Starlings are small to medium-sized
passerineA passerine is a bird of the order Passeriformes, which includes more than half of all bird species. Sometimes known as perching birds or, less accurately, as songbirds, the passerines form one of the most diverse terrestrial vertebrate orders: with over 5,000 identified species, it has roughly...
birdBirds are feathered, winged, bipedal, endothermic , egg-laying, vertebrate animals. Around 10,000 living species and 188 families makes them the most speciose class of tetrapod vertebrates. They inhabit ecosystems across the globe, from the Arctic to the Antarctic. Extant birds range in size from...
s in the
familyIn biological classification, family is* a taxonomic rank. Other well-known ranks are life, domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, genus, and species, with family fitting between order and genus. As for the other well-known ranks, there is the option of an immediately lower rank, indicated by the...
Sturnidae. The name "Sturnidae" comes from the
LatinLatin is an Italic language originally spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. It, along with most European languages, is a descendant of the ancient Proto-Indo-European language. Although it is considered a dead language, a number of scholars and members of the Christian clergy speak it fluently, and...
word for starling,
sturnus. Many Asian species, particularly the larger ones, are called
mynaThe myna is a bird of the starling family . This is a group of passerine birds which occur naturally only in southern and eastern Asia...
s, and many African species are known as
glossy starlingsLamprotornis is a large genus of glossy-starlings all of which occur in Africa south of the Sahara. They have glossy blue or green upper parts, which is due to hollow melanin granules arranged in a single layer near the feather barbule’s surface...
because of their
iridescentIridescence is generally known as the property of certain surfaces which appear to change color as the angle of view or the angle of illumination changes...
plumageFeathers are one of the epidermal growths that form the distinctive outer covering, or plumage, on birds and some non-avian theropod dinosaurs. They are considered the most complex integumentary structures found in vertebrates, and indeed a premier example of a complex evolutionary novelty. They...
. Starlings occur naturally in the
Old WorldThe Old World consists of those parts of the world known to classical antiquity and the European Middle Ages. It is used in the context of, and contrast with, the "New World" ....
, from
EuropeEurope is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally 'divided' from Asia to its east by the watershed divides of the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian and Black Seas, and the waterways connecting...
,
AsiaAsia is the world's largest and most populous continent, located primarily in the eastern and northern hemispheres. It covers 8.7% of the Earth's total surface area and with approximately 3.879 billion people, it hosts 60% of the world's current human population...
and
AfricaAfrica is the world's second largest and second most populous continent, after Asia. At about 30.2 million km² including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of the Earth's total surface area and 20.4% of the total land area...
, to northern
AustraliaAustralia , officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is the world's sixth-largest country by total area...
and the islands of the tropical Pacific. Several European and Asian species have been introduced to these areas as well as
North AmericaNorth America is a continent wholly within the Northern Hemisphere and almost wholly within the Western Hemisphere. It is also considered a northern subcontinent of the Americas...
,
HawaiiHawaii is the newest of the 50 U.S. states , and is the only U.S. state made up entirely of islands. It is the northernmost island group in Polynesia, occupying most of an archipelago in the central Pacific Ocean, southwest of the continental United States, southeast of Japan, and northeast of...
and
New ZealandNew Zealand is an island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses and numerous smaller islands. The country is situated some east of Australia across the Tasman Sea, and roughly south of the Pacific island nations of New Caledonia, Fiji, and Tonga...
, where they generally compete for habitat with native birds and are considered to be
invasive species"Invasive species", or invasive exotics, is a nomenclature term and categorization phrase used for flora and fauna, and for specific restoration-preservation processes in native habitats, with several definitions....
. The starling species familiar to most people in Europe and North America is the
European StarlingThe Common Starling , also known as the European Starling or just Starling, is a passerine bird in the family Sturnidae.This species of starling is native to most of temperate Europe and western Asia...
, and throughout much of
AsiaAsia is the world's largest and most populous continent, located primarily in the eastern and northern hemispheres. It covers 8.7% of the Earth's total surface area and with approximately 3.879 billion people, it hosts 60% of the world's current human population...
and the Pacific the
Common MynaThe Common Myna or Indian Myna also sometimes spelled Mynah, is a member of family Sturnidae native to Asia. An omnivorous open woodland bird with a strong territorial instinct, the Myna has adapted extremely well to urban environments...
is indeed common.
Starlings have strong feet, their flight is strong and direct, and they are very gregarious. Their preferred habitat is fairly open country, and they eat
insectInsects are a class of living creatures within the arthropods that have a chitinous exoskeleton, a three-part body , three pairs of jointed legs, compound eyes, and two antennae...
s and
fruitIn broad terms, a fruit is a structure of a plant that contains its seeds.The term has different meanings dependent on context. In non-technical usage, such as food preparation, fruit normally means the fleshy seed-associated structures of certain plants that are sweet and edible in the raw state,...
. Several species live around human habitation, and are effectively
omnivoreOmnivores are species that eat both plants and animals as their primary food source...
s. Many species search for prey such as grubs by "open-bill probing", that is, forcefully opening the bill after inserting it into a crevice, thus expanding the hole and exposing the prey; this behavior is referred to by the German verb
zirkeln .
