Spanish conquest of Iberian Navarre
Encyclopedia
A series of wars between 1512–1524 led to the Spanish conquest of the Iberian part of Navarre
. Ferdinand of Aragon
was in 1512 both King of Aragon
and Regent of Castile
. When Pope Julius II
declared a Holy League against France, Navarre tried to remain neutral. Ferdinand used this as an excuse to attack Navarre, conquering it while its potential protector France was beset by England, Venice, and Ferdinand's Italian armies.
Several attempts were made to retake Iberian Navarre, notably a revolt in 1516 and a full-fledged French/Navarrese invasion in 1521. All were defeated by the Spanish. Navarre north of the Pyrenees
mountains survived, but only as a client state
of France.
had already come under Castilian control by 1200. Nevertheless, they were allowed a considerable degree of autonomy.
In 1492, King Ferdinand II of Aragon
and Queen Isabella I of Castile
completed the Reconquista
, with Castile annexing Granada
. After Isabella I's death, Ferdinand II desired to further unify Iberia, and set his designs upon Navarre. Ferdinand married the French princess Germaine of Foix
in a rare move toward friendlier relations with France with the Treaty of Breda
, but getting French acquiescence to a Spanish takeover of Navarre didn't happen (if that was even a goal; Ferdinand also wanted to spite his son-in-law and successor Philip
at the time). Germaine's father was John of Foix, Viscount of Narbonne
, so any children from Ferdinand's marriage would have had a potential claim on Navarre. Unfortunately for Ferdinand, Ferdinand and Germaine's son John died shortly after childbirth, ending hopes of a peaceful succession. French-Spanish relations deteriorated once more.
was one of the most ambitious Popes of the aerea. He declared a Holy League against Venice in 1508, and successfully defeated it. In 1511, the formerly allied Papal States
and France
went to war with one another, and Julius II declared a new Holy League against France. Navarre refused to join and declared itself neutral. King Ferdinand
then asked the Pope to excommunicate King (jure uxoris
) Jean d'Albret, which would have legitimized an attack. When the Pope refused, Ferdinand fabricated a false bull and sent his general Don Fabrique de Toledo
to invade Navarre in 1512.
Unable to face the powerful Castilian-Aragonese army, Jean d'Albret fled to Pau, and Pamplona, Estella, Olite, Sanguesa, and Tudela were captured. Some months later d'Albret with an army recruited north of the Pyrenees and attacked Pamplona without success.
After this failure, the Navarrese Cortes (Parliament) had to accept annexation to Castile, which agreed to keep Navarrese autonomy and identity. In 1513, the first Castilian viceroy, Diego Fernández de Córdoba y Arellano, marqués de Comares
, took an oath to respect Navarrese law (fueros).
Nevertheless, the Castilian occupation forces carried out a severe repression that forced many Navarrese into exile or even death. Most unfortunate were the formerly buoyant Jewish community of Navarre and also the Moriscos (Muslims) of Tudela, who became the main victims of the Spanish Inquisition
.
, the sixteen-year-old grandson of Ferdinand and Isabella, had ascended to the throne of both Castile and Aragon. In 1516, he still lived in the Burgundian Netherlands, however.
was distracted by the Revolt of the Comuneros. Aragon
was also suffering economic difficulties as well as the Revolt of the Brotherhoods. As a result, Spain was seen as a ripe target of opportunity by the French King Francis I
. With the support of King Henry II
of Navarre, he began raising an army of Béarn
ese soldiers to recapture Iberian Navarre for his ally. The Castilian Viceroy of Navarre, Antonio Manrique de Lara, 2nd Duke of Nájera
, was caught off-guard. The Duke had the responsibility for guarding Navarre against the French, but he had moved all his troops away from Navarre to suppress peasant uprisings and raids on his territory incited by the comunero revolt. Much of his artillery and other troops had gone to the rest of Castile to fight the organized comunero armies, as well. Rumors had abounded of a French invasion, with former comunero noble Pedro Girón warning of the impending invasion in April 1521.
A large French/Navarrese army commanded by General Asparros
(or Esparre) crossed the Pyrenees, consisting of 12,000 infantry, 800 mounted knights, and 29 pieces of artillery. In the army's wake, Navarre quickly rose up and re-declared loyalty to Henry II and the House of Albret as King. As the force approached Pamplona, the citizens revolted and besieged the military governor, Iñigo de Loyola, in his newly built castle. The garrison surrendered after a few days of resistance in late May 1521 in the Battle of Pampeluna (Pamplona). In less than three weeks, all of Navarre was conquered.
