Sponsus
Encyclopedia
Sponsus or The Bridegroom is a medieval Latin
and Occitan dramatic treatment
of Jesus'
parable of the ten virgins
. A liturgical play
designed for Easter Vigil
, it was composed probably in Gascony
or western Languedoc
in the mid-eleventh century. Its scriptural basis is found in the Gospel of Matthew
(25:1–13), but it also draws on the Song of Songs
and the Patristics
, perhaps Jerome's
Adversus Jovinianum. In certain respects—the portrayal of the merchants, the spilling of the oil, the implicit questioning of accepted theodicy
—it is original and dramatically powerful.
"Sponsus" is the Latin word for groom/husband and is a cognate
of the English "spouse". The feminine form is "sponsa" (bride/wife).
of the parable, the identity of the bridegroom with Jesus, and the Gospel
. This unnamed voice has been identified with both Gabriel
and the Church
(Ecclesia) personified. The next speaker of the play, who uses Occitan, is probably Gabriel, though this rubric
is fragmentary and identifies only those whom he addresses: the prudentes, prudent ones. The angel tells the five wise virgins—the five foolish ones have presumably fallen asleep after Ecclesias more general caution—to attend a groom, Jesus Christ, who came to save them from their sins. He gives them the ominous warning Gaire no.i / dormet: "Don't fall asleep!", which is repeated several times.
After Gabriel's message, the foolish virgins (recognised from the rubric fatue) enter and announce that they have spilled the oil for their lamps. The spilling of the oil was probably acted out for dramatic effect, though the bible knows nothing of it. The foolish then plead with the wise to share their oil, capping each strophe
with the lamenting refrain Dolentas, chaitivas, trop i avem dormit: "We, wretched in our grief, have slept too long!" The wise virgins turn them away without pity, inviting them to buy oil from the merchant
s nearby. The foolish (who now seem wise) only blame themselves, but the merchants, who are presented sympathetically, tell them that they cannot help them and advise them to beseech their sisters in God's name. The merchants' eight lines, which are significant to the dramatic movement, are given in Occitan without any comparable Latin. The dramatist builds tension between the foolish, who are repentant, the wise, who are condescending, and the merchants, who are sympathetic to the foolish and trusting of the charity of the wise. The text's English translator, Peter Dronke
, praises the dramatist's clever portrayal and insights into human nature
.
The foolish do not follow the merchants' advice, having been twice rebuffed by their wise sisters. The drama ends when modo veniat sponsus: "Now let the bridegroom arrive." Christus arrives as bridegroom and promptly dismisses the foolish virgins' pleas, sending them away. They are then taken by demon
s to Hell
: the earliest attested appearance of demons in western drama. Christ's lines are sung to the same melody as Ecclesias and the drama closes where it has begun, with the foretold penalty for negligence being meted out by the agents of Hell. It is possible that the play was acted above the stairwell that led to the crypt
and that a brazier
may have sufficed as an inferno for the maidens to be led into by grotesque
demons. There is a possible serio-comic combination of gravity and levity in the final scenes of the play. On the other hand, Davidson suggests that the demons must have been portrayed in grim seriousness as personifications of real human fears.
play on the same theme and style, the Ludus de decem virginibus (the Eisenach
er Zehnjungfrauenspiele), so disturbed the landgrave of Thuringia, Frederick I
, and caused him to doubt God's mercy, that he took to his bed ill on 4 May 1321.
The manuscript in which Sponsus is preserved is in the Bibliothèque nationale de France
, Latin 1139, the Saint-Martial codex, folios 53r–55v. It was copied in the late eleventh century in or around Limoges
, since the Occitan appears to be the Limousin dialect
, though originally it may have been another dialect. It was probably composed in the 1050s or 1060s.
Scholarship is divided over whether the Latin and Occitan parts of Sponsus were written at the same time (Peter Dronke) or whether the Occitan parts are later additions (D'Arco Silvio Avalle). The latter school of thought regards them as explanations (gloss
ae or farcitures) of the Latin. Regardless, the vernacular Occitan portions were probably intended for the unlearned audience, who would not be familiar with Latin, as the clerical audience would. Dronke believes the dramatist to be more powerful in his native tongue, and it is in that language that Christ delivers the final lines of the play.
s. The entire score is original and is recorded in Aquitainian neume
s.
The strophic structure of the play is consistent throughout. The two principal metres are fifteen-syllable lines (for the Latin), with antecedents in classical
trochaic septenarii, and ten-syllable lines (used for both Latin and Occitan), with predecessors in late antique and Merovingian hymn
s. The late antique hymn Apparebit repentina dies magna domini may have been an inspiration.