Plumage of many species is typically dark with a metallic sheen. Most species nest in holes, laying blue or white
eggAn egg is an organic vessel in which an embryo first begins to develop. In most birds, reptiles, insects, molluscs, fish, and monotremes, an egg is the zygote, resulting from fertilization of the ovum, which is expelled from the body and permitted to develop outside the body until the developing...
s.
Starlings have diverse and complex vocalizations, and have been known to
embedIn mathematics, an embedding is one instance of some mathematical structure contained within another instance, such as a group that is a subgroup....
sounds from their surroundings into their own calls, including
car alarmA car alarm is an electronic device installed in a vehicle in an attempt to discourage theft of the vehicle itself, its contents, or both. Car alarms work by emitting high-volume sound when the conditions necessary for triggering are met, as well as by flashing some of the vehicle's...
s, and human speech patterns. The birds can recognize particular individuals by their calls, and are currently the subject of research into the evolution of
human languageA human language is a language primarily intended for communication among humans. The two major categories of human languages are natural languages and constructed languages...
.
Description
The starlings are medium sized passerines. The shortest-bodied species is
Kenrick's StarlingThe Kenrick's Starling is a species of starling in the Sturnidae family.It is found in Kenya and Tanzania.-References:* BirdLife International 2004. . Downloaded on 24 July 2007.-External links:*...
(
Poeoptera kenricki), at 15 centimetres (6
inAn inch is the name of a unit of length in a number of different systems, including Imperial units, and United States customary units. There are 36 inches in a yard and 12 inches in a foot...
), but the lightest-weight species is
Abbott's StarlingThe Abbott's Starling is a species of starling in the Sturnidae family.It is found in Kenya and Tanzania.Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist montanes.It is threatened by habitat loss....
(
Poeoptera femoralis), at 34
gramThe gram is a metric system unit of mass....
s (1.2
ozThe ounce is a unit of mass with several definitions, the most commonly used of which are equal to approximately 28 grams. The ounce is used in a number of different systems, including various systems of mass that form part of the imperial and United States customary systems...
). The largest starlings are the
mynaThe myna is a bird of the starling family . This is a group of passerine birds which occur naturally only in southern and eastern Asia...
s of the genus
MinoMino is a genus of mynas, birds in the starling family. These are the largest of the starlings, and are found in tropical moist lowland forests in Papua New Guinea and neighbouring islands...
, especially the
Yellow-facedThe Yellow-faced Myna is a species of starling in the Sturnidae family. It is found in New Guinea and nearby smaller islands....
(
Mino dumontii) and
Long-tailed MynaThe Long-tailed Myna is a member of the starling family. It is resident in the Bismarck Archipelago and northern Solomon Islands...
s (
Mino kreffti). These mynas can exceed 30 centimetres (1 ft) and weigh over 225 grams (8 oz). Several species of starling exhibit
sexual dimorphismSexual dimorphism is a phenotypic difference between males and females of the same species. Examples of such differences include differences in morphology, ornamentation, and behavior.-Examples:-Ornamentation / coloration:...
in size.
There is less sexual dimorphism in
plumagePlumage refers both to the layer of feathers that cover a bird and the pattern, colour, and arrangement of those feathers. The pattern and colours of plumage vary between species and subspecies and can also vary between different age classes, sexes, and season. Within species there can also be a...
however, with only 25 species showing such differences between the sexes. The plumage of the starlings is often brightly coloured due to
iridescenceIridescence is generally known as the property of certain surfaces which appear to change color as the angle of view or the angle of illumination changes...
; this colour is derived from the structure of the feathers, not from any pigment. Some species of Asian starling have crests or erectile feathers on the crest. Other ornamentation includes elongated tail feathers and brightly coloured bare areas on the face. These colours can be derived from pigments, or, as in the
Bali StarlingThe Bali Starling , also known as Rothschild’s Mynah, Bali Myna, or Bali Mynah, locally known as Jalak Bali, is a medium-sized , stocky myna, almost wholly white with a long, drooping crest, and black tips on the wings and tail. The bird has blue bare skin around the eyes, greyish legs and a yellow...
, structural colour, caused by light scattering off parallel collagen fibres. The irises of many species are red and yellow, although those of younger birds are much darker.
Distribution, habitat and movements
The starlings inhabit a wide range of habitats from the
Arctic CircleThe Arctic Circle is one of the five major circles of latitude that mark maps of the Earth. For Epoch 2011, it is the parallel of latitude that runs north of the Equator....
to the
EquatorAn equator is the intersection of a sphere's surface with the plane perpendicular to the sphere's axis of rotation and containing the sphere's center of mass....
, in fact the only habitat they do not typically occupy is the driest sandy deserts. The family is naturally absent from the Americas and from large parts of Australia, but is present over the majority of Europe, Africa and Asia. The genus
AplonisAplonis is a genus of starlings. These are essentially island species of Indonesia, Oceania and Australasia, although some species’ ranges extend to the Malay Peninsula, southern Vietnam and northeastern Queensland. The typical adult Aplonis starling is fairly uniformly plumaged in black, brown or...
has also spread widely across the islands of the Pacific reaching
PolynesiaPolynesia is a subregion of Oceania, made up of over 1,000 islands scattered over the central and southern Pacific Ocean. The indigenous people who inhabit the islands of Polynesia are termed Polynesians and they share many similar traits including language, culture and beliefs...
,
MelanesiaMelanesia is a subregion of Oceania extending from the western end of the Pacific Ocean to the Arafura Sea, and eastward to Fiji. The region comprises most of the islands immediately north and northeast of Australia...
and
MicronesiaMicronesia is a subregion of Oceania, comprising thousands of small islands in the western Pacific Ocean. It is distinct from Melanesia to the south, and Polynesia to the east. The Philippines lie to the west, and Indonesia to the southwest....
(in addition one species in the genus
MinoMino is a genus of mynas, birds in the starling family. These are the largest of the starlings, and are found in tropical moist lowland forests in Papua New Guinea and neighbouring islands...
has reached the
Solomon IslandsSolomon Islands is a sovereign state in Oceania, east of Papua New Guinea, consisting of nearly one thousand islands. It covers a land mass of . The capital, Honiara, is located on the island of Guadalcanal...
), it is also a species of this genus that is the only starling found in northern Australia.
Asian species are most common in evergreen forests; 39 species found in Asia are predominately forest birds as opposed to 24 found in more open or human modified environments. In contrast to this African species are more likely to be found in open woodlands and savannah; 32 species are open area specialists compared to 13 true forest species. The high diversity of species found in Asia and Africa is not matched by Europe, which has one widespread (and very common) species and two more restricted species. The
European StarlingThe Common Starling , also known as the European Starling or just Starling, is a passerine bird in the family Sturnidae.This species of starling is native to most of temperate Europe and western Asia...
is both highly widespread and extremely catholic in its habitat, occupying most types of open habitat. Like many other starling species it has also adapted readily to human-modified habitat, including farmland, orchards, plantations and urban areas.
Some species of starling are
migratoryBird migration is the regular seasonal journey undertaken by many species of birds. Bird movements include those made in response to changes in food availability, habitat or weather. Sometimes, journeys are not termed "true migration" because they are irregular or in only one direction...
, either entirely, like the
Shelley's StarlingThe Shelley's Starling is a species of starling in the Sturnidae family.It is found in Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia, Sudan, and Tanzania.-References:* BirdLife International 2004. . Downloaded on 24 July 2007....
, which breeds in
EthiopiaEthiopia , officially known as the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, is a country located in the Horn of Africa. It is the second-most populous nation in Africa, with over 82 million inhabitants, and the tenth-largest by area, occupying 1,100,000 km2...
and northern
SomaliaSomalia , officially the Somali Republic and formerly known as the Somali Democratic Republic under Socialist rule, is a country located in the Horn of Africa. Since the outbreak of the Somali Civil War in 1991 there has been no central government control over most of the country's territory...
and migrates to
KenyaKenya , officially known as the Republic of Kenya, is a country in East Africa that lies on the equator, with the Indian Ocean to its south-east...
and southern Somalia, or the
White-shouldered StarlingThe White-shouldered Starling is a species of starling in the Sturnidae family.It is found in Brunei, Cambodia, China, India, Japan, South Korea, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Singapore, Taiwan, Thailand, and Vietnam....
, which is migratory in part of its range but is resident in others.
Behaviour
The starlings are generally a highly social family. Most species associate in flocks of varying sizes throughout the year. A flock of starlings is called a murmuration. These flocks may include other species of starlings and sometimes species from other families. This sociality is particularly evident in the their roosting behaviour; in the non-breeding season some roosts can number in the thousands of birds.
Mimicry
Starlings imitate a variety of avian species and have a repertoire of about 15-20 distinct imitations. They also imitate a few sounds other than those of wild birds. The calls of abundant species, calls that are simple in frequency structure and calls that show little amplitude modulation are preferentially imitated. There are local dialects of mimicked sounds.
Starlings have also been known to imitate objects, such as phone boxes and cars.
Diet and feeding
The diets of the starlings are usually dominated by fruits and insects. Many species are important dispersers of seeds in Asia and Africa, for example
white sandlewoodSantalum album or Indian sandalwood is a small tropical tree, the most commonly known source of sandalwood. This species has been utilised, cultivated and traded for many years, some cultures placing great significance on its fragrant and medicinal qualities. For these reasons it has been...
,
Indian BanyanFicus benghalensis, the banyan, is a large and extensive growing tree of the Indian subcontinent. Ficus benghalensis produces propagating roots which grow downwards as aerial roots. Once these roots reach the ground, they grow into woody trunks that can become indistinguishable from the main...
. In addition to trees they are also important dispersers of parasitic
mistletoeMistletoe is the common name for obligate hemi-parasitic plants in several families in the order Santalales. The plants in question grow attached to and within the branches of a tree or shrub.-Mistletoe in the genus Viscum:...
s. In South Africa the
Red-winged StarlingThe Red-winged Starling, Onychognathus morio, is a bird of the starling family Sturnidae native to eastern Africa from Ethiopia to the Cape in South Africa. It is known in Afrikaans as the Rooivlerkspreeu.-Taxonomy:...
is an important disperser of the
introducedAn introduced species — or neozoon, alien, exotic, non-indigenous, or non-native species, or simply an introduction, is a species living outside its indigenous or native distributional range, and has arrived in an ecosystem or plant community by human activity, either deliberate or accidental...
Acacia cyclopsAcacia cyclops, commonly known as red-eyed wattle or western coastal wattle, is a coastal shrub or small tree in the family Fabaceae...
. Starlings have been observed feeding on fermenting over-ripe fruit, which led to the speculation that they might become intoxicated by the alcohol. Laboratory experiments on
European StarlingThe Common Starling , also known as the European Starling or just Starling, is a passerine bird in the family Sturnidae.This species of starling is native to most of temperate Europe and western Asia...
s have found that they have disposal enzymes that allow them to break down alcohol very quickly. In addition to consuming fruits, many starlings will also consume nectar. The extent to which starlings are important
pollinatorA pollinator is the biotic agent that moves pollen from the male anthers of a flower to the female stigma of a flower to accomplish fertilization or syngamy of the female gamete in the ovule of the flower by the male gamete from the pollen grain...
s is unknown, but at least some are, such as the
Slender-billed StarlingThe Slender-billed Starling is a species of starling in the Sturnidae family.It is found in Burundi, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Malawi, Rwanda, Tanzania, Uganda, and Zambia.-References:...
of alpine East Africa, which pollinates
giantMegaherbs are a group of herbaceous perennial wildflowers growing in the New Zealand sub-antarctic islands. They are characterised by their great size, with huge leaves and very large and often unusually-coloured flowers, which have evolved as an adaptation to the harsh weather conditions on the...
lobeliaLobelia is a genus of flowering plant comprising 360–400 species, with a subcosmopolitan distribution primarily in tropical to warm temperate regions of the world, a few species extending into cooler temperate regions...
s.
Systematics
The starlings belong to the
superfamilyIn biological classification, rank is the level in a taxonomic hierarchy. Examples of taxonomic ranks are species, genus, family, and class. Each rank subsumes under it a number of less general categories...
Muscicapoidea, together with
thrushThe thrushes, family Turdidae, are a group of passerine birds that occur worldwide.-Characteristics:Thrushes are plump, soft-plumaged, small to medium-sized birds, inhabiting wooded areas, and often feed on the ground or eat small fruit. The smallest thrush may be the Forest Rock-thrush, at and...
es,
flycatcherThe Old World flycatcher family Muscicapidae is a large family of small passerine birds mostly restricted to the Old World. These are mainly small arboreal insectivores, many of which, as the name implies, take their prey on the wing.-Characteristics:...
s and
chatChats are a group of small Old World insectivorous birds formerly classed as members of the thrush family Turdidae, but now considered Old World flycatchers....
s, as well as dippers which are quite distant and Mimidae (thrashers and mockingbirds). The latter are apparently the Sturnidae's closest living relatives, replace them in the
AmericasThe Americas, or America , are lands in the Western hemisphere, also known as the New World. In English, the plural form the Americas is often used to refer to the landmasses of North America and South America with their associated islands and regions, while the singular form America is primarily...
, and have a rather similar but more solitary lifestyle. They are
morphologicallyIn biology, morphology is a branch of bioscience dealing with the study of the form and structure of organisms and their specific structural features....
quite similar too—a partly albinistic specimen of a mimid, mislabelled as to suggest an Old World origin, was for many decades believed to represent an extinct starling (see
Rodrigues StarlingThe Rodrigues Starling , alternatively spelled Rodriguez Starling, is an extinct and quite enigmatic songbird species. It is the only valid species in genus Necropsar, and provisionally assigned to the starling family . This bird used to inhabit Rodrigues in the Mascarenes and at least one of its...
for details).
The
oxpeckerThe oxpeckers are two species of bird which make up the family Buphagidae. Some ornithologists regard them as a subfamily Buphaginae within the starling family Sturnidae but they appear to be quite distinct. Oxpeckers are endemic to the savanna of Sub-Saharan Africa...
s are sometimes placed here as a subfamily, but the weight of evidence has shifted towards granting them full family status as a more basal member of the Sturnidae-Mimidae group, derived from an early expansion into Africa.
Usually the starlings are considered a family, as is done here. Sibley & Monroe (1990) included the mimids in the family and demoted the starlings to
tribeIn biology, a tribe is a taxonomic rank between family and genus. It is sometimes subdivided into subtribes.Some examples include the tribes: Canini, Acalypheae, Hominini, Bombini, and Antidesmeae.-See also:* Biological classification* Rank...
rank, as
Sturnini. This treatment was used by Zuccon
et al. (2006). However, the grouping of Sibley & Monroe (besides leaving the subfamily rank vacant) is overly coarse due to methodological drawbacks of their DNA-DNA hybridization technique and most of their proposed revisions of taxonomic rank have not been accepted (see for example
CiconiiformesTraditionally, the order Ciconiiformes has included a variety of large, long-legged wading birds with large bills: storks, herons, egrets, ibises, spoonbills, and several others. Ciconiiformes are known from the Late Eocene...
). The all-inclusive Sturnidae grouping is all but noninformative as regards
biogeographyBiogeography is the study of the distribution of species , organisms, and ecosystems in space and through geological time. Organisms and biological communities vary in a highly regular fashion along geographic gradients of latitude, elevation, isolation and habitat area...
, and obscures the evolutionary distinctness of the three lineages. Establishing a valid name for the
cladeA clade is a group consisting of a species and all its descendants. In the terms of biological systematics, a clade is a single "branch" on the "tree of life". The idea that such a "natural group" of organisms should be grouped together and given a taxonomic name is central to biological...
consisting of Sibley/Monroe's "pan-Sturnidae" would nonetheless be desirable to contrast them with the other major lineages of Muscicapoidea.