Still, not all was settled. The absence of young King Henry II was disquieting to the population. Additionally, the French general was treating Navarre like a conquered country, which caused some to wonder if the French King Francis wanted the territory to himself. The French then moved out of friendly territory to invade Castile, crossing the Ebro and besieging Logroño
. Here, the army now encountered its first serious resistance.
Unfortunately for the French, the Revolt of the Comuneros had been crushed at the Battle of Villalar
in April. Now, not only was the Castilian government able to send its soldiers back to respond, but a large number of Castilian nobles who had supported the comuneros or vacillated between sides were now presented an opportunity to prove their loyalty to Castile. Many formerly rebel-held towns sent soldiers to Navarre as well. Backed by a suddenly reunified Castile, a huge army of 25,000 men approached Navarre to retake it. On June 11, Asparros abandoned his siege of Logroño and retreated back into Navarre. Asparros desperately requested reinforcements from Béarn
, but Henry II refused the request, presumably not wanting to risk them in a battle that was likely already lost in any case.
Near Pampeluna, the French and Navarrese were completely defeated at the Battle of Esquiroz (Noáin) on June 30, 1521. The French did not have sufficient artillery to defend themselves, and were outnumbered by more than two-to-one. French and Navarrese losses numbered more than 6,000 dead, and General Asparros was captured.
The Castilians did not relent, though, and continued to send reinforcements to the area as Charles V and France went to war across Europe. The French invaded once more on the 17th of October, this time attacking Fuenterrabía (Hondarribia, Fontarabie) at the tip of Guipúzcoa in the Basque Country. The French forces were led by Guillaume Gouffier, seigneur de Bonnivet
and Claude of Lorraine
.
Later, in 1522, two hundred Navarrese revolted at Amaiur castle, Baztan
, where a monolith now commemorates them. The Battle of Fuenterrabía would last until September 1524. The French were able to hold the city for almost three years, but advanced no further into Navarre. France's loss of the wider war, with King Francis's capture, ensured that the Iberian part of Navarre would remain under Spanish control. While the Spanish troops occupied the lands of Lower Navarre
north of the Pyrenees for a while (Nafarroa Beherea, see map), but for a small fringe of land (Luzaide/Valcarlos
) the region was abandoned due to difficulties to defend it.
Kingdom of Navarre
The Kingdom of Navarre , originally the Kingdom of Pamplona, was a European kingdom which occupied lands on either side of the Pyrenees alongside the Atlantic Ocean....
. Ferdinand of Aragon
Ferdinand II of Aragon
Ferdinand the Catholic was King of Aragon , Sicily , Naples , Valencia, Sardinia, and Navarre, Count of Barcelona, jure uxoris King of Castile and then regent of that country also from 1508 to his death, in the name of...
was in 1512 both King of Aragon
Crown of Aragon
The Crown of Aragon Corona d'Aragón Corona d'Aragó Corona Aragonum controlling a large portion of the present-day eastern Spain and southeastern France, as well as some of the major islands and mainland possessions stretching across the Mediterranean as far as Greece...
and Regent of Castile
Crown of Castile
The Crown of Castile was a medieval and modern state in the Iberian Peninsula that formed in 1230 as a result of the third and definitive union of the crowns and parliaments of the kingdoms of Castile and León upon the accession of the then King Ferdinand III of Castile to the vacant Leonese throne...
. When Pope Julius II
Pope Julius II
Pope Julius II , nicknamed "The Fearsome Pope" and "The Warrior Pope" , born Giuliano della Rovere, was Pope from 1503 to 1513...
declared a Holy League against France, Navarre tried to remain neutral. Ferdinand used this as an excuse to attack Navarre, conquering it while its potential protector France was beset by England, Venice, and Ferdinand's Italian armies.
Several attempts were made to retake Iberian Navarre, notably a revolt in 1516 and a full-fledged French/Navarrese invasion in 1521. All were defeated by the Spanish. Navarre north of the Pyrenees
Pyrenees
The Pyrenees is a range of mountains in southwest Europe that forms a natural border between France and Spain...
mountains survived, but only as a client state
Client state
Client state is one of several terms used to describe the economic, political and/or military subordination of one state to a more powerful state in international affairs...
of France.
Background
The western provinces of the Kingdom of NavarreKingdom of Navarre
The Kingdom of Navarre , originally the Kingdom of Pamplona, was a European kingdom which occupied lands on either side of the Pyrenees alongside the Atlantic Ocean....
had already come under Castilian control by 1200. Nevertheless, they were allowed a considerable degree of autonomy.
