Encyclopedia
South America is a
continent situated in the
western hemisphere and, mostly, the
southern hemisphere, bordered on the west by the
Pacific Ocean and on the north and east by the
Atlantic Ocean;
North America and the
Caribbean Sea lie to the northwest.
As part of the
Americas like North America, South America is named after
Amerigo Vespucci, who was the first European to suggest that the Americas were not the
East Indies, but a
New World unknown to Europeans.
South America has an
area of 17,840,000 km² , or almost 3.5% of the
Earth's surface. As of 2005, its
population was estimated at more than 371,000,000. South America ranks fourth in area and fifth in population .
Geography
South America is generally considered a continent forming the southern portion of the
American landmass, south and east of the
Panama Canal transecting the
Isthmus of Panama. Depending on source, South and North America are sometimes considered a single continent or supercontinent, while constituent
regions are infrequently considered
subcontinents. Geologically, almost all of mainland South America sits on the
South American Plate. Geopolitically, all of
Panama – including the segment east of the Panama Canal in the isthmus – is often considered a part of North America alone and among the countries of
Central America.
It became attached to North America only recently with the formation of the Isthmus of Panama some 3 million years ago, which resulted in the Great American Interchange. The
Andes, likewise a comparatively young and seismically restless mountain range, run down the western edge of the continent; the land to the east of the Andes is largely tropical
rain forest, the vast
Amazon River basin. The continent also contains drier regions such as
Patagonia and the extremely arid
Atacama Desert.
The South American continent also includes various
islands, many of which belong to countries on the continent. Many of the islands of the
Caribbean – e.g., the Leeward and
Lesser Antilles – sit atop the
Caribbean Plate, a tectonic plate with a diffuse topography. The islands of
Aruba,
Trinidad, and
Tobago sit on the northerly South American
continental shelf. The
Netherlands Antilles and the federal dependencies of Venezuela lie along the northerly South American
continental slope. Geopolitically, the island states and overseas territories of the Caribbean are generally grouped as a part or subregion of North America. The South American nations that border the Caribbean Sea – including
Colombia,
Venezuela,
Guyana,
Suriname, and
French Guiana – are also known as Caribbean South America.
South America contains the world's highest waterfall,
Angel Falls, the largest river , the
Amazon River, the longest mountain range, the
Andes, the driest desert,
Atacama, the largest rainforest, the
Amazon Rainforest, the highest capital city,
La Paz, Bolivia, the highest commercially navigable lake in the world,
Lake Titicaca, and the world's southernmost town, Puerto Toro,
Chile.
South America's major natural resources are
copper,
iron ore,
tin, and
oil. The many resources of South America have become useful around the world. However, they often have hindered the development of diversified economies. This has led to major highs and lows in the economy of South American states, often also causing political instability.
South America is home to many interesting and unique species of animals including the
llama,
anaconda,
pirana,
jaguar,
vicuna, and
tapir. The Amazon rainforests possess high
biodiversity, containing a major proportion of the
Earth's species.
The largest country in South America by far, in both area and population, is
Brazil, followed by
Argentina. Regions in South America include the
Andean States, the
Guianas, the
Southern Cone, and
Eastern South America.
History
South America is thought to have been first inhabited by people crossing the
Bering Land Bridge, now the
Bering Strait.
Pre-Columbian era
The Muisca were the main indigenous civilization in Colombia. They established a confederation of many clans, or cacicazgos, that had a free trade network among themselves. They were goldsmiths and farmers.
The
Chavín established a trade network and developed agriculture by 900 BC, according to some estimates and archeological finds. Artifacts were found at a site called
Chavín de Huantar in modern
Peru at an elevation of 3,177 meters. Chavín civilization spanned 900 BC to 300 BC.
Holding their capital at the great city of
Cusco, the
Inca civilization dominated the Andes region from 1438 to 1533. Known as
Tawantinsuyu, or "the land of the four regions," in
Quechua, the Inca culture was highly distinct and developed. Cities were built with precise, unmatched stonework, constructed over many levels of mountain terrain.
Terrace farming was a useful form of agriculture. There is evidence of excellent metalwork in Inca civilization.
European colonization
In 1494, Portugal and Spain, the two great maritime powers of that time, on the expectation of new lands being discovered in the west, signed the
Treaty of Tordesillas, by which they agreed that all the land outside Europe should be an exclusive duopoly between the two countries. The Treaty established an imaginary line along a north-south
meridian 370 leagues west of
Cape Verde Islands, roughly 46° 37' W. In terms of the treaty, all land to the west of the line , would belong to Spain, and all land to the east, to Portugal. As accurate measurements of longitude were impossible at that time, the line was not strictly enforced, resulting in a Portuguese expansion of Brazil across the meridian.
Beginning in the 1530s, the people and natural resources of South America were repeatedly exploited by foreign
conquistadors, first from
Spain and later from
Portugal. These competing colonial nations claimed the land and resources as their own and divided it into colonies.
European diseases to which the
native populations had no resistance, and systems of forced labor, such as the infamous
haciendas and mining industry's mita, decimated the native population under Spanish control. After this, African
slaves, who had developed immunities to these diseases, were quickly brought in to replace them.