Starlings probably originated in the general area of the
East AsiaEast Asia or Eastern Asia is a subregion of Asia that can be defined in either geographical or cultural terms...
, perhaps towards the southwestern Pacific, as evidenced by the number of plesiomorphic lineages to occur there. Expansion into Africa appears to have occurred later, as most
derivedIn phylogenetics, a derived trait is a trait that is present in an organism, but was absent in the last common ancestor of the group being considered. This may also refer to structures that are not present in an organism, but were present in its ancestors, i.e. traits that have undergone secondary...
forms are found there. An alternative scenario would be African origin for the entire "sturnoid" (as per Zuccon
et al. 2006) group, with the oxpeckers representing an ancient
relictA relict is a surviving remnant of a natural phenomenon.* In biology a relict is an organism that at an earlier time was abundant in a large area but now occurs at only one or a few small areas....
and the mimids arriving in South America. This is contradicted by the North American distribution of the most basal Mimidae.(Cibois & Cracraft 2004, Zuccon
et al. 2006)
As the fossil record is limited to quite Recent forms, the proposed
Early MioceneThe Early Miocene is a sub-epoch of the Miocene Epoch made up of two stages: the Aquitanian and Burdigalian stages....
(about 25–20 mya) divergence dates for the "sturnoids" lineages must be considered extremely tentative. Given the overall evidence for origin of most Passeri families in the first half of the
MioceneThe Miocene is a geological epoch of the Neogene Period and extends from about . The Miocene was named by Sir Charles Lyell. Its name comes from the Greek words and and means "less recent" because it has 18% fewer modern sea invertebrates than the Pliocene. The Miocene follows the Oligocene...
, it appears to be not too far off the mark however.(Zuccon
et al. 2006)
Recent studies (Cibois & Cracraft 2004, Zuccon
et al. 2006) identified two major
cladeA clade is a group consisting of a species and all its descendants. In the terms of biological systematics, a clade is a single "branch" on the "tree of life". The idea that such a "natural group" of organisms should be grouped together and given a taxonomic name is central to biological...
s of this family, corresponding to the generally drab, often striped, largish "atypical
mynaThe myna is a bird of the starling family . This is a group of passerine birds which occur naturally only in southern and eastern Asia...
s" and other mainly Asian-Pacific lineages, and the often smaller, sometimes highly apomorphic taxa which are most common in Africa and the Palearctic, usually have metallic coloration, and in a number of species also bright carotinoid plumage colors on the underside. Inside this latter group, there is a clade consisting of species which, again, are usually not too brightly-colored, and which consists of the "typical" myna-
SturnusSturnus is a genus of starlings. As discussed below, the taxonomy of this group is complex, and other authorities differ considerably in which species they place in this genus, and in the species boundaries within Sturnus....
assemblage.
Interestingly, the
Philippine creeperThe Philippine creepers or rhabdornises are small passerine birds. They are endemic to the Philippines. The group contains a single genus Rhabdornis with three species...
s, a single genus of three species of
treecreeperThe treecreepers are a family, Certhiidae, of small passerine birds, widespread in wooded regions of the Northern Hemisphere and sub-Saharan Africa. The family contains ten species in two genera, Certhia and Salpornis...
-like birds appear to be highly apomorphic members of the more initial radiation of the Sturnidae (Zuccon
et al. 2006). While this may seem odd at first glance, their placement has always been contentious. In addition,
biogeographyBiogeography is the study of the distribution of species , organisms, and ecosystems in space and through geological time. Organisms and biological communities vary in a highly regular fashion along geographic gradients of latitude, elevation, isolation and habitat area...
virtually rules out a close relationship of Philippine creepers and treecreepers, as neither the latter nor their close relatives seem have ever reached the
WallaceaWallacea is a biogeographical designation for a group of Indonesian islands separated by deep water straits from the Asian and Australian continental shelves. Wallacea includes Sulawesi, the largest island in the group, as well as Lombok, Sumbawa, Flores, Sumba, Timor, Halmahera, Buru, Seram, and...
, let alone the
PhilippinesThe Philippines , officially known as the Republic of the Philippines , is a country in Southeast Asia in the western Pacific Ocean. To its north across the Luzon Strait lies Taiwan. West across the South China Sea sits Vietnam...
. Nonetheless, their inclusion in the Sturnidae is not entirely final and eventually they may remain a separate family.
Genus sequence follows traditional treatments. This is apparently not entirely correct, with
Scissirostrum closer to
Aplonis than to
Gracula for example, and
AcridotheresAcridotheres is a genus of starlings, the "typical" mynas, which are tropical members of the family Sturnidae. This genus has representatives in tropical southern Asia from Iran east to southern China and Indonesia. Two species have been introduced widely elsewhere...
among the most advanced genera. Too few taxa have already been studied as regards their relationships however, and thus a change in sequence has to wait.
The review by Lovette & Rubenstein (2008) is the most recent work on the phylogeny of the group.
Oriental-Australasian clade
- Genus Rhabdornis—Philippine creepers (three species; placement here requires confirmation)
- Genus Aplonis
Aplonis is a genus of starlings. These are essentially island species of Indonesia, Oceania and Australasia, although some species’ ranges extend to the Malay Peninsula, southern Vietnam and northeastern Queensland. The typical adult Aplonis starling is fairly uniformly plumaged in black, brown or...
