appearance he is to die and we judge according to the outward appearance and God knows better". He is referred to by the Sufis as Sayyid-ut Taifa i.e. the leader of the group. He lived and died in the city of Baghdad.
Mansur al-Hallaj
Mansur al-HallajMansur al-Hallaj Mansur al-Hallaj ( - Mansūr-e Hallāj; - Mansūr al-Hallāj; full name Abū al-Mughīth Husayn Mansūr al-Hallāj) (c. 858 - March 26, 922) Mansur al-Hallaj ( - Mansūr-e Hallāj; - Mansūr al-Hallāj; full name Abū al-Mughīth Husayn Mansūr al-Hallāj) (c. 858 -...
is renowned for his claim "Ana-l-Haq" (I am the Truth), for which he was executed for
apostasyApostasy is the formal religious disaffiliation or abandonment or renunciation of one's religion, especially if the motive is deemed unworthy. In a technical sense, as used sometimes by sociologists without the pejorative connotations of the word, the term refers to renunciation and criticism of,...
. He is still revered by Sufis for his forthrightness. It is also said that during his prayers, he would say "O Lord! You are the guide of those who are passing through the Valley of Bewilderment. If I am a heretic, enlarge my heresy."
Riaz Ahmed Gohar Shahi
Riaz Ahmed Gohar ShahiRiaz Ahmed Gohar Shahi also known as Sayyedna Riaz Ahmed Gohar Shahi or Hazrat Sayyedna Riaz Ahmed Gohar Shahi Muddazullahul Aali was a Muslim Sufi, author, spiritual leader and founder of the spiritual movement Anjuman...
was heavily criticized by orthodox theological scholars in Pakistan and abroad. Shahi's books were banned by the Government of
PakistanPakistan , officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country located at the crossroads of South Asia, the Middle East, and Central Asia...
. Public meetings are not allowed to his followers and no press coverage is allowed to either Gohar Shahi or to his followers due to charges of blasphemy law. Many attempts were made on Shahi's life including a petrol bomb attack, thrown into his
ManchesterManchester is a city and metropolitan borough of Greater Manchester, England. In 2007, the population of the city was estimated to be 458,100...
residence, and an attack with a
hand grenadeA hand grenade is an anti-personnel weapon that explodes a short time after release. The French military term grenade probably comes from the shape of the pomegranate fruit, which is also called grenade in French....
during the discourse at his home in
KotriKotri , a large town, is the headquarters station of the Kotri Taluka, or administrative district...
,
PakistanPakistan , officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country located at the crossroads of South Asia, the Middle East, and Central Asia...
. Gohar Shahi was booked in 1997 on alleged charges of
murderMurder, as defined in common law countries, is the unlawful killing of another human being with intent , and generally this state of mind distinguishes murder from other forms of unlawful homicide...
ing a woman who had come to him for spiritual treatment; Gohar Shahi, and many of his followers, were later convicted under Islamic
blasphemyBlasphemy is the use of reference to one or more gods in a manner considered objectionable by a religious authority. It may include using sacred names as stress expletives without intention to pray or speak of sacred matters; it is also sometimes defined as language expressing disbelief or...
laws by an antiterrorist court in
SindhSindh , is one of the four provinces of Pakistan and historically is home to the Sindhis. Different cultural and ethnic groups also reside in Sindh including Urdu-speaking Muslim refugees who migrated to Pakistan from India upon independence as well as the people migrated from other provinces after...
. Gohar Shahi was convicted
in absentiaIn absentia is Latin for "in the absence". In legal use it usually pertains to a defendant's right to be present in court proceedings in a criminal trial.-In absentia in common law legal systems:...
—as then he was in
EnglandEngland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west; the Irish Sea is to the north west, the Celtic Sea to the south west and the North Sea to the east, with the English Channel to the south separating it from continental...
—resulting in sentences that totaled approximately 59 years. Gohar Shahi died abroad, prior to any decision on appeals filed with the High Court of Sindh.
Origins
In its early stages of development Sufism effectively referred to nothing more than the internalization of Islam. According to one perspective, it is directly from the Qur’an, constantly recited, meditated, and experienced, that Sufism proceeded, in its origin and its development. Others have held that Sufism is the strict emulation of the way of
MuhammadMuhammad ibn ‘Abdullāh , is the founder of the religion of Islam [ إِسْلامْ ] and is regarded by Muslims as a messenger and prophet of , the last and the greatest law-bearer in a series of Islamic prophets as taught by the...
, through which the heart's connection to the Divine is strengthened.
From the traditional Sufi point of view, the esoteric teachings of Sufism were transmitted from the Prophet Muhammad to those who had the capacity to acquire the direct experiential
gnosisGnosis is the spiritual knowledge of a saint or mystically enlightened human being. In the cultures of the term gnosis was a special knowledge or insight into the infinite, divine and uncreated in all and above all, rather than knowledge strictly into the finite, natural or material world which...
of God, which was passed on from teacher to student through the centuries. Some of this transmission is summarized in texts, but most is not. Important contributions in writing are attributed to
Uwais al-QarniUwais al-Qarni was a Muslim resident of Qaran in Balgaran,Assir south west Saudi Arabia who lived during the lifetime of Muhammad and is considered a member of the Sahaba.His tomb is found in Ar-Raqqah, Syria, where he was killed in the Battle of Siffin...
, Harrm bin Hian, Hasan Basri and Sayid ibn al-Mussib, who are regarded as the first Sufis in the earliest generations of Islam.
Harith al-Muhasibial-Muhasibi was the founder of the Baghdad School of Islamic philosophy, and a teacher of the Sufi masters Junayd al-Baghdadi and Sari al-Saqti....
was the first one to write about moral psychology. Rabia Basri was a Sufi known for her love and passion for God, expressed through her poetry.
Bayazid BastamiBayazid Bastami , also known as Abu Yazid Bistami or Tayfur Abu Yazid al-Bustami, was a Persian Sufi born in Bastam, Iran.- Background :...
was among the first theorists of Sufism; he concerned himself with
fanāFanaa can refer to either:* Fanaa , the Sufi term of extinction, also a part of Sufi philosophy.* Fanaa , a film directed by Kunal Kohli and produced by Yash Chopra starring Aamir Khan & Kajol....
and baqāBaqaa, with literal meaning of permanency, is a term in Sufi philosophy which describes a particular state of life with God, through God, in God, and for God. It is the summit of the mystical manazil, that is, the destination or the abode...
, the state of annihilating the self in the presence of the divine, accompanied by clarity concerning worldly-Christian views on the World:In Christianity, the concept connotes the fallen and corrupt world order of human society. The world is frequently cited alongside the flesh and the Devil as a source of temptation that Christians should flee...
phenomena derived from that perspective.
Sufism had a long history already before the subsequent institutionalization of Sufi teachings into devotional orders (tarîqât
) in the early Middle Ages. Almost all extant Sufi orders trace their chains of transmission (silsila) back to Prophet
MuhammadMuhammad ibn ‘Abdullāh , is the founder of the religion of Islam [ إِسْلامْ ] and is regarded by Muslims as a messenger and prophet of , the last and the greatest law-bearer in a series of Islamic prophets as taught by the...
via his cousin and son-in-law
Ali' was the cousin and son-in-law of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, and ruled over the Islamic Caliphate from 656 to 661...
. The
NaqshbandiNaqshbandi is one of the major tasawwuf orders of Islam. The order is considered to be a "sober" order as many following the Naqshbandi Sufi way have chosen the silent dhikr of the Heart, rather than the vocalized forms of dhikr common in other orders.The Naqshbandi Order is the only Sufi order...
order is a notable exception to this rule, as it traces the origin of its teachings from the Prophet Muhammad to the first Islamic Caliph
Abu BakrAbu Bakr As-Siddiq was Muhammad's father-in-law, closest companion and adviser, who succeeded to the Prophet's political and administrative functions, thereby initiating the office of the caliphate. He was also the first convert to Islam...
.
Different devotional styles and traditions developed over time, reflecting the perspectives of different masters and the accumulated cultural wisdom of the orders. Typically all of these concerned themselves with the understanding of subtle knowledge (
gnosisGnosis is the spiritual knowledge of a saint or mystically enlightened human being. In the cultures of the term gnosis was a special knowledge or insight into the infinite, divine and uncreated in all and above all, rather than knowledge strictly into the finite, natural or material world which...
), education of the heart to purify it of baser instincts, the love of God, and approaching God through a well-described hierarchy of enduring spiritual stations (maqâmât
) and more transient spiritual states (ahwâl
).
Formalization of doctrine
Towards the end of the first millennium CE, a number of manuals began to be written summarizing the doctrines of Sufism and describing some typical Sufi practices. Two of the most famous of these are now available in English translation: the Kashf al-Mahjûb
of Hujwiri, and the Risâla of Qushayri.
Two of Imam Al Ghazali's greatest treatises, the "Revival of Religious Sciences" and the "Alchemy of Happiness," argued that Sufism originated from the Qur'an and was thus compatible with mainstream Islamic thought, and did not in any way contradict Islamic Law — being instead necessary to its complete fulfillment. This became the mainstream position among Islamic scholars for centuries, challenged only recently on the basis of selective use of a limited body of texts. Ongoing efforts by both traditionally-trained Muslim scholars and Western academics are making Imam Al-Ghazali's works available in English translation for the first time, allowing readers to judge for themselves the compatibility between Islamic Law and Sufi doctrine.
These remarks concern written sources. It is to be remembered that Sufism is transmitted from the heart of the teacher to the heart of the student, not through texts; and also, that texts may not convey everything, or may be read by different seekers on different levels. Therefore the notion of a "formalization of doctrine" in Sufism is not strictly correct.
Growth of Sufi influence in Islamic cultures
The spread of Sufism has been considered a definitive factor in the spread of Islam, and in the creation of integrally Islamic cultures, especially in Africa and Asia. Recent academic work on these topics has focused on the role of Sufism in creating and propagating the culture of the
OttomanThe Ottoman Empire or Ottoman State , also known by its contemporaries as the Turkish Empire or Turkey , was an empire that lasted from 1299 to November 1, 1922 The Ottoman Empire or Ottoman State (Ottoman Turkish: دَوْلَتِ عَلِیَّهِ عُثْمَانِیَّه Dawlet-il ʿAliyyat-il ʿOs̠māniyye, Modern Turkish:...
world, and in resisting European imperialism in Africa and South Asia.
Between the 13th and 16th centuries CE, Sufism produced a flourishing intellectual culture throughout the Islamic world, a sort of "Golden Age" whose physical artifacts are still present. In many places, a lodge (known variously as a
zaouiaZaouia , also spelled zawiya, zawiyah, zaouiya, zaouïa zwaya, etc, is a Maghrebi and West African term for an Islamic religious school or monastery, roughly corresponding to the Eastern term "madrassa"...
, khanqahA khanqah, khaniqah , ribat, zawiya, or tekke is a building designed specifically for gatherings of a Sufi brotherhood, or tariqa, and is a place for spiritual retreat and character reformation...
, or tekke
) would be endowed through a pious foundation in perpetuity (waqfA waqf is an inalienable religious endowment in Islam, typically denoting a building or plot of land for Muslim religious or charitable purposes...
) to provide a gathering place for Sufi adepts, as well as lodging for itinerant seekers of knowledge. The same system of endowments could also be used to pay for a complex of buildings, such as that surrounding the Süleymaniye Mosque in Istanbul, including a lodge for Sufi seekers, a
hospiceHospice is a type of care and a philosophy of care which focuses on the palliation of a terminally ill patient's symptoms.In the United States and Canada:*Rainbow Hospice, non-profit in Chicago, Illinois...
with kitchens where these seekers could serve the poor and/or complete a period of initiation, a library, and other structures. No important domain in the civilization of Islam remained unaffected by Sufism in this period.
Contemporary Sufism
Sufism suffered many setbacks in the modern era, particularly (though not exclusively) at the hands of European imperialists in the colonized nations of Asia and Africa. The life of the Algerian Sufi master Emir
Abd al-Qadir`Abd al-Qādir al-Jazā'irī was an Algerian Islamic scholar, Sufi, political and military leader who led a struggle against the French invasion in the mid-nineteenth century, for which he is seen by the Algerians as their national hero...
is instructive in this regard. Notable as well are the lives of
Amadou BambaAhmadou Bamba, Cheikh Ahmadou Bamba Mbacké , was a Muslim Sufi religious leader in Senegal and the founder of the large Mouride...
and Hajj
Umar TallEl Hadj Umar ibn Sa'id Tall , was a West African political leader, Islamic scholar, and Toucouleur military commander who founded a brief empire encompassing much of what is now Guinea, Senegal, and Mali.-Name:...
in sub-Saharan Africa, and
Sheikh MansurSheikh al-Mansur was a Chechen leader who lead the resistance against Catherine the Great's imperialist expansion into the Caucasus during the late 18th century. He remains a legendary national hero of the Chechen people....
Ushurma and
Imam ShamilImam Shamil was an Avar political and religious leader of the Muslim tribes of the Northern Caucasus...
in the Caucasus region.
In spite of this recent history of official repression, there remain many places in the world with vital Sufi traditions. Sufism is popular in such African countries as
SenegalSenegal , officially the Republic of Senegal, is a country south of the Sénégal River in western Africa. Senegal is bounded by the Atlantic Ocean to the west, Mauritania to the north, Mali to the east, and Guinea and Guinea-Bissau to the south, and it also encircles The Gambia on its three sides,...
, where it is seen as a mystical expression of Islam. Mbacke suggests that one reason Sufism has taken hold in Senegal is because it can accommodate local beliefs and customs, which tend toward the mystical.
In South Asia, four major Sufi orders persist, namely the
Chishti OrderThe Chishtī Order is a Sufi order within the mystic branches of Islam which was founded in Chisht, a small town near Herat, about 930 C.E. and continues to this day...