The Spaniards were committed to converting their native subjects to Christianity, and were quick to purge any native cultural practices that hindered this end. However, most initial attempts at this were only partially successful, as native groups simply blended Catholicism with their traditional beliefs. On the other hand, the Spaniards did not impose their language to the degree they did their religion, and the
Catholic Church's evangelization in
Quechua,
Nahuatl and Guaraní actually contributed to the expansion of these native languages, equipping them with writing systems.
Eventually the
Natives and the Spaniards interbred, forming a
Mestizo class. These and the original natives were often forced to pay unfair taxes to the Spanish government and were punished harshly for disobeying their laws. Many native artworks were considered pagan idols and destroyed by Spanish explorers. This included the many gold and silver sculptures found in the Americas, which were melted down before transport to Europe.
Independence
The Spanish colonies won their independence between 1804 and 1824 in the South American Wars of Independence.
Simón Bolívar of Venezuela and
José de San Martín of Argentina led the independence struggle. Bolívar led a great army southward while San Martín led an army across the Andes Mountains, meeting up with General
Bernardo O'Higgins in Chile, and marched northward. The two armies finally met in Guayaquil, Ecuador, where they cornered the royal army of Spain and forced its surrender.
In Brazil, a Portuguese colony,
Dom Pedro I , son of the Portuguese king Dom João VI, proclaimed the country's independence in 1822 and became Brazil's first
Emperor. This was peacefully accepted by the crown in Portugal. Although Bolivar attempted to keep the Spanish-speaking parts of the continent politically unified, they rapidly became independent of one another as well, and several further wars were fought, such as the
War of the Triple Alliance and the
War of the Pacific.
A few countries did not gain independence until the
20th century:
French Guiana remains part of
France as of 2006, and hosts the
European Space Agency's principal spaceport, the
Centre Spatial Guyanais.
Recent history
The continent, like many others, became a battlefield of the
Cold War in the late 20th century. The government of Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and Uruguay were overthrown or displaced by U.S.-aligned military dictatorships in the
1960s and
1970s. Their governments detained tens of thousands of political prisoners, many of whom were tortured and/or killed . Economically, they began a transition to neoliberal economic policies. They placed their own actions within the
U.S. Cold War doctrine of "National Security" against internal subversion. Throughout the
1980s and
1990s, Peru suffered from internal conflicts . Revolutionary movements and right-wing military dictatorships have been common, but starting in the
1980s a wave of democratization came through the continent, and democratic rule is widespread now. Allegations of corruption remain common, and several nations have seen crises which have forced the resignation of their presidents, although normal civilian succession has continued.
International indebtedness became a notable problem, as most recently illustrated by
Argentina's default in the early 21st century.
In recent years South American governments have drifted to the left, with
socialist leaders being elected in Chile,
Bolivia, Brazil,
Venezuela, and a leftist president in Argentina and
Uruguay. Despite the move to the left, South America is still largely capitalist.
With the founding of the
South American Community of Nations, South America has started down the road of economic integration, with plans for political integration in the
European Union style.
Economy
As of 2002, South America's unemployment rate was 10.8 %.
Due to histories of high inflation in nearly all South American countries, interest rates and thus investment remain high and low, respectively. Interest rates are usually double that of the United States. For example, interest rates are about 22 % in Venezuela and 23 % in Suriname. The exception is Chile, which has been succesfully implementing free market economic policies since the 1980s and increased its social spending since the return of democratic rule in the early 1990s. This has led to economic stability and interest rates in the low single digits.
The
South American Community of Nations is a planned continent-wide free trade zone to unite two existing free-trade organizations—
Mercosur and the
Andean Community.
The economic gap between the rich and poor in most South American nations is considered to be larger than in most other continents. In
Venezuela,
Paraguay,
Brazil,
Bolivia and many other South American countries, the richest 20 % may own over 60 % of the nation's wealth, while the poorest 20 % may own less than 5 %. This wide gap can be seen in many large South American cities where makeshift shacks and slums lie next to skyscrapers and upper-class luxury apartments.
GDP per capita 2005| Rank in world | Country | GDP
per capita |
|---|
| 50 | Argentina | 14,109 |
| 56 | Chile | 11,937 |
| 65 | Uruguay | 10,028 |
| 68 | Brazil | 8,584 |
| 81 | Colombia | 7,565 |
| 96 | Venezuela | 6,186 |
| 97 | Peru | 5,983 |
| 99 | Suriname | 5,683 |
| 105 | Guyana | 4,612 |
| 107 | Paraguay | 4,555 |
| 113 | Ecuador | 4,316 |
| 125 | Bolivia | 2,817 |
Source:List of countries by GDP per capita
Culture
Roman Catholicism is the dominant religion. French Guiana also has a large number of Protestants. Guyana and Suriname are exceptions, with three major religions:
Christianity in general,
Hinduism, and
Islam.
Other branches of
Christianity like Protestantism have grown steadily in South America.
Jewish communities are found across South America, the largest are
Sao Paulo,
Brazil and
Buenos Aires,
Argentina. There are significant numbers of
Armenian, Greek and other
Eastern Orthodox churches founded by immigrants from the
Middle East.
Portuguese and
Spanish are the primary languages of the continent. The majority of South Americans speak
Portuguese. However, most South American countries are
Spanish-speaking, and nearly all of the continent's Lusophones reside in
Brazil. Among other languages used by many South Americans are:
