Stress is a biological term for the consequences of the failure of a human or animal to respond appropriately to
emotionAn emotion is a mental and physiological state associated with a wide variety of feelings, thoughts, and behavior. Emotions are subjective experiences, often associated with mood, temperament, personality, and disposition. The English word 'emotion' is derived from the French word émouvoir...
al or
physicalWith regard to living things, a body is the physical body of an individual. "Body" often is used in connection with appearance, health issues and death...
threats to the organism, whether actual or imagined.
It includes a state of alarm and adrenaline production, short-term resistance as a coping mechanism, and exhaustion. Common stress symptoms include irritability, muscular tension, inability to concentrate and a variety of physical reactions, such as headaches and elevated heart rate.
Origin and terminology
The term "stress" was first used by psychologists before the endocrinologist
Hans SelyeHans Hugo Bruno Selye, CC was a Canadian endocrinologist of Austro-Hungarian origin and Hungarian ethnicity. Selye did much important factual work on the hypothetical non-specific response of the organism to stressors. While he did not recognize all of the many aspects of glucocorticoids, Selye...
in the 1930s . He later broadened and popularized the concept to include the response of the body to any demand. In Selye's terminology, "stress" refers to a condition, and "stressor" to the internal reaction causing stress.
It covers a huge range of phenomena from mild irritation to the kind of severe problems that might result in a real breakdown of health.
Signs of stress may be cognitive, emotional, physical or behavioral. Signs include poor judgment, a general negative outlook, excessive worrying, moodiness, irritability, agitation, inability to relax, feeling lonely or isolated, depressed, aches and pains, diarrhea or constipation, nausea, dizziness, chest pain, rapid heartbeat, eating too much or not enough, sleeping too much or not enough, withdrawing from others, procrastinating or neglecting responsibilities, using alcohol, cigarettes, or drugs to relax, and nervous habits (e.g. nail biting or pacing).
General Adaptation Syndrome
Hans SelyeHans Hugo Bruno Selye, CC was a Canadian endocrinologist of Austro-Hungarian origin and Hungarian ethnicity. Selye did much important factual work on the hypothetical non-specific response of the organism to stressors. While he did not recognize all of the many aspects of glucocorticoids, Selye...
researched the effects of stress on rats and other animals by exposing them to unpleasant or harmful stimuli. He found that all animals presented a very similar series of reactions, broken into three stages. In 1936, he described this universal response to the stressors as the general adaptation syndrome, or GAS.
Stress is how the body reacts to a Stressor(something or reason that causes stress). There are Acute stressors, which are a short term stress that can effect you greatly or regularly; and there are chronic stressors, which are a long term stress that can also effect you greatly or regularly. Acute stressors can make the way you deal with stress easier.
Alarm is the first stage. When the threat or stressor is identified or realized, the body's stress response is a state of alarm. During this stage adrenaline will be produced in order to bring about the
fight-or-flight responseThe "fight-or-flight response", also called the "fight-or-flight-or-freeze response", the "fright, fight or flight response", "hyperarousal" or the "acute stress response", was first described by Walter Cannon in 1929....
. There is also some activation of the
HPA axisThe hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis , also known as thelimbic-hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis , is a complex set of direct influences and feedback interactions among the hypothalamus , the pituitary gland , and the adrenal glands...
, producing
cortisolCortisol is a corticosteroid hormone or glucocorticoid produced by the adrenal cortex, that is part of the adrenal gland . It is usually referred to as the "stress hormone" as it is involved in response to stress and anxiety, controlled by CRH...
.
Resistance is the second stage. If the stressor persists, it becomes necessary to attempt some means of coping with the stress. Although the body begins to try to adapt to the strains or demands of the environment, the body cannot keep this up indefinitely, so its resources are gradually depleted.
Exhaustion is the third and final stage in the GAS model. At this point, all of the body's resources are eventually depleted and the body is unable to maintain normal function. At this point the initial
autonomic nervous systemThe autonomic nervous system is the part of the peripheral nervous system that acts as a control system functioning largely below the level of consciousness, and controls visceral functions. The ANS affects heart rate, digestion, respiration rate, salivation, perspiration, diameter of the pupils,...
symptoms may reappear (sweating, raised heart rate etc.). If stage three is extended, long term damage may result as the capacity of glands, especially the adrenal gland, and the immune system is exhausted and function is impaired resulting in
decompensationDecompensation is the functional deterioration of a previously working structure or system. Decompensation may occur due to fatigue, stress, illness, or old age. When a system is "compensated", it is able to function despite stressors or defects. Decompensation describes an inability to compensate...