—Pacific starlings (c.20 living species, 4–5 recently extinct)
- Genus Mino
Mino is a genus of mynas, birds in the starling family. These are the largest of the starlings, and are found in tropical moist lowland forests in Papua New Guinea and neighbouring islands...
- Yellow-faced Myna
The Yellow-faced Myna is a species of starling in the Sturnidae family. It is found in New Guinea and nearby smaller islands....
,
Mino dumontii
- Golden Myna
The Golden Myna is a species of starling in the Sturnidae family.It is found in Indonesia and Papua New Guinea.Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests.-References:...
, Mino anais
- Long-tailed Myna
The Long-tailed Myna is a member of the starling family. It is resident in the Bismarck Archipelago and northern Solomon Islands...
, Mino kreffti
Genus BasilornisBasilornis is a genus of starling in the Sturnidae family.It contains the following species:* Sulawesi Myna * Long-crested Myna * Helmeted Myna...
- Sulawesi Myna
The Sulawesi Myna is a species of starling in the Sturnidae family.It is endemic to Indonesia.Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests.-References:...
, Basilornis celebensis
- Helmeted Myna
The Helmeted Myna is a species of starling in the Sturnidae family.It is endemic to Indonesia.Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests, subtropical or tropical moist montanes, and swamps....
, Basilornis galeatus
- Long-crested Myna
The Long-crested Myna is a species of starling in the Sturnidae family.It is endemic to Indonesia.Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests and subtropical or tropical moist montanes....
, Basilornis corythaix
- Apo Myna
The Apo Myna is a species of starling in the Sturnidae family. It is endemic to the Philippines.Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist montane forests. It is becoming rare due to habitat loss.- References :...
, Basilornis mirandus
- Genus Sarcops—Coleto
- Genus Streptocitta
Streptocitta is a genus of large starlings in the Sturnidae family. Both species have a pied plumage and a long tail, giving them a superficial resemblance to a magpie. Although not closely related to the true magpies, they have therefore been referred to as magpies in the past...
- White-necked Myna
The White-necked Myna is a large, long-tailed species of starling in the Sturnidae family. Due to its superficial resemblance to a magpie, it has been referred to as the Celebes Magpie or Sulawesi Magpie in the past. It is endemic to forests on Sulawesi and adjacent smaller islands in Indonesia...
, Streptocitta albicollis
- Bare-eyed Myna
The Bare-eyed Myna is a large, long-tailed species of starling in the Sturnidae family. Its common name is a reference to the large patch of dark bare skin around the eyes. Due to its superficial resemblance to a magpie, it has been referred to as the Sula Magpie in the past...
, Streptocitta albertinae
- Genus Enodes—Fiery-browed Myna
- Genus Scissirostrum—Finch-billed Myna
- Genus Ampeliceps—Golden-crested Myna
- Genus Gracula
Gracula is a genus of mynas, tropical members of the starling family of birds. Until recently only two species were recognised, G. religiosa and G. ptilogenys; earlier still all Gracula were considered to belong to a very variable species commonly called Hill Myna. But three additional subspecies...
—hill mynas (five species)
Afrotropical-Palearctic clade
- Genus Acridotheres
Acridotheres is a genus of starlings, the "typical" mynas, which are tropical members of the family Sturnidae. This genus has representatives in tropical southern Asia from Iran east to southern China and Indonesia. Two species have been introduced widely elsewhere...
—typical mynas (eight species)
- Genus Leucopsar—Bali Starling
- Genus Sturnia
Sturnia is a genus of Asian birds in the family Sturnidae. It is sometimes merged with Sturnus.-Species:The old genus placements with the starlings was found to be polyphyletic resulting in changes in the placement...
(often included in Sturnus)
Sturnia sturnina
- Chestnut-cheeked Starling
The Chestnut-cheeked Starling is a species of starling in the Sturnidae family.It is found in Brunei, China, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Japan, North Korea, South Korea, Malaysia, the Philippines, Russia, Singapore, and Taiwan....
, Sturnia philippensis
- White-shouldered Starling
The White-shouldered Starling is a species of starling in the Sturnidae family.It is found in Brunei, Cambodia, China, India, Japan, South Korea, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Singapore, Taiwan, Thailand, and Vietnam....
, Sturnia sinensis
- White-headed Starling
The White-headed Starling , also known as the Andaman White-headed Starling, is a species of starling in the Sturnidae family. It is found in wooded habitats on the Indian islands of the Andamans and Nicobars. It is sometimes placed in the genus Sturnia.-References:* BirdLife International 2004. ....
, Sturnia erythropygia
Genus SturnusSturnus is a genus of starlings. As discussed below, the taxonomy of this group is complex, and other authorities differ considerably in which species they place in this genus, and in the species boundaries within Sturnus....
—typical starlings (about 12 species; includes probably valid genera Gracupica, Pastor and Temenuchus; but highly paraphyletic)
- Genus Creatophora—Wattled Starling
- Genus Notopholia (sometimes placed in Lamprotornis)
- Black-bellied Glossy-starling
The Black-bellied Glossy-starling is a species of starling in the Sturnidae family.It is found in Kenya, Mozambique, Somalia, South Africa, Swaziland, Tanzania, and Zimbabwe.-References:...