The combination of original music, unique theme, and implicit questioning of traditional theodicies have led to the suggestion that the play may stand at the very beginning of non-liturgical and vernacular drama in Europe.
Medieval Latin
Medieval Latin was the form of Latin used in the Middle Ages, primarily as a medium of scholarly exchange and as the liturgical language of the medieval Roman Catholic Church, but also as a language of science, literature, law, and administration. Despite the clerical origin of many of its authors,...
and Occitan dramatic treatment
Drama
Drama is the specific mode of fiction represented in performance. The term comes from a Greek word meaning "action" , which is derived from "to do","to act" . The enactment of drama in theatre, performed by actors on a stage before an audience, presupposes collaborative modes of production and a...
of Jesus'
Jesus
Jesus of Nazareth , commonly referred to as Jesus Christ or simply as Jesus or Christ, is the central figure of Christianity...
parable of the ten virgins
Parable of the Ten Virgins
The Parable of the Ten Virgins, also known as the parable of the Wise and Foolish Virgins, is one of the well known parables of Jesus. It appears in only one of the Canonical gospels of the New Testament...
. A liturgical play
Liturgical drama
Liturgical drama or religious drama, in its various Christian contexts, originates from the mass itself, and usually presents a relatively complex ritual that includes theatrical elements...
designed for Easter Vigil
Easter Vigil
The Easter Vigil, also called the Paschal Vigil or the Great Vigil of Easter, is a service held in many Christian churches as the first official celebration of the Resurrection of Jesus. Historically, it is during this service that people are baptized and that adult catechumens are received into...
, it was composed probably in Gascony
Gascony
Gascony is an area of southwest France that was part of the "Province of Guyenne and Gascony" prior to the French Revolution. The region is vaguely defined and the distinction between Guyenne and Gascony is unclear; sometimes they are considered to overlap, and sometimes Gascony is considered a...
or western Languedoc
Languedoc
Languedoc is a former province of France, now continued in the modern-day régions of Languedoc-Roussillon and Midi-Pyrénées in the south of France, and whose capital city was Toulouse, now in Midi-Pyrénées. It had an area of approximately 42,700 km² .-Geographical Extent:The traditional...
in the mid-eleventh century. Its scriptural basis is found in the Gospel of Matthew
Gospel of Matthew
The Gospel According to Matthew is one of the four canonical gospels, one of the three synoptic gospels, and the first book of the New Testament. It tells of the life, ministry, death, and resurrection of Jesus of Nazareth...
(25:1–13), but it also draws on the Song of Songs
Song of songs
Song of Songs, also known as the Song of Solomon, is a book of the Hebrew Bible or Old Testament. It may also refer to:In music:* Song of songs , the debut album by David and the Giants* A generic term for medleysPlays...
and the Patristics
Church Fathers
The Church Fathers, Early Church Fathers, Christian Fathers, or Fathers of the Church were early and influential theologians, eminent Christian teachers and great bishops. Their scholarly works were used as a precedent for centuries to come...
, perhaps Jerome's
Jerome
Saint Jerome was a Roman Christian priest, confessor, theologian and historian, and who became a Doctor of the Church. He was the son of Eusebius, of the city of Stridon, which was on the border of Dalmatia and Pannonia...
Adversus Jovinianum. In certain respects—the portrayal of the merchants, the spilling of the oil, the implicit questioning of accepted theodicy
Theodicy
Theodicy is a theological and philosophical study which attempts to prove God's intrinsic or foundational nature of omnibenevolence , omniscience , and omnipotence . Theodicy is usually concerned with the God of the Abrahamic religions Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, due to the relevant...
—it is original and dramatically powerful.
"Sponsus" is the Latin word for groom/husband and is a cognate
Cognate
In linguistics, cognates are words that have a common etymological origin. This learned term derives from the Latin cognatus . Cognates within the same language are called doublets. Strictly speaking, loanwords from another language are usually not meant by the term, e.g...
of the English "spouse". The feminine form is "sponsa" (bride/wife).
Story
The play opens with an unnamed narrative voice explaining the allegoryAllegory
Allegory is a demonstrative form of representation explaining meaning other than the words that are spoken. Allegory communicates its message by means of symbolic figures, actions or symbolic representation...
of the parable, the identity of the bridegroom with Jesus, and the Gospel
Gospel
A gospel is an account, often written, that describes the life of Jesus of Nazareth. In a more general sense the term "gospel" may refer to the good news message of the New Testament. It is primarily used in reference to the four canonical gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John...