.
The result can manifest itself in obvious illnesses such as
ulcersA peptic ulcer, also known as ulcus pepticum, PUD or peptic ulcer disease, is an ulcer of an area of the gastrointestinal tract that is usually acidic and thus extremely painful...
,
depressionMajor depressive disorder is a mental disorder characterized by an all-encompassing low mood accompanied by low self-esteem, and loss of interest or pleasure in normally enjoyable activities...
, diabetes, trouble with the digestive system or even cardiovascular problems, along with other mental illnesses.
Selye: eustress and distress
Hans SelyeHans Hugo Bruno Selye, CC was a Canadian endocrinologist of Austro-Hungarian origin and Hungarian ethnicity. Selye did much important factual work on the hypothetical non-specific response of the organism to stressors. While he did not recognize all of the many aspects of glucocorticoids, Selye...
published in 1975 a model dividing stress into
eustressEustress is a term coined by endocrinologist Hans Selye, which is defined, in the model of Richard Lazarus , as stress that is healthy, or gives one a feeling of fulfillment or other positive feelings. Eustress is a process of exploring potential gains....
and
distressThe word distress has various meanings:-*Distress occurs when an individual cannot adapt to stress. See also fetal distress, respiratory distress.*Distress is a kind of suffering....
. Where stress enhances function (physical or mental, such as through
strength trainingStrength training is the use of resistance to muscular contraction to build the strength, anaerobic endurance and size of skeletal muscles. There are many different methods of strength training, the most common being the use of gravity or elastic/hydraulic forces to oppose muscle contraction...
or challenging work) it may be considered
eustressEustress is a term coined by endocrinologist Hans Selye, which is defined, in the model of Richard Lazarus , as stress that is healthy, or gives one a feeling of fulfillment or other positive feelings. Eustress is a process of exploring potential gains....
. Persistent stress that is not resolved through coping or adaptation, deemed
distressThe word distress has various meanings:-*Distress occurs when an individual cannot adapt to stress. See also fetal distress, respiratory distress.*Distress is a kind of suffering....
, may lead to
anxietyAnxiety is a psychological and physiological state characterized by cognitive, somatic, emotional, and behavioral components. These components combine to create an unpleasant feeling that is typically associated with uneasiness, fear, or worry....
or withdrawal (
depressionMajor depressive disorder is a mental disorder characterized by an all-encompassing low mood accompanied by low self-esteem, and loss of interest or pleasure in normally enjoyable activities...
) behavior.
The difference between experiences which result in eustress or distress is determined by the disparity between an experience (real or imagined), personal expectations, and resources to cope with the stress. Alarming experiences, either real or imagined, can trigger a stress response.
Lazarus: cognitive appraisal model
Lazarus argued that in order for a psychosocial situation to be stressful, it must be appraised as such. He argued that cognitive processes of appraisal are central in determining whether a situation is potentially threatening, constitutes a harm/loss, a challenge, or is benign.
This primary appraisal is influenced by both person and environmental factors, and triggers the selection of coping processes. Problem-focused coping is directed at managing the problem, while emotion-focused coping processes are directed at managing the negative emotions. Secondary appraisal refers to the evaluation of the resources available to cope with the problem, and may alter the primary appraisal.
In other words, primary appraisal also includes the perception of how stressful the problem is; realizing that one has more than or less than adequate resources to deal with the problem affects the appraisal of stressfulness. Further, coping is flexible in that the individual generally examines the effectiveness of the coping on the situation; if it is not having the desired effect, s/he will generally try different strategies.
Neurochemistry and physiology
The neurochemistry of the stress response is now believed to be well understood, although much remains to be discovered about how the components of this system interact with one another, in the brain and throughout in the body. In response to a stressor,
corticotropin-releasing hormoneCorticotropin-releasing hormone , originally named corticotropin-releasing factor , and also called corticoliberin, is a polypeptide hormone and neurotransmitter involved in the stress response....
(CRH) and arginine-vasopressin (AVP) are secreted into the
hypophyseal portal systemThe hypophyseal portal system is the system of blood vessels that link the hypothalamus and the anterior pituitary in the brain....
and activate neurons of the paraventricular nuclei (PVN) of the
hypothalamusThe hypothalamus is a portion of the brain that contains a number of small nuclei with a variety of functions. One of the most important functions of the hypothalamus is to link the nervous system to the endocrine system via the pituitary gland ....