, the
QadiriyyahQadiriyyah , is one of the oldest Sufi tariqas. It derives its name from Abdul-Qadir Gilani , a native of the Iranian province of Gilan...
, the Naqshbandiyya, and the
SuhrawardiyyaSuhrawardy redirects here. For the East Bengali politician and Prime Minister of Pakistan, see Huseyn Shaheed SuhrawardySuhrawardiyya is the name of a Sufi order founded by Iranian Sufi Diya al-din Abu 'n-Najib as-Suhrawardi ....
. The AhleSunnat
BarelwiBarelvi is a movement of Sunni Islam originating in the Indian subcontinent. The Barelvi movement was started in 1880 to promote South Asia's distinctive Islamic practices, which were deeply influenced by Sufism. The movement in British India was greatly shaped by the writings of Ahmad Riza Khan...
is significant Islamic movement in this region whose followers often belong to one of these orders.
For a more complete summary of currently active groups and teachers, readers are referred to links in the site of Dr. Alan Godlas of the University of Georgia.
A number of Westerners have embarked with varying degrees of success on the path of Sufism. One of the first to return to Europe as an official representative of a Sufi path, and with the specific purpose to spread Sufism in Western Europe, was the
SwedishSweden , officially the Kingdom of Sweden , is a Nordic country on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe...
-born wandering Sufi
Abd al-Hadi AqhiliIvan Aguéli also named Sheikh 'Abd al-Hadi Aqhili upon his acceptance of Islam, was a Swedish-born wandering Sufi, painter and author. As a devotee of Ibn Arabi, his metaphysics applied to the study of Islamic esoterism and its similarities with other esoteric traditions of the world...
(also known as Ivan Aguéli). The ideas propagated by such spiritualists may or may not conform to the tenets of Sufism as understood by orthodox Muslims, as for instance with
G. I. GurdjieffGeorge Ivanovich Gurdjieff ; January 13, 1866? – October 29, 1949), was a Greek-Armenian mystic and spiritual teacher. He called his discipline "The Work" , or as he first referred to it, the Fourth Way.At one point he described his teaching as "esoteric Christianity".At...
and
ShawniDa’ud ibn Tamam ibn Ibrahim al-Shawni, also known as Da’ud ibn Ibrahim al-Shawni, as Ibn Tamam, and also simply as Shawni is the pseudonymous author of chiefly religious and philosophical literature. Born, according to various sources, between 1963 and 1969, Shawni's biography is as unclear as his...
. On the other hand, American- and British-born teachers such as
Nuh Ha Mim KellerNuh Ha Mim Keller is an American Muslim translator of Islamic books and a specialist in Islamic Law as well as an authorised sheikh in tasawwuf in the Shadhili Sufi order and in the Shafi`i Madhhab who currently lives in Amman, Jordan.-Biography:...
,
Hamza YusufHamza Yusuf Hanson is an Islamic scholar who teaches at the Zaytuna Institute in California, United States. He is a prominent American convert to Islam, and is one of the signatories of A Common Word Between Us and You, an open letter by Islamic scholars to Christian leaders, calling for peace and...
, and Abdal Hakim Murad have been instrumental in spreading messages that conform fully with the normative tenets of Islam.
Other noteworthy Sufi teachers who have been active in the West in recent years include
Bawa MuhaiyaddeenMuhammad Raheem Bawa Muhaiyaddeen was a saintly Tamil-speaking teacher and Sufi mystic from the island of Sri Lanka who first came to the United States on October 11th, 1971 and established the Bawa Muhaiyaddeen Fellowship in Philadelphia...
, Nader Angha, Hazrat Inayat Khan,
Riaz Ahmed Gohar ShahiRiaz Ahmed Gohar Shahi also known as Sayyedna Riaz Ahmed Gohar Shahi or Hazrat Sayyedna Riaz Ahmed Gohar Shahi Muddazullahul Aali was a Muslim Sufi, author, spiritual leader and founder of the spiritual movement Anjuman...
,
Muhammad Emin ErMuhammad Emin Er is an Islamic scholar trained in the Ottoman tradition. A former student of Bediüzzaman Said Nursi, he is one of a very small number of such scholars still alive in the present day....
,
Nazim al-QubrusiMehmet Nâzım Adil Mehmet Nâzım Adil Mehmet Nâzım Adil ; IC: Sha'ban 26, 1340) is the leader of the Naqshbandi-Haqqani Sufi...
,
Javad NurbakhshDr. Javad Nurbakhsh was the Master of the Nimatullahi Sufi Order from 1953 until he died. He was also a psychiatrist and a successful writer in the fields of both psychiatry and Sufi mysticism.-Iran:...
,
Bulent RaufBulent Rauf was a Turkish-British mystic, spiritual teacher, translator and author. From 1945 to the early sixties, he was married to Princess Faiza, sister of King Farouk of Egypt....
http://www.bulentrauf.org/and
Muzaffer OzakMuzaffer Ozak was one of the head sheikhs of the Halveti-Jerrahi order of Dervishes, a traditional muslim Sufi order from Istanbul...
.
Theoretical perspectives in Sufism
Traditional Islamic scholars have recognized two major branches within the practice of Sufism, and use this as one key to differentiating among the approaches of different masters and devotional lineages.
On the one hand there is the path from the signs to the Signifier (or from the arts to the Artisan). In this branch, the seeker begins by purifying the lower self of every corrupting influence that stands in the way of recognizing all of creation as the work of God, as God's active Self-disclosure or theophany. This is the way of Imam
Al-GhazaliAbū Ḥāmid Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad al-Ghazālī , often Algazel in English, was born and died in Tus, in the Khorasan province of Persia. He was an Islamic theologian, jurist, philosopher, cosmologist, psychologist and mystic of Persian origin, and remains one of the most celebrated scholars in the...
and of the majority of the Sufi orders.
On the other hand there is the path from the Signifier to His signs, from the Artisan to His works. In this branch the seeker experiences divine attraction (jadhba), and is able to enter the path with a glimpse of its endpoint, of direct apprehension of the Divine Presence towards which all spiritual striving is directed. This does not replace the striving to purify the heart, as in the other branch; it simply stems from a different point of entry into the path. This is the way primarily of the masters of the
NaqshbandiNaqshbandi is one of the major tasawwuf orders of Islam. The order is considered to be a "sober" order as many following the Naqshbandi Sufi way have chosen the silent dhikr of the Heart, rather than the vocalized forms of dhikr common in other orders.The Naqshbandi Order is the only Sufi order...
and
ShadhiliThe Shadhili Tariqa is a Sufi order founded by Abu-l-Hassan ash-Shadhili. Followers of the Shadhiliya are often known as Shadhilis....
orders.
Contemporary scholars may also recognize a third branch, attributed to the late
OttomanThe Ottoman Empire or Ottoman State , also known by its contemporaries as the Turkish Empire or Turkey , was an empire that lasted from 1299 to November 1, 1922 The Ottoman Empire or Ottoman State (Ottoman Turkish: دَوْلَتِ عَلِیَّهِ عُثْمَانِیَّه Dawlet-il ʿAliyyat-il ʿOs̠māniyye, Modern Turkish:...
scholar
Said NursiBediüzzaman Said Nursî was an Islamic thinker of Kurdish origin and the author of the Risale-i Nur Collection, a Qur'anic commentary exceeding six thousand pages...
and explicated in his vast Qur'ân commentary called the Risale-i Nur. This approach entails strict adherence to the way of the Prophet Muhammad, in the understanding that this wont, or
sunnahSunnah is an Arabic word that means habit or usual practice. The Muslim usage of this term refers to the sayings and living habits of Muhammad, the main prophet of Islam....
, proposes a complete devotional spirituality adequate to those without access to a master of the Sufi way.
Contributions to other domains of scholarship
Sufism has contributed significantly to the elaboration of theoretical perspectives in many domains of intellectual endeavor. For instance, the doctrine of "subtle centers" or centers of subtle cognition (known as Lataif-e-sittaDrawing from Qur'anic verses, virtually all Sufis distinguish Lataif-as-Sitta : Nafs, Qalb, Sirr, Ruh, Khafi, and Akhfa. These lataif designate various psychospiritual "organs" or, sometimes, faculties of sensory and suprasensory perception...
) addresses the matter of the awakening of spiritual intuition in ways that some consider similar to certain models of chakraChakra is a Sanskrit word that translates as "wheel" or "turning"....
in Hinduism. In general, these subtle centers or latâ'if are thought of as faculties that are to be purified sequentially in order to bring the seeker's wayfaring to completion. A concise and useful summary of this system from a living exponent of this tradition has been published by
Muhammad Emin ErMuhammad Emin Er is an Islamic scholar trained in the Ottoman tradition. A former student of Bediüzzaman Said Nursi, he is one of a very small number of such scholars still alive in the present day....
.
Sufi psychologyThere are three central concepts in Sufi Islamic psychology, which are the Nafs , the Qalb and the Ruh . The origin and basis of these terms is Qur'anic and they have been expounded upon by centuries of Sufic commentaries.-Overview:...
has influenced many areas of thinking both within and outside of Islam, drawing primarily upon three concepts.
Ja'far al-SadiqJaʿfar ibn Muhammad al-Sādiq is believed by the Twelver and Ismaili Shi'a Muslims to be the sixth infallible Imam , or spiritual leader and successor to the Islamic prophet Muhammad...
(both an
imamAn imam is an Islamic leadership position, often the leader of a mosque and the community. Similar to spiritual leaders, the imam is the one who leads the prayer during Islamic gatherings. More often, the community turns to the mosque imam if they have an Islamic question...
in the Shia tradition and a respected scholar and link in chains of Sufi transmission in all Islamic sects) held that human beings are dominated by a lower self called the
nafsNafs is an Arabic word meaning self or psyche. It is first among the six Lataif or Lataif-e-sitta.In Sufi teachings, it means more of false ego. When Sufis talk about opposing Nafs, they mean Nafs Ammara that is explained later...
, a faculty of spiritual intuition called the qalbقلب is an Arabic word meaning "Heart". It is the second among the six purities or Lataif-e-sitta in Sufi philosophy.- Sixteen stages of Taming Qalb :To attend Tasfiya-e-Qalb, the Salik needs to achieve the following sixteen goals.#Zuhd or abstention from evil...
or spiritual heart, and a spirit or soul called ruhRuh is an Arabic word meaning spirit. It is the third among the six purities or Lataif-e-sitta-Thirteen stages of taming ruh:To attend Tajalliy-e-Ruh, the Salik needs to achieve the following thirteen.#Iradah or Commitment with God...
. These interact in various ways, producing the spiritual types of the tyrant (dominated by nafs
), the person of faith and moderation (dominated by the spiritual heart), and the person lost in love for God (dominated by the ruh).
Of note with regard to the spread of Sufi psychology in the West is
Robert FragerRobert Frager is a Harvard-trained psychologist. He is the past president of the Association for Transpersonal Psychology and the founder of the Institute of Transpersonal Psychology, where he is currently Director of the Spiritual Guidance program and professor of Psychology.-Life:Dr...
, a Sufi teacher authorized in the Halveti
JerrahiThe Jerrahi are a Sufi tariqah "order" derived from the Halveti order. Their founder was Muhammad Nureddin al-Jerrahi, who died in Istanbul and is buried at the site of his tekke in Karagumruk - Istanbul...
order. Frager was a trained psychologist, born in the United States, who converted to Islam in the course of his practice of Sufism and wrote extensively on Sufism and psychology.
Sufi cosmologySufi cosmology is a general term for cosmological doctrines associated with the mysticism of Sufism. These may differ from place to place, order to order and time to time, but overall show the influence of several different cosmographies:...
and Sufi metaphysics are also noteworthy areas of intellectual accomplishment.
Sufi practices
The devotional practices of Sufis vary widely. This is because an acknowledged and authorized master of the Sufi path is in effect a physician of the heart, able to diagnose the seeker's impediments to knowledge and pure intention in serving God, and to prescribe to the seeker a course of treatment appropriate to his or her maladies. The consensus among Sufi scholars is that the seeker cannot self-diagnose, and that it can be extremely harmful to undertake any of these practices alone and without formal authorization.
Prerequisites to practice include rigorous adherence to Islamic norms (ritual prayer in its five prescribed times each day, the fast of Ramadan, and so forth). Additionally, the seeker ought to be firmly grounded in supererogatory practices known from the life of the Prophet
MuhammadMuhammad ibn ‘Abdullāh , is the founder of the religion of Islam [ إِسْلامْ ] and is regarded by Muslims as a messenger and prophet of , the last and the greatest law-bearer in a series of Islamic prophets as taught by the...
(such as the so-called "sunna prayers"). This is in accordance with the words, attributed to God, of the following, a famous
Hadith QudsiHadith Qudsi are a sub-category of hadith, which are sayings of Muhammad. Muslims regard the Hadith Qudsi as the words of God , repeated by Muhammad and recorded on the condition of an isnad...
:
My servant draws near to Me through nothing I love more than that which I have made obligatory for him. My servant never ceases drawing near to Me through supererogatory works until I love him. Then, when I love him, I am his hearing through which he hears, his sight through which he sees, his hand through which he grasps, and his foot through which he walks.
It is also necessary for the seeker to have a correct creed (
AqidahAqidah is an Islamic term meaning creed. Any religious belief system, or creed, can be considered an example of aqidah...
), and to embrace with certainty its tenets. The seeker must also, of necessity, turn away from sins, love of this world, the love of company and renown, obedience to satanic impulse, and the promptings of the lower self. (The way in which this purification of the heart is achieved is outlined in certain books, but must be prescribed in detail by a Sufi master.) The seeker must also be trained to prevent the corruption of those good deeds which have accrued to his or her credit by overcoming the traps of ostentation, pride, arrogance, envy, and long hopes (meaning the hope for a long life allowing us to mend our ways later, rather than immediately, here and now).