. This unnamed voice has been identified with both Gabriel
Gabriel
In Abrahamic religions, Gabriel is an Archangel who typically serves as a messenger to humans from God.He first appears in the Book of Daniel, delivering explanations of Daniel's visions. In the Gospel of Luke Gabriel foretells the births of both John the Baptist and of Jesus...
and the Church
Christian Church
The Christian Church is the assembly or association of followers of Jesus Christ. The Greek term ἐκκλησία that in its appearances in the New Testament is usually translated as "church" basically means "assembly"...
(Ecclesia) personified. The next speaker of the play, who uses Occitan, is probably Gabriel, though this rubric
Rubric
A rubric is a word or section of text which is traditionally written or printed in red ink to highlight it. The word derives from the , meaning red ochre or red chalk, and originates in Medieval illuminated manuscripts from the 13th century or earlier...
is fragmentary and identifies only those whom he addresses: the prudentes, prudent ones. The angel tells the five wise virgins—the five foolish ones have presumably fallen asleep after Ecclesias more general caution—to attend a groom, Jesus Christ, who came to save them from their sins. He gives them the ominous warning Gaire no.i / dormet: "Don't fall asleep!", which is repeated several times.
After Gabriel's message, the foolish virgins (recognised from the rubric fatue) enter and announce that they have spilled the oil for their lamps. The spilling of the oil was probably acted out for dramatic effect, though the bible knows nothing of it. The foolish then plead with the wise to share their oil, capping each strophe
Strophe
A strophe forms the first part of the ode in Ancient Greek tragedy, followed by the antistrophe and epode. In its original Greek setting, "strophe, antistrophe and epode were a kind of stanza framed only for the music," as John Milton wrote in the preface to Samson Agonistes, with the strophe...
with the lamenting refrain Dolentas, chaitivas, trop i avem dormit: "We, wretched in our grief, have slept too long!" The wise virgins turn them away without pity, inviting them to buy oil from the merchant
Merchant
A merchant is a businessperson who trades in commodities that were produced by others, in order to earn a profit.Merchants can be one of two types:# A wholesale merchant operates in the chain between producer and retail merchant...
s nearby. The foolish (who now seem wise) only blame themselves, but the merchants, who are presented sympathetically, tell them that they cannot help them and advise them to beseech their sisters in God's name. The merchants' eight lines, which are significant to the dramatic movement, are given in Occitan without any comparable Latin. The dramatist builds tension between the foolish, who are repentant, the wise, who are condescending, and the merchants, who are sympathetic to the foolish and trusting of the charity of the wise. The text's English translator, Peter Dronke
Peter Dronke
Ernest Peter Michael Dronke FBA is a scholar specialising in Medieval Latin literature. He is one of the 20th century's leading scholars of medieval Latin lyric, and his book The Medieval Lyric is considered the standard introduction to the subject.-Life and career:Dronke was born in Cologne in...
, praises the dramatist's clever portrayal and insights into human nature
Human nature
Human nature refers to the distinguishing characteristics, including ways of thinking, feeling and acting, that humans tend to have naturally....
.
The foolish do not follow the merchants' advice, having been twice rebuffed by their wise sisters. The drama ends when modo veniat sponsus: "Now let the bridegroom arrive." Christus arrives as bridegroom and promptly dismisses the foolish virgins' pleas, sending them away. They are then taken by demon
Demon
call - 1347 531 7769 for more infoIn Ancient Near Eastern religions as well as in the Abrahamic traditions, including ancient and medieval Christian demonology, a demon is considered an "unclean spirit" which may cause demonic possession, to be addressed with an act of exorcism...
s to Hell
Hell
In many religious traditions, a hell is a place of suffering and punishment in the afterlife. Religions with a linear divine history often depict hells as endless. Religions with a cyclic history often depict a hell as an intermediary period between incarnations...
: the earliest attested appearance of demons in western drama. Christ's lines are sung to the same melody as Ecclesias and the drama closes where it has begun, with the foretold penalty for negligence being meted out by the agents of Hell. It is possible that the play was acted above the stairwell that led to the crypt
Crypt
In architecture, a crypt is a stone chamber or vault beneath the floor of a burial vault possibly containing sarcophagi, coffins or relics....
and that a brazier
Brazier
A brazier is a container for fire, generally taking the form of an upright standing or hanging metal bowl or box. Used for holding burning coal as well as fires, a brazier allows for a source of light, heat, or cooking...
may have sufficed as an inferno for the maidens to be led into by grotesque
Grotesque
The word grotesque comes from the same Latin root as "Grotto", meaning a small cave or hollow. The original meaning was restricted to an extravagant style of Ancient Roman decorative art rediscovered and then copied in Rome at the end of the 15th century...
demons. There is a possible serio-comic combination of gravity and levity in the final scenes of the play. On the other hand, Davidson suggests that the demons must have been portrayed in grim seriousness as personifications of real human fears.
Language and style
Sponsus is one of the earliest fully dramatic accounts of the parable of the virgins. The pitiless treatment of the foolish virgins, who are portrayed sympathetically, was probably designed to question the official interpretation of the Scriptures. A later medieval GermanGerman language
German is a West Germanic language, related to and classified alongside English and Dutch. With an estimated 90 – 98 million native speakers, German is one of the world's major languages and is the most widely-spoken first language in the European Union....
play on the same theme and style, the Ludus de decem virginibus (the Eisenach
Eisenach
Eisenach is a city in Thuringia, Germany. It is situated between the northern foothills of the Thuringian Forest and the Hainich National Park. Its population in 2006 was 43,626.-History:...
er Zehnjungfrauenspiele), so disturbed the landgrave of Thuringia, Frederick I
Frederick I, Margrave of Meissen
Frederick I, called the Brave or the Bitten was margrave of Meissen and landgrave of Thuringia.-Life:...
, and caused him to doubt God's mercy, that he took to his bed ill on 4 May 1321.
The manuscript in which Sponsus is preserved is in the Bibliothèque nationale de France
Bibliothèque nationale de France
The is the National Library of France, located in Paris. It is intended to be the repository of all that is published in France. The current president of the library is Bruno Racine.-History:...
, Latin 1139, the Saint-Martial codex, folios 53r–55v. It was copied in the late eleventh century in or around Limoges
Limoges
Limoges |Limousin]] dialect of Occitan) is a city and commune, the capital of the Haute-Vienne department and the administrative capital of the Limousin région in west-central France....
, since the Occitan appears to be the Limousin dialect
Limousin language
Limousin is a dialect of the Occitan language, spoken in the three departments of Limousin, parts of Charente and the Dordogne in the southwest of France.The first Occitan documents are in this dialect, particularly the Boecis, written around the year 1000....
, though originally it may have been another dialect. It was probably composed in the 1050s or 1060s.
Scholarship is divided over whether the Latin and Occitan parts of Sponsus were written at the same time (Peter Dronke) or whether the Occitan parts are later additions (D'Arco Silvio Avalle). The latter school of thought regards them as explanations (gloss
Gloss
A gloss is a brief notation of the meaning of a word or wording in a text. It may be in the language of the text, or in the reader's language if that is different....
ae or farcitures) of the Latin. Regardless, the vernacular Occitan portions were probably intended for the unlearned audience, who would not be familiar with Latin, as the clerical audience would. Dronke believes the dramatist to be more powerful in his native tongue, and it is in that language that Christ delivers the final lines of the play.
Melody and poetry
The music of Sponsus has been praised by Rafaello Monteross for "redeem[ing] the anonymous poet's colourless paraphrase of the gospel text from its generic inexpressiveness." The melodic phrasing is varied, but only four different melodies are used for the entire play, though none of them is liturgical, and none form motifMotif (music)
In music, a motif or motive is a short musical idea, a salient recurring figure, musical fragment or succession of notes that has some special importance in or is characteristic of a composition....
s. The entire score is original and is recorded in Aquitainian neume
Neume
A neume is the basic element of Western and Eastern systems of musical notation prior to the invention of five-line staff notation. The word is a Middle English corruption of the ultimately Ancient Greek word for breath ....
s.
The strophic structure of the play is consistent throughout. The two principal metres are fifteen-syllable lines (for the Latin), with antecedents in classical
Classical antiquity
Classical antiquity is a broad term for a long period of cultural history centered on the Mediterranean Sea, comprising the interlocking civilizations of ancient Greece and ancient Rome, collectively known as the Greco-Roman world...
trochaic septenarii, and ten-syllable lines (used for both Latin and Occitan), with predecessors in late antique and Merovingian hymn
Hymn
A hymn is a type of song, usually religious, specifically written for the purpose of praise, adoration or prayer, and typically addressed to a deity or deities, or to a prominent figure or personification...
s. The late antique hymn Apparebit repentina dies magna domini may have been an inspiration.
The combination of original music, unique theme, and implicit questioning of traditional theodicies have led to the suggestion that the play may stand at the very beginning of non-liturgical and vernacular drama in Europe.