.
The
locus ceruleusThe Locus coeruleus, also spelled locus caeruleus, is a nucleus in the brain stem involved with physiological responses to stress and panic. It was discovered in the 1700s by Félix Vicq-d'Azyr....
and other
noradrenergicNoradrenaline or norepinephrine is a catecholamine with dual roles as a hormone and a neurotransmitter....
cell groups of the
adrenal medullaThe adrenal medulla is part of the adrenal gland. It is located at the center of the gland, being surrounded by the adrenal cortex.-Basic:The adrenal medulla consists of irregularly shaped cells grouped around blood vessels. These cells are intimately connected with the sympathetic division of the...
and
ponsThe pons is a structure located on the brain stem. It is cranial to the medulla oblongata, caudal to the midbrain, and ventral to the cerebellum...
, collectively known as the LC/NE system, also become active and use brain
epinephrineEpinephrine is a hormone and neurotransmitter that participates in the "fight or flight" response of the sympathetic nervous system...
to execute autonomic and
neuroendocrineNeuroendocrine [IPA nʊəroʊˈɛndəkrɪn] cells are cells that release a hormone into the circulating blood in response to a neural stimulus. These hormones may be amines, neuropeptides, or specialized amino acids. They package the hormones in vesicles and send these packages via long processes to...
responses, serving as a global alarm system.
The
autonomic nervous systemThe autonomic nervous system is the part of the peripheral nervous system that acts as a control system functioning largely below the level of consciousness, and controls visceral functions. The ANS affects heart rate, digestion, respiration rate, salivation, perspiration, diameter of the pupils,...
provides the rapid response to stress commonly known as the
fight-or-flight responseThe "fight-or-flight response", also called the "fight-or-flight-or-freeze response", the "fright, fight or flight response", "hyperarousal" or the "acute stress response", was first described by Walter Cannon in 1929....
, engaging the
sympathetic nervous systemThe Sympathetic Nervous System is a branch of the autonomic nervous system along with the enteric nervous system and parasympathetic nervous system. It is always active at a basal level and becomes more active during times of stress...
and withdrawing the
parasympathetic nervous systemThe parasympathetic nervous system is a division of the autonomic nervous system , along with the sympathetic nervous system and enteric nervous system . The ANS is a subdivision of the peripheral nervous system . ANS sends fibers to three tissues: cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, or glandular tissue...
, thereby enacting cardiovascular, respiratory, gastrointestinal, renal, and endocrine changes. The
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axisThe hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis , also known as thelimbic-hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis , is a complex set of direct influences and feedback interactions among the hypothalamus , the pituitary gland , and the adrenal glands...
(HPA), a major part of the neuroendocrine system involving the interactions of the
hypothalamusThe hypothalamus is a portion of the brain that contains a number of small nuclei with a variety of functions. One of the most important functions of the hypothalamus is to link the nervous system to the endocrine system via the pituitary gland ....
, the
pituitary glandThe pituitary gland, or hypophysis, is an endocrine gland about the size of a pea and weighing 0.5 g . It is a protrusion off the bottom of the hypothalamus at the base of the brain, and rests in a small, bony cavity covered by a dural fold...
, and the
adrenal glandIn mammals, the adrenal glands are the star-shaped endocrine glands that sit on top of the kidneys; their name indicates that position...
s, is also activated by release of CRH and AVP.
This results in release of
adrenocorticotropic hormoneAdrenocorticotropic hormone , also known as corticotropin, is a polypeptide tropic hormone produced and secreted by the anterior pituitary gland. It is an important component of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and is often produced in response to biological stress...
(ACTH) from the pituitary into the general bloodstream, which results in secretion of
cortisolCortisol is a corticosteroid hormone or glucocorticoid produced by the adrenal cortex, that is part of the adrenal gland . It is usually referred to as the "stress hormone" as it is involved in response to stress and anxiety, controlled by CRH...
and other
glucocorticoidGlucocorticoids are a class of steroid hormones that bind to the glucocorticoid receptor , which is present in almost every vertebrate animal cell...
s from the
adrenal cortexSituated along the perimeter of the adrenal gland, the adrenal cortex mediates the stress response through the production of mineralocorticoids and glucocorticoids, including aldosterone and cortisol respectively. It is also a secondary site of androgen synthesis.-Layers:The cortex can be divided...