, Notopholia corrusca
- Genus Coccycolius—Iris Glossy-starling or Emerald Starling (sometimes placed in Lamprotornis)
- Genus Lamprotornis
Lamprotornis is a large genus of glossy-starlings all of which occur in Africa south of the Sahara. They have glossy blue or green upper parts, which is due to hollow melanin granules arranged in a single layer near the feather barbule’s surface...
—typical glossy-starlings (20 species; monophyly requires confirmation)
- Genus Cinnyricinclus
Cinnyricinclus is a genus of relatively small starlings in the Sturnidae family. They are found in wooded habitats of mainland sub-Saharan Africa.-Species:* Abbott's Starling...
—Violet-backed Starling
- Genus Poeoptera
Poeoptera is a genus of bird in the starling family. It contains three species, all live in forest habitats in Africa. These starlings nest in tree cavities, such as old woodpecker or barbet holes. One species, the Narrow-tailed Starling, nests in colonies. All three are birds of the canopy, and...
(formerly Pholia, sometimes included in Cinnyricinclus)
- Sharpe's Starling
Sharpe's Starling is a species of starling in the Sturnidae family. It is found in Burundi, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, Sudan, Tanzania, and Uganda.-References:...
, Poeoptera sharpii
- Abbott's Starling
The Abbott's Starling is a species of starling in the Sturnidae family.It is found in Kenya and Tanzania.Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist montanes.It is threatened by habitat loss....
, Poeoptera femoralis
- Genus Saroglossa
Saroglossa is a genus of starling in the Sturnidae family.It contains the following species:* Madagascar Starling * Spot-winged Starling...
(possibly paraphyletic)
- Spot-winged Starling
The Spot-winged Starling is a species of starling in the Sturnidae family. It is found in Pakistan, Bangladesh, India, Myanmar, Nepal, Thailand, and possibly Bhutan. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests and subtropical or tropical moist montanes. This species was...
,
Saroglossa spiloptera
- Madagascar Starling
The Madagascar Starling is a species of starling in the Sturnidae family.It is endemic to Madagascar.Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical dry forests, subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests, and subtropical or tropical dry shrubland.-References:* BirdLife International 2004. . ...
, Saroglossa aurata
Genus SpreoSpreo is a genus of starling in the Sturnidae family.It contains the following species:* White-crowned Starling * Fischer's Starling * African Pied Starling...
(paraphyletic with Lamprotornis and might be included there)
- African Pied Starling
The African Pied Starling, Lamprotornis bicolor, is a bird endemic to South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland. It is common in most of its range, but largely absent from the arid northwest and the eastern lowlands of South Africa...
, Spreo bicolor
- Fischer's Starling
The Fischer's Starling, Spreo fischeri, is a bird which is an uncommon resident breeder from southern Ethiopia and Somalia to eastern Kenya and Tanzania...
, Spreo fischeri
- White-crowned Starling
The White-crowned Starling is a species of starling in the Sturnidae family.It is found in Djibouti, Ethiopia, Kenya, and Somalia.-References:* BirdLife International 2004. . Downloaded on 24 July 2007....
, Spreo albicapillus
Genus CosmopsarusCosmopsarus is a genus of starling in the Sturnidae family.It contains the following species:* Ashy Starling * Golden-breasted Starling...
- Golden-breasted Starling
The Golden-breasted Starling, Cosmopsarus regius also known as Royal Starling is a medium-sized, up to 35cm long, passerine in the starling family. The adult has a metallic green head and upperback, bright golden yellow breast and belly, dark bill and legs, white iris and metallic violet blue on...
,
Cosmopsarus regius (sometimes placed in Lamprotornis)
Ashy StarlingThe Ashy Starling is a species of starling in the Sturnidae family.It is found in Kenya and Tanzania.-References:* BirdLife International 2004. . Downloaded on 24 July 2007....
, Cosmopsarus unicolor (sometimes placed in Spreo)
Genus OnychognathusOnychognathus, is a genus of African starlings.All the species are quite similar, and characterised by rufous primary wing feathers, very obvious in flight...
- Red-winged Starling
The Red-winged Starling, Onychognathus morio, is a bird of the starling family Sturnidae native to eastern Africa from Ethiopia to the Cape in South Africa. It is known in Afrikaans as the Rooivlerkspreeu.-Taxonomy:...
, Onychognathus morio
- Slender-billed Starling
The Slender-billed Starling is a species of starling in the Sturnidae family.It is found in Burundi, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Malawi, Rwanda, Tanzania, Uganda, and Zambia.-References:...
, Onychognathus tenuirostris
- Chestnut-winged Starling
The Chestnut-winged Starling is a species of starling in the Sturnidae family.It is found in Angola, Benin, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Republic of the Congo, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ivory Coast, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Ghana, Guinea, Liberia, Nigeria, São Tomé and Príncipe,...
, Onychognathus fulgidus
- Waller's Starling
The Waller's Starling is a species of starling in the Sturnidae family.It is found in Burundi, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Kenya, Malawi, Nigeria, Rwanda, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, and Zambia....
, Onychognathus walleri
- Somali Starling
The Somali Starling is a species of starling in the Sturnidae family.It is found in Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Somalia, and Yemen.-References:* BirdLife International 2004. . Downloaded on 24 July 2007....
, Onychognathus blythii
- Socotra Starling
The Socotra Starling is a species of starling in the Sturnidae family.It is endemic to Yemen.Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical dry forests, subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests, subtropical or tropical dry shrubland, subtropical or tropical high-altitude shrubland, and...