Sufi practices, while attractive to some, are not a means
for gaining knowledge. The traditional scholars of Sufism hold it as absolutely axiomatic that knowledge of God is not a psychological state generated through breath control. Thus, practice of "techniques" is not the cause, but instead the occasion for such knowledge to be obtained (if at all), given proper prerequisites and proper guidance by a master of the way. Furthermore, the emphasis on practices may obscure a far more important fact: The seeker is, in a sense, to become a broken person, stripped of all habits through the practice of (in the words of Imam
Al-GhazaliAbū Ḥāmid Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad al-Ghazālī , often Algazel in English, was born and died in Tus, in the Khorasan province of Persia. He was an Islamic theologian, jurist, philosopher, cosmologist, psychologist and mystic of Persian origin, and remains one of the most celebrated scholars in the...
words) solitude, silence, sleeplessness, and hunger.
Dhikr
DhikrDhikr is an Islamic devotional act. It often includes the repetition of the names of God, supplications and aphorisms from hadith literature and sections of the Qur'an...
is the remembrance of God commanded in the
Qur'anThe Qur’an is the central religious text of Islam...
for all Muslims through a specific devotional act, such as the repetition of divine names, supplications and aphorisms from
hadithHadith are oral traditions relating to the words and deeds of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. Hadith are regarded by traditional schools of jurisprudence as important tools for determining the Muslim way of life, the sunnah. Hadith were originally oral traditions of Muhammad's actions and customs...
literature and the Qur'an. More generally, dhikr is any activity in which the Muslim maintains awareness of God.. To engage in dhikr is to practice consciousness of the Divine Presence and love, or "to seek a state of godwariness". Some types of dhikr are prescribed for all Muslims, and do not require Sufi initiation or the prescription of a Sufi master because they are deemed to be good for every seeker under every circumstance.
Some Sufi orders engage in ritualized dhikr ceremonies, or
semaSema is a Sufi ceremony performed as dhikr, which often includes song, dance, customary symbolic attire, and other rituals. It is a particularly popular form of worship in the Chisti order of the Indian sub-continent...
. Sema includes various forms of worship such as:
recitationRecitation means a repetition of what has been said before. It is used in a religious, an oratorical, and an educational sense.-Religion:Recitation is a form of religious practice in which fixed material are spoken or performed...
,
singingSinging is the act of producing musical sounds with the voice, and augments regular speech by the use of both tonality and rhythm. A person who sings is called a singer or vocalist...
, instrumental music,
danceDance is a sport and art form that generally refers to movement of the body, usually rhythmic and to music, used as a form of expression, social interaction or presented in a spiritual or performance setting....
(most famously the
sufi whirlingSufi whirling , is a physically active meditation which originated among Sufis, and which is still practiced by the Sufi Dervishes of the Mevlevi order. It is a customary dance performed within the Sema, or worship ceremony, through which dervishes aim to reach the source of all perfection, or...
of the Mevlevi order),
incenseIncense is composed of aromatic biotic materials, which release fragrant smoke when burned. The term incense refers to the substance itself, rather than to the odor that it produces....
,
meditationMeditation is used here as a broad term for practices done by a sole practitioner without much, if any, external aide, often for the purpose of self-transformation...
,
ecstasySpiritual ecstasy is an altered state of consciousness characterized by greatly reduced external awareness and expanded interior mental and spiritual awareness which is frequently accompanied by visions and emotional/intuitive euphoria...
, and
tranceAn altered state of consciousness, , also named altered state of mind is any condition which is significantly different from a normal waking beta wave state. The expression was used as early as 1969 by Charles Tart and describes induced changes in one's mental state, almost always temporary...
.
Some Sufi orders stress and extensive reliance upon Dhikr likewise in Qadri Al-Muntahi Sufi tariqa, which was originated by Riaz Ahmed Gohar Shahi. This practice of Dhikr called Dhikr-e-Qulb(remembrance of Allah by Heartbeats). The basic idea of this practice is to visualize the Arabic name of God, Allah as having been written on the disciple's heart.
Muraqaba
The practice of muraqaba
can be likened to the practices of meditationMeditation is used here as a broad term for practices done by a sole practitioner without much, if any, external aide, often for the purpose of self-transformation...
attested in many faith communities. The word muraqaba
is derived from the same root (r-q-b
) occurring as one of the 99 Names of God in the Qur'an, al-Raqîb, meaning "the Vigilant" and attested in verse 4: 1 of the Qur'anThe Qur’an is the central religious text of Islam...
. Through muraqaba, a person watches over or takes care of the spiritual heart, acquires knowledge about it, and becomes attuned to the Divine Presence, which is ever vigilant.
While variation exists, one description of the practice within a Naqshbandi lineage reads as follows:
He is to collect all of his bodily senses in concentration, and to cut himself off from all preoccupation and notions that inflict themselves upon the heart. And thus he is to turn his full consciousness towards God Most High while saying three times: “Ilahî anta maqsûdî wa-ridâka matlûbî — my God, you are my Goal and Your good pleasure is what I seek.” Then he brings to his heart the Name of the Essence — Allâh — and as it courses through his heart he remains attentive to its meaning, which is “Essence without likeness.” The seeker remains aware that He is Present, Watchful, Encompassing of all, thereby exemplifying the meaning of his saying (may God bless him and grant him peace): “Worship God as though you see Him, for if you do not see Him, He sees you.” And likewise the prophetic tradition: “The most favored level of faith is to know that God is witness over you, wherever you may be.”
Sufi pilgrimages
In popular Sufism (i.e., devotional practices that have achieved currency in world cultures through Sufi influence), one common practice is to visit the tombs of saints, great scholars, and righteous people. This is a particularly common practice in South Asia, where famous tombs include those of Khoja Afāq, near
KashgarKashgar or Kashi is an oasis city with approximately 350,000 residents in the western part of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region of the People's Republic of China...
, in China;
Sachal SarmastSachal Sarmast was a renowned Sufi poet from Sindh, Pakistan during the Kalhora era. Abdul Wahab was his real name and "Sachal" was the name he used in his own poetry. Sachalu means truthful in Sindhi. Sarmast means mystic in Sindhi and Urdu. Sachal Sarmast literally means 'truthful mystic'...
, in
SindhSindh , is one of the four provinces of Pakistan and historically is home to the Sindhis. Different cultural and ethnic groups also reside in Sindh including Urdu-speaking Muslim refugees who migrated to Pakistan from India upon independence as well as the people migrated from other provinces after...
, Pakistan; and the Darbar-e-Gohar Shahi in Kotri Sharif. Likewise, in
FezFes or Fez is the third largest city in Morocco, after Casablanca and Rabat with a population of 946,815 . It is the capital of the Fès-Boulemane region....