. These corticoids involve the whole body in the organism's response to stress and ultimately contribute to the termination of the response via inhibitory feedback.
Impact on disease
Stress can significantly affect many of the body's immune systems, as can an individual's perceptions of, and reactions to, stress. The term
psychoneuroimmunologyPsychoneuroimmunology is the study of the interaction between psychological processes and the nervous and immune systems of the human body...
is used to describe the interactions between the mental state, nervous and immune systems, as well as research on the interconnections of these systems. Immune system changes can create more vulnerability to infection, and have been observed to increase the potential for an outbreak of
psoriasisPsoriasis is a chronic, non-contagious autoimmune disease that affects the skin and joints. It commonly causes red, scaly patches to appear on the skin. The scaly patches caused by psoriasis, called psoriatic plaques, are areas of inflammation and excessive skin production. Skin rapidly...
for people with that skin disorder.
Chronic stress has also been shown to impair
developmental growthDevelopmental psychology, also known as human development, is the scientific study of systematic psychological changes that occur in human beings over the course of the life span. Originally concerned with infants and children, the field has expanded to include adolescence and adult development,...
in children by lowering the
pituitary glandThe pituitary gland, or hypophysis, is an endocrine gland about the size of a pea and weighing 0.5 g . It is a protrusion off the bottom of the hypothalamus at the base of the brain, and rests in a small, bony cavity covered by a dural fold...
's production of growth hormone, as in children associated with a home environment involving serious marital discord,
alcoholismAlcoholism is a term with multiple and sometimes conflicting definitions. In common and historic usage, alcoholism is any condition that results in the continued consumption of alcoholic beverages, despite health problems and negative social consequences...
, or
child abuseChild abuse is the physical and/or psychological/emotional mistreatment of children. In the United States, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention define child maltreatment as any act or series of acts or commission or omission by a parent or other caregiver that results in harm, potential...
.
Studies of female monkeys at
Wake Forest UniversityWake Forest University is a private, coeducational university in the U.S. state of North Carolina, founded in 1834. The university received its name from its original location in Wake Forest, north of Raleigh, North Carolina, the state Capital. The Reynolda Campus, the university's main campus, is...
(2009) discovered that individuals suffering from higher stress have higher levels of visceral fat in their bodies. This suggests a possible cause-and-effect link between the two, wherein stress promotes the accumulation of visceral fat, which in turn causes hormonal and metabolic changes that contribute to heart disease and other health problems.
Common sources
Both negative and positive stressors can lead to stress. Some common categories and examples of stressors include:
sensory input such as
painPhysical Pain is the unpleasant feeling common to a headache and a stubbed toe. It typically consists of negative affect and aversion, and has location, duration, intensity and a distinctive quality...
,
bright lightOver-illumination is the presence of lighting intensity beyond that required for a specified activity. Over-illumination was commonly ignored between 1950 and 1995, especially in office and retail environments; only since then has the interior design community begun to reconsider this practice.The...
, or environmental issues such as a lack of control over environmental circumstances, such as food, housing, health, freedom, or mobility.
Social issues can also cause stress, such as struggles with
conspecificConspecificity is a concept in biology. Two or more individual organisms, populations, or taxa are termed conspecific if they belong to the same species....
or difficult individuals and
social defeatSocial defeat refers to losing a confrontation among conspecific animals, or any kind of hostile dispute among humans, in either a dyadic or in a group-individual context, generating very significant consequences in terms of control over resources, access to mates and social...
, or relationship
conflictConflict is actual or perceived opposition of needs, values and interests. A conflict can be internal to individuals. Conflict as a concept can help explain many aspects of social life such as social disagreement, conflicts of interests, and fights between individuals, groups, or organizations...
,
deceptionDeception, beguilement, deceit, bluff, and subterfuge are acts to propagate a beliefs that are not true, or not the whole truth . Deception can involve dissimulation, propaganda, sleight of hand. It can employ distraction, camouflage or concealment...
, or
break up- Track listing :#"Waiting Around"#"Down the Street"#"Never Coming Back"#"Breaking"...
s, and major events such as
birthBirth is the act or process of bearing or bringing forth offspring . The offspring is brought forth from the mother...
and
deathDeath is the termination of the biological functions that define a living organism. It refers to both a particular event and to the condition that results thereby. The true nature of the latter has for millennia been a central concern of the world's religious traditions and of philosophical...
s,
marriageMarriage is a social union or legal contract between individuals that creates kinship. It is an institution in which interpersonal relationships, usually intimate and sexual, are acknowledged by a variety of ways, depending on the culture or demographic...