In 1492, King Ferdinand II of Aragon
Ferdinand II of Aragon
Ferdinand the Catholic was King of Aragon , Sicily , Naples , Valencia, Sardinia, and Navarre, Count of Barcelona, jure uxoris King of Castile and then regent of that country also from 1508 to his death, in the name of...
and Queen Isabella I of Castile
Isabella I of Castile
Isabella I was Queen of Castile and León. She and her husband Ferdinand II of Aragon brought stability to both kingdoms that became the basis for the unification of Spain. Later the two laid the foundations for the political unification of Spain under their grandson, Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor...
completed the Reconquista
Reconquista
The Reconquista was a period of almost 800 years in the Middle Ages during which several Christian kingdoms succeeded in retaking the Muslim-controlled areas of the Iberian Peninsula broadly known as Al-Andalus...
, with Castile annexing Granada
Emirate of Granada
The Emirate of Granada , also known as the Nasrid Kingdom of Granada , was an emirate established in 1238 following the defeat of Muhammad an-Nasir of the Almohad dynasty by an alliance of Christian kingdoms at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212...
. After Isabella I's death, Ferdinand II desired to further unify Iberia, and set his designs upon Navarre. Ferdinand married the French princess Germaine of Foix
Germaine of Foix
Germaine of Foix was queen consort of Aragon as the second wife of Ferdinand II of Aragon, whom he married in 1505 after the death of his first wife, Isabella I of Castile.-Birth and background:...
in a rare move toward friendlier relations with France with the Treaty of Breda
Treaty of Breda
The Treaty of Breda was signed at the Dutch city of Breda, 31 July , 1667, by England, the United Provinces , France, and Denmark...
, but getting French acquiescence to a Spanish takeover of Navarre didn't happen (if that was even a goal; Ferdinand also wanted to spite his son-in-law and successor Philip
Philip I of Castile
Philip I , known as Philip the Handsome or the Fair, was the first Habsburg King of Castile...
at the time). Germaine's father was John of Foix, Viscount of Narbonne
John of Foix, Viscount of Narbonne
John of Foix was a younger son of Gaston IV of Foix and Queen Eleanor of Navarre. His elder brother was Gaston, Prince of Viana.-Life:...
, so any children from Ferdinand's marriage would have had a potential claim on Navarre. Unfortunately for Ferdinand, Ferdinand and Germaine's son John died shortly after childbirth, ending hopes of a peaceful succession. French-Spanish relations deteriorated once more.
Castilian-Aragonese invasion of 1512
Pope Julius IIPope Julius II
Pope Julius II , nicknamed "The Fearsome Pope" and "The Warrior Pope" , born Giuliano della Rovere, was Pope from 1503 to 1513...
was one of the most ambitious Popes of the aerea. He declared a Holy League against Venice in 1508, and successfully defeated it. In 1511, the formerly allied Papal States
Papal States
The Papal State, State of the Church, or Pontifical States were among the major historical states of Italy from roughly the 6th century until the Italian peninsula was unified in 1861 by the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia .The Papal States comprised territories under...
and France
Early Modern France
Kingdom of France is the early modern period of French history from the end of the 15th century to the end of the 18th century...
went to war with one another, and Julius II declared a new Holy League against France. Navarre refused to join and declared itself neutral. King Ferdinand
Ferdinand II of Aragon
Ferdinand the Catholic was King of Aragon , Sicily , Naples , Valencia, Sardinia, and Navarre, Count of Barcelona, jure uxoris King of Castile and then regent of that country also from 1508 to his death, in the name of...
then asked the Pope to excommunicate King (jure uxoris
Jure uxoris
Jure uxoris is a Latin term that means "by right of his wife" or "in right of a wife". It is commonly used to refer to a title held by a man whose wife holds it in her own right. In other words, he acquired the title simply by being her husband....
) Jean d'Albret, which would have legitimized an attack. When the Pope refused, Ferdinand fabricated a false bull and sent his general Don Fabrique de Toledo
Fadrique Álvarez de Toledo, 2nd Duke of Alba
Fadrique Álvarez de Toledo y Enríquez, 2nd Duke of Alba was a Spanish nobleman, military leader and politician....
to invade Navarre in 1512.
Unable to face the powerful Castilian-Aragonese army, Jean d'Albret fled to Pau, and Pamplona, Estella, Olite, Sanguesa, and Tudela were captured. Some months later d'Albret with an army recruited north of the Pyrenees and attacked Pamplona without success.
