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Sophism

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	Topics Sophism Topic Home Sophism can mean two very different things: In the modern definition, a sophism is a confusing or illogical argument used for deceiving someone. In Ancient Greece, the sophists were a group of teachers of philosophyPhilosophy Philosophy is a field of study that includes diverse subfields such as aesthetics, epistemology, ethics, logic, and metaphys... and rhetoricRhetoric Rhetoric is the art or technique of persuasion, usually through the use of language.... . The term sophism originated from GreekGreek language Greek has a documented history of 3,500 years, the longest of any single language within the Indo-European family.... sophistes, meaning "wise-ist", one who "does" wisdom, one who makes a business out of wisdom (sophós means "wise man"). Sophists of Ancient Greece The Greek words sophosSophos Sophos is a company that makes security software such as anti-virus, anti-spyware and anti-spam for desktops, e-mail servers... or sophiaSophia Sophia is a common name that comes from the Greek word s?f?a, that may refer to: ... had the meaning of "wise" or "wisdom" since the time of the poet HomerHomer Homer was a legendary early Greek poet and rhapsode traditionally credited with the composition of the Iliad and the ... , and originally connoted anyone with expertise in a specific domain of knowledge or craft. Thus a charioteer, a sculptor, a warrior could be sophoi in their occupation. Gradually the word came to denote general wisdom and especially wisdom about human affairs (in, for example, politics, ethics, or household management). This was the term given to the Greek Seven SagesSeven Sages of Greece The Seven Sages was primarily the title given by Greek tradition to seven men of note considered to be wise.... of 7th and 6th Century BCE (like SolonSolon Solon was a famous Athenian lawmaker and Lyric poet. ... and ThalesThales Thales of Miletus , also known as Thales the Milesian, was a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher and one of the Seven Sages... ), and this was the meaning that appeared in the histories of Herodotus. At about the same time, the term sophistes was a synonym for "poet", and (by association with the traditional role of poets as the teachers of society) a synonym for one who teaches, in particular through the performance of prose works or speeches that impart practical knowledge. Richard Martin refers to the seven sages as "performers of political poetry."¹ In the second half of the 5th century BCE, particularly at AthensAthens Athens is the capital and the largest city of Greece.... , "sophist" came to denote a class of itinerant intellectuals who taught courses in "excellence" or "virtue," speculated about the nature of language and culture and employed rhetoricFacts About Rhetoric Rhetoric is the art or technique of persuasion, usually through the use of language.... to achieve their purposes, generally to persuade or convince others. Sophists claimed that they could find the answers to all questions. Most of these sophists are known today primarily through the writings of their opponents (specifically PlatoPlato Plato , whose real name is believed to have been Aristocles, was an immensely influential ancient Greek philosopher, ... and AristotleAristotle Aristotle was an ancient Greek philosopher, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great.... ), which makes it difficult to assemble an unbiased view of their practices and beliefs. Many of them taught their skills for a price. Due to the importance of such skills in the litigious social life of Athens, practitioners often commanded very high fees. The practice of taking fees, along with the sophists' practice of questioning the existence and roles of traditional deities (this was done to make "the weaker argument appear the stronger") and investigating into the nature of the heavens and the earth prompted a popular reaction against them. Their attacks against SocratesSocrates Socrates was an ancient Greek philosopher who is widely credited for laying the foundation for Western philosophy.... (in fictional prosecution speeches) prompted a vigorous condemnation from his followers, including Plato and Xenophon, as there was a popular view of Socrates as a sophist. Their attitude, coupled with the wealth garnered by many of the sophists, eventually led to popular resentment against sophist practitioners and the ideas and writings associated with sophism. ProtagorasProtagoras Protagoras was a pre-Socratic philosopher and is numbered as one of the sophists by Plato.... is generally regarded as the first of the sophists. Others include GorgiasGorgias Gorgias, Greek sophist, pre-socratic philosopher and rhetorician, was a native of Leontini in Sicily.... , ProdicusProdicus Prodicus of Ceos was a Greek humanist of the first period of the Sophistic movement, known as the "precursor of Socrates." ... , HippiasHippias Hippias of Elis, Greek Sophist, was born about the middle of the 5th century BC and was thus a younger contemporary of Prota... , ThrasymachusThrasymachus Thrasymachus was a sophist of Ancient Greece best known as a character in Plato's