, and
divorceDivorce or dissolution of marriage is the final termination of a marriage, canceling the legal duties and responsibilities of marriage and dissolving the bonds of matrimony between two persons...
.
Life experiences such as poverty,
unemploymentUnemployment occurs when a person is available to work and seeking work but currently without work. The prevalence of unemployment is usually measured using the unemployment rate, which is defined as the percentage of those in the labor force who are unemployed...
, depression, obsessive compulsive disorder, heavy drinking , or insufficient
sleepSleep is a naturally recurring state of relatively suspended sensory and motor activity, characterized by total or partial unconsciousness and the inactivity of nearly all voluntary muscles. It is distinguished from quiet wakefulness by a decreased ability to react to stimuli, and it is more easily...
can also cause stress. Students and workers may face stress from
examA test or an examination is an assessment, often administered on paper or on the computer, intended to measure the test-takers' or respondents' knowledge, skills, aptitudes, or classification in many other topics...
s, project deadlines, and group projects.
Adverse experiences during
developmentDevelopmental psychology, also known as human development, is the scientific study of systematic psychological changes that occur in human beings over the course of the life span. Originally concerned with infants and children, the field has expanded to include adolescence and adult development,...
(e.g. prenatal exposure to maternal stress, poor attachment histories, sexual abuse) are thought to contribute to deficits in the maturity of an individual's stress response systems. One evaluation of the different stresses in people's lives is the Holmes and Rahe stress scale.
Adaptation
Responses to stress include adaptation,
psychological copingThe psychological definition of coping is the process of managing taxing circumstances, expending effort to solve personal and interpersonal problems, and seeking to master, minimize, reduce or tolerate stress or conflict....
such as
stress managementStress management is the amelioration of stress, especially chronic stress.-Historical foundations:Walter Cannon and Hans Selye used animal studies to establish the earliest scientific basis for the study of stress...
,
anxietyAnxiety is a psychological and physiological state characterized by cognitive, somatic, emotional, and behavioral components. These components combine to create an unpleasant feeling that is typically associated with uneasiness, fear, or worry....
, and
depressionIn psychology and psychiatry, depression is a state of low mood and aversion to activity. While most often described as a disease or dysfunction, there are also strong arguments for seeing depression as an adaptive defense mechanism....
. Over the long term, distress can lead to diminished health and/or increased propensity to illness; to avoid this, stress must be
managedStress management is the amelioration of stress, especially chronic stress.-Historical foundations:Walter Cannon and Hans Selye used animal studies to establish the earliest scientific basis for the study of stress...
.
Stress management encompasses techniques intended to equip a person with effective coping mechanisms for dealing with psychological stress, with stress defined as a person's physiological response to an internal or external stimulus that triggers the fight-or-flight response. Stress management is effective when a person uses strategies to cope with or alter stressful situations.
There are several ways of coping with stress, such as controlling the source of stress or learning to set limits and to say "No" to some demands that bosses or family members may make.
A person's capacity to tolerate the source of stress may be increased by thinking about another topic such as a hobby, listening to music or
spending time in a wildernessAttention Restoration Theory asserts that people can concentrate better after spending time in a wilderness, or even looking at scenes of nature. Natural environments abound with "soft fascinations" which a person can reflect upon in "effortless attention", such as clouds moving across the sky,...
.
History and usage
The term "stress" had none of its current general senses before the 1950s. As a semi-psychological term referring to hardship or coercion, it dated from the 14th century. It is a form of the
Middle EnglishMiddle English is the name given by historical linguists to the diverse forms of the English language in use between the late 11th century and about 1470, when the Chancery Standard, a form of London-based English, began to become widespread, a process aided by the introduction of the printing...
destresse, derived via
Old FrenchOld French was the Romance dialect continuum spoken in territories which span roughly the northern half of modern France and parts of modern Belgium and Switzerland from around 900 to 1300...
from the
LatinLatin is an Italic language originally spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Through the Roman conquest, Latin spread throughout the Mediterranean and a large part of Europe...
stringere – to draw tight.