, Morocco, a popular destination for such pious visitation is the
Zaouia Moulay Idriss IIThe Zaouia Moulay Idriss II in Fes, Morocco, is a zaouia dedicated to and tomb of Moulay Idriss II, who ruled Morocco from 807 to 828 and founded the city of Fes for the second time in 810....
and the yearly visitation to see the current Sheikh of the Qadiri Boutchichi
TariqahṬarīqah means "way, path, method" and refers to an Islamic religious order; in Sufism, it is conceptually related to ḥaqīqah "truth", the ineffable ideal that is the pursuit of the tradition. Thus one starts with Islamic law, the exoteric or mundane practice of Islam and then is initiated onto the...
, Sheikh Sidi Hamza al Qadiri al Boutchichi to celebrate the
MawlidMawlid ' is a term used to refer to the observance of the birthday of the Islamic prophet Muhammad which occurs in Rabi' al-awwal, the...
(which is usually televised on Mocorran National television).
Visitors may invoke blessings upon those interred, and seek divine favor and proximity.
Sufism and Islamic law
Scholars and adherents of Sufism sometimes describe Sufism in terms of a threefold approach to God as explained by a tradition (
hadîthHadith are oral traditions relating to the words and deeds of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. Hadith are regarded by traditional schools of jurisprudence as important tools for determining the Muslim way of life, the sunnah. Hadith were originally oral traditions of Muhammad's actions and customs...
) attributed to the Prophet Muhammad,"The Shariah is my words, the tariqa is my actions, and the
haqiqaHaqiqaHaqiqa is a stage in Sufism, a mystical branch of Islam. Sufism is an ancient form of Islam that emphasizes extreme asceticism, obedience of God’s will in the form of the Shari’a, and purification of the body and soul by prayer and repentance. The followers of Sufism strive to perfect...
is my interior states".
Sufis believe the shariah
, tariqa
and haqiqa
are mutually interdependent. The tariqa
, the ‘path’ on which the mystics walk, has been defined as ‘the path which comes out of the Shariah
, for the main road is called shar
, the path, tariq
.’ No mystical experience can be realized if the binding injunctions of the Shariah are not followed faithfully first. The path, tariqa
, however, is narrower and more difficult to walk. It leads the adept, called sâlik
(wayfarer), in his sulûk
(wayfaring), through different stations (maqâmât
) until he reaches his goal, the perfect tawhîd, the existential confession that God is One. Jalaluddin Ar Rumi, the initiator of the Mavlevi Tariqah, spoke of the Shariah and Sufism in such terms, " To be a real Sufi, is to be to the Prophet Muhammad sallahu aliye wasalam just as Abu Bakr was to him, peace be upon him."
Shaykh al-Akbar Muhiuddeen Ibn Arabi mentions," When we see someone in this Community who claims to be able to guide others to Allah, but is remiss in but one rule of the Sacred Law - even if he manifests miracles that stagger the mind - asserting that his shortcoming is a special dispensation for him, we do not even turn to look at him, for such a person is not a sheikh, nor is he speaking the truth, for no one is entrusted with the secrets of Allah Most High save one in whom the ordinances of the Sacred Law are preserved (Jami' karamat al-awliya')"
(source: [p 778-795 of "The Reliance of the Traveller", by Shaykh Nuh Ha Meem Keller])
Traditional Islamic thought and Sufism
The literature of Sufism emphasizes highly subjective matters that resist outside observation, such as the subtle states of the heart. Often these resist direct reference or description, with the consequence that the authors of various Sufi treatises took recourse to allegorical language. For instance, much Sufi poetry refers to intoxication, which Islam expressly forbids. This usage of indirect language and the existence of interpretations by people who had no training in Islam or Sufism led to doubts being cast over the validity of Sufism as a part of Islam. Also, some groups emerged that considered themselves above the
ShariaSharia is an Arabic word meaning ‘way’ or ‘path’. In Arabic, the collocation ‘Šarīʿat Allāh’ is traditionally used not only by Muslims, but also Christians and Jews, sometimes translating expressions such as Torat Elōhīm [תורת אלוהים] or ‘ho nómos toû theoû' '’...
and discussed Sufism as a method of bypassing the rules of Islam in order to attain salvation directly. This was disapproved of by traditional scholars.
For these and other reasons, the relationship between traditional Islamic scholars and Sufism is complex and a range of scholarly opinion on Sufism in Islam has been the norm. Some scholars, such as
Al-GhazaliAbū Ḥāmid Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad al-Ghazālī , often Algazel in English, was born and died in Tus, in the Khorasan province of Persia. He was an Islamic theologian, jurist, philosopher, cosmologist, psychologist and mystic of Persian origin, and remains one of the most celebrated scholars in the...
, helped its propagation while other scholars opposed it.
W. ChittickWilliam C. Chittick is a leading translator and interpreter of classical Islamic philosophical and mystical texts. He is best known for his groundbreaking work on Rumi and Ibn 'Arabi, and has written extensively on the school of Ibn 'Arabi, Islamic philosophy, Shi'ism, and Islamic...
explains the position of Sufism and Sufis this way:
Traditional and non-traditional Sufi groups
The traditional Sufi orders, which are in majority, emphasize the role of Sufism as a spiritual discipline within Islam. Therefore, the
ShariaSharia is an Arabic word meaning ‘way’ or ‘path’. In Arabic, the collocation ‘Šarīʿat Allāh’ is traditionally used not only by Muslims, but also Christians and Jews, sometimes translating expressions such as Torat Elōhīm [תורת אלוהים] or ‘ho nómos toû theoû' '’...
(traditional Islamic law) and the
SunnahSunnah is an Arabic word that means habit or usual practice. The Muslim usage of this term refers to the sayings and living habits of Muhammad, the main prophet of Islam....
(customs of the Prophet) are seen as crucial for any Sufi aspirant. One proof traditional orders assert is that almost all the famous Sufi masters of the past
CaliphateThe term caliphate refers to the first form of government inspired by Islam. It was initially led by Muhammad's disciples as a continuation of the political authority the prophet established, known as the 'rashidun caliphates'. It represented the political unity of the Muslim Ummah, and was the...
s were experts in
ShariaSharia is an Arabic word meaning ‘way’ or ‘path’. In Arabic, the collocation ‘Šarīʿat Allāh’ is traditionally used not only by Muslims, but also Christians and Jews, sometimes translating expressions such as Torat Elōhīm [תורת אלוהים] or ‘ho nómos toû theoû' '’...
and were renowned as people with great Iman (faith) and excellent practice. Many were also
QadiQadi is a judge ruling in accordance with the sharia, Islamic religious law. Because Islam makes no distinction between religious and secular domains, qadis traditionally have jurisdiction over all legal matters involving Muslims...
s (Sharia law judges) in courts. They held that Sufism was never distinct from Islam and to fully comprehend and practice Sufism one must be an observant Muslim.