Republic. ... , LycophronLycophron Lycophron was a Greek poet and grammarian.... , CalliclesCallicles Callicles is a character in Plato?s dialogue Gorgias.... , AntiphonAntiphon (person) Antiphon the Sophist lived in Athens probably in the last two decades of the 5th century BCE.... , and CratylusCratylus Cratylus was an ancient Athenian philosopher from late fifth century BC, mostly known through his portrayal in Plato's dialo... . In comparison, Socrates accepted no fee, instead adopting a self-effacing posture, which he exemplified by Socratic questioning (i.e. the Socratic methodSocratic method Socratic method is a dialectic method of inquiry, largely applied to the examination of key moral concepts and first descri... , although Diogenes LaertiusDiogenes Laertius Diogenes Lartius, the biographer of the Greek philosophers, is supposed by some to have received his surname from the town o... wrote that Protagoras—a sophist—invented the “Socratic” method). His attitude towards the Sophists was by no means oppositional; in one dialogue Socrates even stated that the Sophists were better educators than he was , which he validated by sending one of his students to study under a sophist. W. K. C. GuthrieW. K. C. Guthrie Overview William Keith Chambers Guthrie was a Scottish classical scholar, best known for his History of Greek Philosophy, publis... associated Socrates with the Sophists in his History of Greek Philosophy. PlatoPlato Plato , whose real name is believed to have been Aristocles, was an immensely influential ancient Greek philosopher, ... , the most illustrious student of Socrates, depicts Socrates as refuting the sophists in several Dialogues. These texts depict the sophists in an unflattering light, and it is unclear how accurate or fair Plato's representation of them may be; however, it is also suggested that such criticism was often ironic. Another contemporary, the comic playwright AristophanesAristophanes Aristophanes was a Greek Old Comic dramatist.... , criticizes the sophists as hairsplitting wordsmiths, yet suggests that Socrates was one of their number. Plato is largely responsible for the modern view of the "sophist" as a greedy instructor who uses rhetorical sleight-of-hand and ambiguities of language in order to deceive, or to support fallacious reasoning. In this view, the sophist is not concerned with truthTruth Common dictionary definitions of truth mention some form of accord with fact or reality.... and justiceJustice Justice is the ideal, morally correct state of things and persons.... , but instead seeks powerPolitical power Political power is a type of power held by a person or group in a society.... . Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle all challenged the philosophical foundations of sophism. It seems that some of the sophists held a relativisticRelativism Relativism expresses the view that the meaning and value of human beliefs and behaviors have no absolute reference.... view on cognitionCognition The term cognition is used in several loosely related ways to refer to a facility for the human-like processing of informati... and knowledgeKnowledge Summary Knowledge is what is known. Like the related concepts truth, belief and wisdom.... . Their philosophy contains criticism of religionReligion Religion is a system of social coherence based on a common group of beliefs or attitudes concerning an object, person, unsee... , lawLaw Law is the set of rules or norms of conduct which forbid, permit or mandate specified actions and relationships among people... , and ethicsFacts About Ethics Ethics is a major branch of philosophy.... . Though many sophists were apparently as religious as their contemporaries, some held atheisticAtheism Atheism, in its broadest sense, is the absence of belief in the existence of deities.... or agnosticAgnosticism Agnosticism is the philosophical view that value certain claims as truthparticularly theological claims regarding the existe... views (for example, ProtagorasFacts About Protagoras Protagoras was a pre-Socratic philosopher and is numbered as one of the sophists by Plato.... and Diagoras of MelosDiagoras of Melos Diagoras the Atheist of Melos was a Greek poet and sophist of the 5th century BC.... ). In some cases, such as GorgiasGorgias Gorgias, Greek sophist, pre-socratic philosopher and rhetorician, was a native of Leontini in Sicily.... , there are original rhetorical works that are fortunately extant, allowing the author to be judged on his own terms. In most cases, however, knowledge of sophist thought comes from fragmentary quotations that lack context. Many of these quotations come from AristotleAristotle Aristotle was an ancient Greek philosopher, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great.... , who seems to have held the sophists in slight regard, notwithstanding his other disagreements with PlatoPlato Plato , whose real name is believed to have been Aristocles, was an immensely influential ancient Greek philosopher, ... . Owing largely to the influence of Plato and Aristotle, philosophyPhilosophy Philosophy is a field of study that includes diverse subfields such as aesthetics, epistemology, ethics, logic, and metaphys... came to be regarded as distinct from sophistry, the latter being regarded