It had long been in use in
physicsIn continuum mechanics, the concept of stress, introduced by Cauchy around 1822, is a measure of the average amount of force exerted per unit area of a surface within a deformable body on which internal forces act...
to refer to the internal distribution of a force exerted on a material body, resulting in
strainIn continuum mechanics, the infinitesimal strain theory, sometimes called small deformation theory, small displacement theory, or small displacement-gradient theory, deals with infinitesimal deformations of a continuum body...
. In the 1920s and 1930s, the term was occasionally being used in psychological circles to refer to a mental strain or unwelcome happening, and by advocates of holistic medicine to refer to a harmful environmental agent that could cause illness. Walter Cannon used it in 1934 to refer to external factors that disrupted what he called "
homeostasisHomeostasis is the property of a system, either open or closed, that regulates its internal environment and tends to maintain a stable, constant condition...
".
A new scientific usage developed out of
Hans Seyle'sHans Hugo Bruno Selye, CC was a Canadian endocrinologist of Austro-Hungarian origin and Hungarian ethnicity. Selye did much important factual work on the hypothetical non-specific response of the organism to stressors. While he did not recognize all of the many aspects of glucocorticoids, Selye...
reports of his laboratory experiments in the 1930s. Selye started to use the term to refer not just to the agent but to the state of the organism as it responded and adapted to the environment. His theories of a universal non-specific stress response attracted great interest and contention in academic
physiologyPhysiology is the science of the functioning of living systems. It is a subcategory of biology...
and he undertook extensive research programmes and publication efforts.
However, while the work attracted continued support from advocates of psychosomatic medicine, many in experimental physiology concluded that his concepts were too vague and unmeasurable. During the 1950s Selye turned away from the laboratory to promote his concept through popular books and lectures tours.
The US military became a key center of stress research, attempting to understand and reduce combat
neurosisNeurosis refers to a class of functional mental disorders involving distress but neither delusions nor hallucinations, where behavior is not outside socially acceptable norms. It is also known as psychoneurosis or neurotic disorder, and thus those suffering from it are said to be neurotic...
and psychiatric casualties. Seyle wrote for both non-academic physicians and, in an international bestseller titled "Stress of Life", for the general public.
A broad biopsychosocial concept of stress and adaptation offered the promise of helping everyone achieve health and happiness by successfully responding to changing global challenges and the problems of modern
civilizationA civilization is a complex society or culture group characterized by dependence upon agriculture, long-distance trade, state form of government, occupational specialization, population, and class stratification.-Definition:...
. He coined the term "
eustressEustress is a term coined by endocrinologist Hans Selye, which is defined, in the model of Richard Lazarus , as stress that is healthy, or gives one a feeling of fulfillment or other positive feelings. Eustress is a process of exploring potential gains....
" for positive stress, by contrast to
distressThe word distress has various meanings:-*Distress occurs when an individual cannot adapt to stress. See also fetal distress, respiratory distress.*Distress is a kind of suffering....
.
He argued that all people have a natural urge and need to work for their own benefit, a message that found favor with industrialists and governments. He also coined the term "
stressorIn chemistry, a stressor is something that either speeds up a reaction rate or keeps the reaction rate the same. Stressors include light, temperature and elevated sound levels...
" to refer to the causative event or stimulus, as opposed to the resulting state of stress.
From the late 1960s, Selye's concept started to be taken up by academic psychologists, who sought to quantify "life stress" by scoring "
significant life eventsThe Life Events and Difficulties Schedule was created by Brown and Harris in 1978 to enable a more exact measurement of the stressfulness of life events. Instead of accumulating the stressfulness of different events, as was done in the SRRS by Holmes and Rahe , they looked at individual events in...
", and a large amount of research was undertaken to examine links between stress and disease of all kinds. By the late 1970s stress had become the medical area of greatest concern to the general population, and more basic research was called for to better address the issue.
There was renewed laboratory research into the
neuroendocrineNeuroendocrine [IPA nʊəroʊˈɛndəkrɪn] cells are cells that release a hormone into the circulating blood in response to a neural stimulus. These hormones may be amines, neuropeptides, or specialized amino acids. They package the hormones in vesicles and send these packages via long processes to...