After this failure, the Navarrese Cortes (Parliament) had to accept annexation to Castile, which agreed to keep Navarrese autonomy and identity. In 1513, the first Castilian viceroy, Diego Fernández de Córdoba y Arellano, marqués de Comares
Diego Fernández de Córdoba y Arellano, marqués de Comares
Diego Fernández de Córdoba y Arellano, I marqués de Comares, , invested 1st marquis of Comares in 1512, was Governor of Oran and Mazalquivir, 1509–1512 and 1516–1518, and first Viceroy of Navarre, 1512-1515....
, took an oath to respect Navarrese law (fueros).
Nevertheless, the Castilian occupation forces carried out a severe repression that forced many Navarrese into exile or even death. Most unfortunate were the formerly buoyant Jewish community of Navarre and also the Moriscos (Muslims) of Tudela, who became the main victims of the Spanish Inquisition
Spanish Inquisition
The Tribunal of the Holy Office of the Inquisition , commonly known as the Spanish Inquisition , was a tribunal established in 1480 by Catholic Monarchs Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile. It was intended to maintain Catholic orthodoxy in their kingdoms, and to replace the Medieval...
.
1516 rebellion
A rebellion occurred in Navarre in 1516, but was fairly easily defeated by the Castilian forces. Of note, by 1516 Ferdinand was dead, and Charles of GhentCharles V, Holy Roman Emperor
Charles V was ruler of the Holy Roman Empire from 1519 and, as Charles I, of the Spanish Empire from 1516 until his voluntary retirement and abdication in favor of his younger brother Ferdinand I and his son Philip II in 1556.As...
, the sixteen-year-old grandson of Ferdinand and Isabella, had ascended to the throne of both Castile and Aragon. In 1516, he still lived in the Burgundian Netherlands, however.
1521 French invasion
From 1520–1521, CastileCrown of Castile
The Crown of Castile was a medieval and modern state in the Iberian Peninsula that formed in 1230 as a result of the third and definitive union of the crowns and parliaments of the kingdoms of Castile and León upon the accession of the then King Ferdinand III of Castile to the vacant Leonese throne...
was distracted by the Revolt of the Comuneros. Aragon
Crown of Aragon
The Crown of Aragon Corona d'Aragón Corona d'Aragó Corona Aragonum controlling a large portion of the present-day eastern Spain and southeastern France, as well as some of the major islands and mainland possessions stretching across the Mediterranean as far as Greece...
was also suffering economic difficulties as well as the Revolt of the Brotherhoods. As a result, Spain was seen as a ripe target of opportunity by the French King Francis I
Francis I of France
Francis I was King of France from 1515 until his death. During his reign, huge cultural changes took place in France and he has been called France's original Renaissance monarch...
. With the support of King Henry II
Henry II of Navarre
Henry II was the eldest son of John III of Navarre and Catherine I of Navarre, sister and heiress of Francis Phoebus, King of Navarre; he was born at Sangüesa.-King of Navarre:...
of Navarre, he began raising an army of Béarn
Béarn
Béarn is one of the traditional provinces of France, located in the Pyrenees mountains and in the plain at their feet, in southwest France. Along with the three Basque provinces of Soule, Lower Navarre, and Labourd, the principality of Bidache, as well as small parts of Gascony, it forms in the...
ese soldiers to recapture Iberian Navarre for his ally. The Castilian Viceroy of Navarre, Antonio Manrique de Lara, 2nd Duke of Nájera
Antonio Manrique de Lara, 2nd Duke of Nájera
Antonio Manrique de Lara, 2nd Duke of Nájera was a Spanish noble and military, and Viceroy of Navarre between 1516 and 1521....
, was caught off-guard. The Duke had the responsibility for guarding Navarre against the French, but he had moved all his troops away from Navarre to suppress peasant uprisings and raids on his territory incited by the comunero revolt. Much of his artillery and other troops had gone to the rest of Castile to fight the organized comunero armies, as well. Rumors had abounded of a French invasion, with former comunero noble Pedro Girón warning of the impending invasion in April 1521.
A large French/Navarrese army commanded by General Asparros
André de Foix
André de Foix, Lord of Lesparre , was a French General.He was the son of Jean de Foix, vicecount of Lautrec and governor of the Dauphiné, and of Jeanne d'Aydie de Lescun. His sister was Françoise de Foix, mistress of King Francis I of France...