There is some speculation that some Sufi orders in India might have become influenced by other traditions after the translation of Greek philosophical works into Arabic during the third Islamic century. Sharda highlights these unsurprising similarities by stating that: "After the fall of Muslim orthodoxy from power at the centre of India for about a century, due to the invasion of Timur, the Sufi became free from the control of the Muslim orthodoxy and consorted with Hindu saints, who influenced them to an amazing extent. The Sufi adopted Monism and wifely devotion from the Vaishnava Vedantic school and Bhakti and Yogic practices from the Vaishnava Vedantic school. By that time, the popularity of the Vedantic pantheism among the Sufis had reached its zenith."
In recent decades there has been a growth of non-traditional Sufi movements in the West. Examples include the
Universal SufismUniversal Sufism is a universalist spiritual movement founded by Hazrat Inayat Khan while traveling throughout the West between 1910 and 1926, based on unity of all people and religions and the presence of spiritual guidance in all people, places and things...
movement, the Golden Sufi Center, the Sufi Foundation of America, the neo-sufism of
Idries ShahIdries Shah , also known as Idris Shah, né Sayed Idries el-Hashimi , was an author and teacher in the Sufi tradition who wrote over three dozen critically acclaimed books on topics ranging from psychology and spirituality to travelogues and culture studies.Born in India, the descendant...
,
Sufism ReorientedSufism Reoriented is an American school of spiritual training established by Meher Baba in 1952. In November of that year he signed The Chartered Guidance from Meher Baba for the Reorientation of Sufism. He appointed Ivy O. Duce as the first Murshida, or spiritual guide, of Sufism Reoriented.Sufism...
and the
International Association of SufismInternational Association of Sufism is a nonprofit, non-governmental organization that brings together scholars, educators, translators, and artists interested in the discipline of Sufism...
. Rumi has become one of the most widely read poets in the United States, thanks largely to the translations published by
Coleman BarksColeman Barks is an American poet. Although he neither speaks nor reads Persian, he is nonetheless renowned as an interpreter of Rumi and other mystic poets of Persia.- Biographical notes:...
.
Islamic positions on non-Islamic Sufi groups
The use of the title Sufi by non-traditional groups to refer to themselves, and their appropriation of traditional Sufi masters (most notably Jalaluddin Rumi) as sources of authority or inspiration, is not accepted by some Muslims who are Sufi adherents.
Many of the great Sufi masters of the present and the past instruct that: one needs the form of the religious practices and the outer dimension of the religion to fulfill the goals of the inner dimension of Sufism (Proximity to God). The exoteric practices prescribed by God contain inner meanings and provide the means for transformation with the proper spiritual guidance of a master. It is thought that through the forms of the ritual and prescribed Islamic practices (prayer, pilgrimage, fasting, charity and affirmation of Divine Unity) the soul may be purified and one may then begin to embark on the mystical quest. In fact it is considered psychologically dangerous by some Sufi masters to participate in Sufi practices, such as "dhikr", without adhering to the outer aspects of the religion which add spiritual balance and grounding to the practice.
Some traditional Sufis also object to interpretations of classical Sufis texts by writers who have no grounding in the traditional Islamic sciences and therefore no prerequisites for understanding such texts. These are considered by certain conventional Islamic scholars as beyond the pale of the religion. This being said, there are Islamic Sufi groups that are open to non-Muslim participation.
Perception outside Islam
Sufi mysticism has long exercised a fascination upon the Western world, and especially its orientalist scholars. Figures like Rumi have become household names in the United States, where Sufism is perceived as quietist and less political.
The Islamic Institute in Mannheim, Germany, which works towards the integration of
EuropeEurope is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally divided from Asia to its east by the water divide of the Ural Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian Sea, the Caucasus Mountains , and the Black Sea to the southeast...
and Muslims, sees Sufism as particularly suited for interreligious dialogue and intercultural harmonisation in democratic and pluralist societies; it has described Sufism as a symbol of tolerance and
humanismHumanism is a perspective common to a wide range of ethical stances that attaches importance to human dignity, concerns, and capabilities, particularly rationality. Although the word has many senses, its meaning comes into focus when contrasted to the supernatural or to appeals to authority...
– undogmatic, flexible and non-violent.
The Influence of Sufism on Judaism
A great influence was exercised by Sufism upon the ethical writings of Jews in the
Middle AgesThe Middle Ages of European history is a period of European history covering roughly a millennium in the 5th century through 16th centuries. More specific starting and ending points are sometimes adopted by scholars to suit their respective specializations or current focus...
. In the first writing of this kind, we see "Kitab al-Hidayah ila Fara'iḍ al-Ḳulub", Duties of the Heart, of Bahya ibn Pakuda. This book was translated by Judah ibn Tibbon into Hebrew under the title "Ḥovot ha-Levavot".This was precisely the argument used by the Sufis against their adversaries, the Ulamas. The arrangement of the book seems to have been inspired by Sufism. Its ten sections correspond to the ten stages through which the Sufi had to pass in order to attain that true and passionate love of God which is the aim and goal of all ethical self-discipline.
It is noteworthy that in the ethical writings of the Sufis Al-Kusajri and Al-Harawi there are sections which treat of the same subjects as those treated in the "Ḥobot ha-Lebabot" and which bear the same titles: e.g., "Bab al-Tawakkul"; "Bab al-Taubah"; "Bab al-Muḥasabah"; "Bab al-Tawaḍu'"; "Bab al-Zuhd". In the ninth gate, Baḥya directly quotes sayings of the Sufis, whom he calls Perushim
. However, the author of the Ḥovot ha-Levavot did not go so far as to approve of the asceticism of the Sufis, although he showed a marked predilection for their ethical principles.
The Jewish writer Abraham bar Ḥiyya teaches the asceticism of the Sufis. His distinction with regard to the observance of Jewish law by various classes of men is essentially a Sufic theory. According to it there are four principal degrees of human perfection or sanctity; namely:
of "Shari'ah," i.e., of strict obedience to all ritual laws of
IslamIslam Islam Islam ( al-’islām,
[There are ten pronunciations of Islam in English, differing in whether the first or second syllable has the stress, whether the s is or , and whether the a is pronounced as in father, as in cat, or (when the stress is on the i) as in the a of sofa...]
, such as prayer, fasting, pilgrimage, almsgiving, ablution, etc., which is the lowest degree of worship, and is attainable by all
of Ṭariqah, which is accessible only to a higher class of men who, while strictly adhering to the outward or ceremonial injunctions of religion, rise to an inward perception of mental power and virtue necessary for the nearer approach to the Divinity
of "Ḥaḳikah," the degree attained by those who, through continuous contemplation and inward devotion, have risen to the true perception of the nature of the visible and invisible; who, in fact, have recognized the Godhead, and through this knowledge have succeeded in establishing an ecstatic relation to it; and
of the "Ma'arifah," in which state man communicates directly with the Deity.
In movies
The movie Bab´Aziz (2005) directed by Nacer Khemir tells the story of an old and blind dervish who must cross the desert with his little granddaughter during many days and nights to get to his last dervish reunion celebrated every 30 years. The movie is full of Sufi mysticism and even contain quotes of Rumi and other sufi poets and shows an ecstatic sufi dance.
In
Monsieur IbrahimMonsieur Ibrahim is a 2003 French movie starring Omar Sharif, and directed by François Dupeyron. The movie is based on a book and a play by Éric-Emmanuel Schmitt.-Plot:...
Omar Sherrif's character professes to be a Muslim in the sufi tradition.
In music
MadonnaMadonna is an American recording artist, actress and entrepreneur. Born in Bay City, Michigan, and raised in Rochester Hills, Michigan, she moved to New York City in 1977, for a career in modern dance...
, on her 1994 record
Bedtime StoriesBedtime Stories is the sixth studio album by American singer-songwriter Madonna, released on October 25, 1994 by Maverick Records. In 1995, it was nominated for a Grammy Award in the Best Pop Vocal Album category. The RIAA certified it Gold and Platinum on January 5, 1995, and triple platinum on...
sings a song called "Bedtime Story" that discusses achieving a high unconsciousness level. The video for the song shows an ecstatic sufi ritual with many dervishes dancing around, Arabic calligraphy and some other Sufi elements. In 1998 she recorded the song Bittersweet in which she recites Rumi´s poem by the same name. In 2001 Madonna sang the song Secret during her Drowned World Tour showing rituals from many religions including a Sufi dance.
Singer/songwritter Loreena McKennit on her record The Mask And Mirror (1994) has a song called The Mystic´s Dream clearly influenced by Sufi music and poetry. The band,
mewithoutYouMewithoutYou is a Philadelphia, Pennsylvania-based experimental rock band. The band consists of vocalist Aaron Weiss, guitarist Michael Weiss, bassist Greg Jehanian and drummer Rickie Mazzotta. MewithoutYou's music is generally dominated by spoken-word vocals and free-ranging drums, bass, and guitar...
, has made references to sufi parables, including the name of their upcoming album
it’s all crazy! it’s all false! it’s all a dream! it’s alrightIt’s All Crazy! It’s All False! It’s All A Dream! It’s Alright is the fourth full-length studio album by American indie band MewithoutYou, released on May 19, 2009 through Tooth & Nail Records. The album is much more focused on the band's melodic and folk influences, such as Neutral Milk Hotel and...
(2009) Lead singer, Aaron Weiss, claims this influence comes from his parents who are both Sufi converts.
A.R. Rahman, the Academy award winner (2009) the follower of Sufi principles, scored music about Sufism in the film Jodhaa Akbar for the song Khwaja Mere Khwaja.
See also
- List of Sufism related topics
- Qawwali
Qawwali is a form of Sufi devotional music popular in South Asia, particularly in areas with a historically strong Muslim presence, such as southern Pakistan, and parts of North India...
- Khalwa
Khalwa : in Sufism, a solitary retreat, traditionally for 40 days , during which a disciple does extensive spiritual exercises under the direction of a sufi master...
- Sufi poetry
Sufi poetry has been written in many languages, both for private devotional reading and as lyrics for music played during worship, or dhikr. Themes and styles established in Arabic poetry and mostly Persian poetry have had an enormous influence on Sufi poetry throughout the Islamic world.Some of...
- Rumi
- Hazrat Babajan
Hazrat Babajan was a Baloch Muslim saint considered by her followers to be a sadguru or qutub. Born in British India in Balochistan, in what is now Pakistan, she lived the final 25 years of her life in Pune, India....
Additional Reading
- Al-Badawi, Mostafa. Sufi Sage of Arabia. Louisville: Fons Vitae, 2005.
- Ali-Shah, Omar. The Rules or Secrets of the Naqshbandi Order, Tractus Publishers, 1992, ISBN 978-2-909347-09-7.
- Arberry, A.J.. Mystical Poems of Rumi, Vols. 1&2. Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press, 1991.
- Austin, R.W.J.. Sufis of Andalusia, Gloustershire: Beshara Publications, 1988.
- Azeemi,Khwaja Shamsuddin. Muraqaba: Art and Science of Sufi Meditation, Houston:Plato Publishing,Inc., 2005, ISBN 0975887548.
- Bewley, Aisha. The Darqawi Way. London: Diwan Press, 1981.
- Burckhardt, Titus. An Introduction to Sufi Doctrine. Lahore: 1963.
- Colby, Frederick. The Subtleties of the Ascension: Lata'if Al-Miraj: Early Mystical Sayings on Muhammad's Heavenly Journey. City: Fons Vitae, 2006.
- Dahlen, Ashk. Female Sufi Saints and Disciples: Women in the life of Jalal al-din Rumi, Orientalia Suecana, vol. 57, Uppsala, 2008.
- Dahlen, Ashk. Sufi Islam, The World's Religions: Continuities and Transformations, ed. Peter B. Clarke & Peter Beyer, New York, 2009.
- Emin Er, Muhammad. Laws of the Heart: A Practical Introduction to the Sufi Path, Shifâ Publishers, 2008, ISBN 9780981519616.
- Emin Er, Muhammad. The Soul of Islam: Essential Doctrines and Beliefs, Shifâ Publishers, 2008, ISBN 9780981519609.
- Ernst, Carl. The Shambhala Guide to Sufism. HarperOne, 1999.
- Fadiman, James and Frager, Robert. Essential Sufism. Boulder: Shambhala, 1997.
- Farzan, Massud. The Tale of the Reed Pipe. New York: Dutton, 1974.
- Gowins, Phillip. Sufism — A Path for Today: The Sovereign Soul. New Delhi: Readworthy Publications (P) Ltd., 2008. ISBN 9788189973490
- Gupta, R.K. The Science and Philosophy of Spirituality, 2006, ISBN 8176465453
- Gupta, R.K. Sufism Beyond Religion, 2004, ISBN 8176464112
- Gupta, R.K. Yogis in Silence-The Great Sufi Masters, 2001 ISBN 8176461997
- Khan, Hazrat Inayat. The Sufi message, Volume IX — The Unity of Religious Ideals, Part VI, SUFISM — Wahiduddin.net
- Lewinsohn (ed.), The Heritage of Sufism, Volume I: Classical Persian Sufism from its Origins to Rumi (700-1300).
- Michon, Jean-Louis. The Autobiography (Fahrasa) of a Moroccan Soufi: Ahmad Ibn `Ajiba (1747-1809). Louisville: Fons Vitae, 1999.
- Nurbakhsh, Javad, What is Sufism? electronic text derived from The Path, Khaniqahi Nimatullahi Publications, London, 2003 ISBN 0-933546-70-X.
- Rahimi, Sadeq (2007). Intimate Exteriority: Sufi Space as Sanctuary for Injured Subjectivities in Turkey., Journal of Religion and Health, Vol. 46, No. 3, September 2007; pp. 409–422
- Schmidle, Nicholas, "Pakistan's Sufis Preach Faith and Ecstasy", Smithsonian magazine
Smithsonian is a monthly magazine published by the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C. The first issue was published in 1970. It is edited by Carey Winfrey.-History:...
, December 2008
- Shah, Idries. The Sufis. New York: Anchor Books, 1971, ISBN 0385079664.
External links