, molecular and immunological bases of stress, conceived as a useful
heuristicHeuristic is an adjective for experience-based techniques that help in problem solving, learning and discovery. A heuristic method is particularly used to rapidly come to a solution that is hoped to be close to the best possible answer, or 'optimal solution'...
not necessarily tied to Selye's original hypotheses. By the 1990s, "stress" had become an integral part of modern scientific understanding in all areas of physiology and human functioning, and one of the great metaphors of Western life. Focus grew on stress in certain settings, such as
workplace stressWorkplace stress is the harmful physical and emotional response that occurs when there is a poor match between job demands and the capabilities, resources, or needs of the worker....
.
Stress managementStress management is the amelioration of stress, especially chronic stress.-Historical foundations:Walter Cannon and Hans Selye used animal studies to establish the earliest scientific basis for the study of stress...
techniques were developed.
Its psychological uses are frequently metaphorical rather than
literalLiteral may refer to:*Literal and figurative language, taken in a non-figurative sense.*Literal translation, the close adherence to the forms of a source language text.*Literal legal interpretations also referred to as Strict constructionism....
, used as a catch-all for perceived difficulties in life. It also became a euphemism, a way of referring to problems and eliciting
sympathySympathy is a social affinity in which one person stands with another person, closely understanding his or her feelings. It also can mean being affected by feelings or emotions. Thus the essence of sympathy is that one has a strong concern for the other person...
without being explicitly confessional, just "stressed out".
It covers a huge range of phenomena from mild
irritationIrritation or exacerbation, in biology and physiology, is a state of inflammation or painful reaction to allergy or cell-lining damage. A stimulus or agent which induces the state of irritation is an irritant...
to the kind of severe problems that might result in a real breakdown of
healthAt the of the creation of the World Health Organization , in 1948, Health was defined as being "a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity"....
. In popular usage almost any event or situation between these extremes could be described as stressful.
The most extreme events and reactions may elicit the diagnosis of Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), an anxiety disorder that can develop after exposure to one or more terrifying events that threatened or caused grave physical harm. PTSD is a severe and ongoing emotional reaction to an extreme psychological trauma; as such, it is often associated with soldiers, police officers, and other emergency personnel.
This stressor may involve viewing someone's actual death, a threat to the patient's or someone else's life, serious physical injury, or threat to physical or psychological integrity, overwhelming usual psychological defenses coping. In some cases it can also be from profound psychological and emotional trauma, apart from any actual physical harm. Often, however, the two are combined.
See also
- Burnout (psychology)
Burnout is a psychological term for the experience of long-term exhaustion and diminished interest. Research indicates general practitioners have the highest proportion of burnout cases...
- Compassion fatigue
Compassion fatigue, also known as a Secondary Traumatic Stress Disorder, is a term that refers to a gradual lessening of compassion over time. It is common among victims of trauma and individuals that work directly with victims of trauma. It was first diagnosed in nurses in the 1950s...
- Defense Physiology
Defense physiology is a term used to refer to the symphony of body function changes which occur in response to a stress or threat....
- Grief
Grief is the multi-faceted response to loss, particularly to the loss of someone or something to which we have formed a bond of attachment. Although conventionally focused on the emotional response to loss, it also has physical, cognitive, behavioral, social, and philosophical dimensions...
- Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis
The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis , also known as thelimbic-hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis , is a complex set of direct influences and feedback interactions among the hypothalamus , the pituitary gland , and the adrenal glands...
- International Stress Prevention Center
The International Stress Prevention Centre established in 1981 Kiryat Shmona, Israel, CSPC is the oldest organization in Israel that deals with the treatment and prevention of Psychotrauma...
- Jon Kabat-Zinn
Jon Kabat-Zinn is Professor of Medicine Emeritus and founding director of the Stress Reduction Clinic and the Center for Mindfulness in Medicine, Health Care, and Society at the University of Massachusetts Medical School...
- Oxidative stress
Oxidative stress is caused by an imbalance between the production of reactive oxygen and a biological system's ability to readily detoxify the reactive intermediates or easily repair the resulting damage. All forms of life maintain a reducing environment within their cells...
- Self-medication
Self-medication is the use of drugs or self-soothing forms of behavior to treat a perceived or real malady. Self-medication is often referred to in the context of a person self-medicating, in order to alleviate their own distress or pain.-Overview:...
- Stress management
Stress management is the amelioration of stress, especially chronic stress.-Historical foundations:Walter Cannon and Hans Selye used animal studies to establish the earliest scientific basis for the study of stress...
- Work-life balance
Work-life balance is a broad concept including proper prioritizing between career and ambition on one hand, compared with pleasure, leisure, family and spiritual development on the other....
External links