, Onychognathus frater
- Tristram's Starling, Onychognathus tristramii
- Pale-winged Starling
The Pale-winged Starling is a species of starling in the Sturnidae family.It is found in Angola, Botswana, Namibia, and South Africa.-References:* BirdLife International 2004. . Downloaded on 24 July 2007....
, Onychognathus nabouroup
- Bristle-crowned Starling
The Bristle-crowned Starling is a species of starling in the Sturnidae family.It is found in Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia, and Uganda.-References:* BirdLife International 2004. . Downloaded on 24 July 2007....
, Onychognathus salvadorii
- White-billed Starling
The White-billed Starling is a species of starling in the Sturnidae family.It is found in Eritrea and Ethiopia.-References:* BirdLife International 2004. . Downloaded on 24 July 2007....
, Onychognathus albirostris
- Neumann's Starling
Neumann's Starling, or Neumann's Red-winged Starling Onychognathus neumanni, is a bird native to Africa. This starling breeds on rocky cliffs, outcrops and gorges mainly in the Sahel from Mauretania and Equatorial Guinea to western Sudan...
, Onychognathus neumanni
Genus PoeopteraPoeoptera is a genus of bird in the starling family. It contains three species, all live in forest habitats in Africa. These starlings nest in tree cavities, such as old woodpecker or barbet holes. One species, the Narrow-tailed Starling, nests in colonies. All three are birds of the canopy, and...
- Narrow-tailed Starling
The Narrow-tailed Starling is a species of starling in the Sturnidae family.It is found in West and Central Africa from Sierra Leone to the Democratic Republic of the Congo.. The male is dark blue and the female is dark gray with chestnut-colored patches on the wings, visible in flight. Both sexes...
,
Poeoptera lugubris
Stuhlmann's StarlingThe Stuhlmann's Starling is a species of starling in the Sturnidae family.It is found in Burundi, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, Sudan, Tanzania, and Uganda.-References:...
, Poeoptera stuhlmanni
Kenrick's StarlingThe Kenrick's Starling is a species of starling in the Sturnidae family.It is found in Kenya and Tanzania.-References:* BirdLife International 2004. . Downloaded on 24 July 2007.-External links:*...
, Poeoptera kenricki
Genus Grafisia—White-collared Starling
Genus Speculipastor—Magpie Starling
Genus Neocichla—Babbling Starling
Unresolved
The extinct Mascarene starlings are of uncertain relationships. Only one species is known from specimens taken while the bird was still extant; the other remains only known from
subfossilSubfossil refers to remains whose fossilization process is not complete, either for lack of time or because the conditions in which they were buried were not optimal for fossilization....
bones and apparently one early traveller's description. The supposed "Leguat's Starling" ("
Necropsar leguati") was eventually determined to be a mislabeled albino specimen of the Martinique Trembler (
Cinclocerthia gutturalis), a mimid.
As the
avifaunaBirds are feathered, winged, bipedal, endothermic , egg-laying, vertebrate animals. Around 10,000 living species and 188 families makes them the most speciose class of tetrapod vertebrates. They inhabit ecosystems across the globe, from the Arctic to the Antarctic. Extant birds range in size from...
of the Mascarenes is predominantly of
IndiaIndia , officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world...
n origin though as old as to be highly distinct, it is not clear to which clade these starlings belong—or even if they are indeed starlings, as the Réunion Starling at least was highly aberrant and there have always been lingering doubts about whether they are correctly placed here.
- Genus Fregilupus—Réunion Starling (extinct, 1850s)
- Genus Necropsar—Rodrigues Starling (extinct, late 18th century?)
Further reading
- Cibois, A. & Cracraft, J. (2004). Assessing the passerine 'tapestry': phylogenetic relationships of the Muscicapoidea inferred from nuclear DNA sequences. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 32(1): 264–273. PMID 15186812 (HTML)
- Lovette, I.J. & Rubenstein, D.R. (in press): A comprehensive molecular phylogeny of the starlings (Aves: Sturnidae). Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. Preprint PDF fulltext
- National Geographic Society
The National Geographic Society , headquartered in Washington, D.C. in the United States, is one of the largest non-profit scientific and educational institutions in the world. Its interests include geography, archaeology and natural science, the promotion of environmental and historical...
(2002): Field Guide to the Birds of North America. National Geographic, Washington D.C. ISBN 0-792-26877-6
- Sibley, Charles Gald
Charles Gald Sibley was an American ornithologist and molecular biologist. He had an immense influence on the scientific classification of birds, and the work that Sibley initiated has substantially altered our understanding of the evolutionary history of modern birds.Sibley's taxonomy has been a...
& Monroe, Burt L. Jr. (1990): Distribution and taxonomy of the birds of the world: A Study in Molecular Evolution. Yale University Press, New Haven, CT. ISBN 0-300-04969-2
- Zuccon, Dario; Cibois, Alice; Pasquet, Eric & Ericson, Per G.P. (2006): Nuclear and mitochondrial sequence data reveal the major lineages of starlings, mynas and related taxa. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 41(2): 333–344. PMID 16806992 (HTML abstract)
- Hindmarsh, Andrew M; et al. (1984): Vocal Mimicry in Starlings http://www.jstor.org/pss/4534373 (HTML abstract)
External links