as rhetoric, a practical discipline. Thus, by the time of the Roman EmpireRoman Empire The Roman Empire was a phase of the ancient Roman civilization characterized by an autocratic form of government.... , a sophist was simply a teacher of rhetoric and a popular public speaker. For instance, LibaniusLibanius Libanius was a Greek-speaking teacher of rhetoric of the later Roman Empire, an educated pagan of the Sophist school in an... , HimeriusHimerius Himerius, Greek sophist and rhetorician, was born at Prusa in Bithynia.... , Aelius AristidesAelius Aristides Aelius Aristides was a popular Greek orator who lived during the Roman Empire.... , and FrontoMarcus Cornelius Fronto Marcus Cornelius Fronto, Roman grammarian, rhetorician and advocate, was born of an Italian family at Cirta in Numidia.... were sophists in this sense. Sophists and Democracy The sophists' rhetorical techniques were extremely useful for any young nobleman looking for public office. In addition to the individual benefits that Sophistic-style teaching conferred, the societal roles that the Sophists filled had important ramifications for the Athenian political system at large. The historical context in which the Sophists operated provides evidence for their considerable influence, as Athens became more and more democratic during the period in which the Sophists were most active . The Sophists certainly were not directly responsible for Athenian democracy, but their cultural and psychological contributions played an important role in its growth. They contributed to the new democracy in part by subjectifying truth, which allowed and perhaps required a tolerance of the beliefs of others. This liberal attitude would naturally have precipitated into the Athenian assembly as Sophists acquired increasingly high-powered clients. Contiguous rhetorical training gave the citizens of Athens "the ability to create accounts of communal possibilities through persuasive speech". This was extremely important for the democracy, as it gave disparate and sometimes superficially unattractive views a chance to be heard in the Athenian assembly. Subjectified truths and eloquent individuals were wonderful for the burgeoning democracy, and, in a sense, they were democracy itself. In addition, Sophists had great impact on the early development of lawLaw Law is the set of rules or norms of conduct which forbid, permit or mandate specified actions and relationships among people... , as the sophists were the first lawyers in the world. Their status as lawyers was a result of their extremely developed argumentation skills. Modern usage In modern usage, sophism, sophist, and sophistry are derogatory terms, due the influence of many philosophers in the past (sophism and platonism were enemy schools). A sophism is taken as a specious argument used for deceiving someone. It might be crafted to seem logical while actually being wrong, or it might use difficult words and complicated sentences to intimidate the audience into agreeing, or it might appeal to the audience's prejudices and emotions rather than logic, i.e. raising doubts towards the one asserting, rather than his assertion. The goal of a sophism is often to make the audience believe the writer or speaker to be smarter than he or she actually is, e.g., accusing another of sophistry for using persuasion techniques. An argument Ad HominemAd hominem An ad hominem argument, also known as argumentum ad hominem involves replying to an argument or assertion by attackin... is an example of Sophistry. A sophist is a user of sophisms, i.e., an insincere person trying to confuse or deceive people. Sophists will try to persuade the audience while paying little attention to whether their argument is logical and factual. Sophistry means making heavy use of sophisms. The word can be applied to a particular text or speech riddled with sophisms. See also PropagandaPropaganda Propaganda is a specific type of message presentation directly aimed at influencing the opinions or behavior of people, rath... PseudophilosophyPseudophilosophy The orthodox understanding of pseudophilosophy is any idea or system that masquerades itself as philosophy while significant... RhetoricRhetoric Rhetoric is the art or technique of persuasion, usually through the use of language.... F.C.S. Schiller - A pragmatist philosopher during the 20th century who argued that Plato had misrepresented the sophists. Second SophisticSecond Sophistic The Second Sophistic is a literary-historical term referring to the Greek showpiece orators who flourished from the reign of... Sleight of mouthSleight of mouth In much the same way as magicians use "sleight of hand" to deceive the eye and make things happen that appear impossible, so too t... SophistSophist (dialogue) The Sophist is one of the late Dialogues of Plato, which was written much more lately than the Parmenides and the ... The CloudsThe Clouds *The Clouds* is a comedy written by the Ancient Greek playwright Aristophanes lampooning the sophists and the intellectual... - A play by Aristophanes that satirizes sophism, using SocratesSocrates Socrates was an ancient Greek philosopher who is widely credited for laying the foundation for Western philosophy.... as their representative. External links