(or Esparre) crossed the Pyrenees, consisting of 12,000 infantry, 800 mounted knights, and 29 pieces of artillery. In the army's wake, Navarre quickly rose up and re-declared loyalty to Henry II and the House of Albret as King. As the force approached Pamplona, the citizens revolted and besieged the military governor, Iñigo de Loyola, in his newly built castle. The garrison surrendered after a few days of resistance in late May 1521 in the Battle of Pampeluna (Pamplona). In less than three weeks, all of Navarre was conquered.
Still, not all was settled. The absence of young King Henry II was disquieting to the population. Additionally, the French general was treating Navarre like a conquered country, which caused some to wonder if the French King Francis wanted the territory to himself. The French then moved out of friendly territory to invade Castile, crossing the Ebro and besieging Logroño
Logroño
Logroño is a city in northern Spain, on the Ebro River. It is the capital of the autonomous community of La Rioja, formerly known as La Rioja Province.The population of Logroño in 2008 was 153,736 and a metropolitan population of nearly 197,000 inhabitants...
. Here, the army now encountered its first serious resistance.
Unfortunately for the French, the Revolt of the Comuneros had been crushed at the Battle of Villalar
Battle of Villalar
The Battle of Villalar was a battle in the Revolt of the Comuneros fought on April 23, 1521 near the town of Villalar in Valladolid province, Spain. The royalist supporters of King Charles I won a crushing victory over the comuneros rebels. Three of the most important rebel leaders were...
in April. Now, not only was the Castilian government able to send its soldiers back to respond, but a large number of Castilian nobles who had supported the comuneros or vacillated between sides were now presented an opportunity to prove their loyalty to Castile. Many formerly rebel-held towns sent soldiers to Navarre as well. Backed by a suddenly reunified Castile, a huge army of 25,000 men approached Navarre to retake it. On June 11, Asparros abandoned his siege of Logroño and retreated back into Navarre. Asparros desperately requested reinforcements from Béarn
Béarn
Béarn is one of the traditional provinces of France, located in the Pyrenees mountains and in the plain at their feet, in southwest France. Along with the three Basque provinces of Soule, Lower Navarre, and Labourd, the principality of Bidache, as well as small parts of Gascony, it forms in the...
, but Henry II refused the request, presumably not wanting to risk them in a battle that was likely already lost in any case.
Near Pampeluna, the French and Navarrese were completely defeated at the Battle of Esquiroz (Noáin) on June 30, 1521. The French did not have sufficient artillery to defend themselves, and were outnumbered by more than two-to-one. French and Navarrese losses numbered more than 6,000 dead, and General Asparros was captured.
The Castilians did not relent, though, and continued to send reinforcements to the area as Charles V and France went to war across Europe. The French invaded once more on the 17th of October, this time attacking Fuenterrabía (Hondarribia, Fontarabie) at the tip of Guipúzcoa in the Basque Country. The French forces were led by Guillaume Gouffier, seigneur de Bonnivet
Guillaume Gouffier, seigneur de Bonnivet
Guillaume Gouffier, seigneur de Bonnivet was a French soldier.The younger brother of Artus Gouffier, seigneur de Boisy, tutor of Francis I of France, Bonnivet was brought up with Francis, and after the young king's accession he became one of the most powerful of the royal favourites. In 1515 he...
and Claude of Lorraine
Claude, Duke of Guise
Claude de Lorraine, duc de Guise was a French aristocrat and general. He became the first Duke of Guise in 1528....
.
Later, in 1522, two hundred Navarrese revolted at Amaiur castle, Baztan
Baztan
Baztan is a municipality located in the province and autonomous community of Navarre, northern Spain. It is located from Pamplona, the capital of Navarre. It is the largest municipality in Navarre, with some 376.8 km2 and just over 8,000 inhabitants....
, where a monolith now commemorates them. The Battle of Fuenterrabía would last until September 1524. The French were able to hold the city for almost three years, but advanced no further into Navarre. France's loss of the wider war, with King Francis's capture, ensured that the Iberian part of Navarre would remain under Spanish control. While the Spanish troops occupied the lands of Lower Navarre
Lower Navarre
Lower Navarre is a part of the present day Pyrénées Atlantiques département of France. Along with Navarre of Spain, it was once ruled by the Kings of Navarre. Lower Navarre was historically one of the kingdoms of Navarre. Its capital were Saint-Jean-Pied-de-Port and Saint-Palais...
north of the Pyrenees for a while (Nafarroa Beherea, see map), but for a small fringe of land (Luzaide/Valcarlos
Luzaide/Valcarlos
Luzaide is a town in Navarra, northern Spain, located just a few kilometers from the French border and the village of Arnéguy....
) the region was abandoned due to difficulties to defend it.