Simla Accord (1913)
Encyclopedia
The Simla Accord, or the Convention Between Great Britain, China, and Tibet, [in] Simla, was a disputed treaty concerning the status of Tibet negotiated by representatives of China, Tibet and Britain in Simla
in 1913 and 1914.
The Simla Accord provided that "Outer Tibet" would "remain in the hands of the Tibetan Government at Lhasa." This region, approximately the same as today's Tibet Autonomous Region
, would be under Chinese suzerainty
, but China would not interfere in its administration. The accord with its annexes also defines the boundary between Tibet and China proper and between Tibet and British India (the latter became known as the McMahon Line
).
China refused to accept the Accord and their plenipotentiary
, Ivan Chen, withdrew on 3 July 1914. After his withdrawal the British and Tibetan plenipotentiaries attached a note denying China any privileges under the Accord and sealed it as a bilateral agreement on the same day.This accord was initialed and sealed by the British plenipotentiary, A. Henry McMahon, and sealed by the Tibetan plenipotentiary Lochen Shatra but not the Chinese plenipotentiary, Ivan Chen, as he had withdrawn from the Convention before the Accord was initialed and sealed.("Convention Between Great Britain, China, and Tibet, Simla (1914)", Tibet Justice Center, Retrieved 2009-03-20). The British published the McMahon Line on Survey of India
maps, and the Simla Accord was published officially in 1929.
entered Tibet in 1904
and made a treaty with the Tibetans. In 1907, Britain and Russia acknowledged Chinese "suzerainty
" over Tibet.
British interest in the borderlands was renewed when the Qing government sent military forces to establish a Chinese administration in Tibet (1910-12). A British military expedition was sent into what is now Arunachal Pradesh
and the North-East Frontier Agency
was created to administer the area (1912). In 1912-13, this agency reached agreements with the tribal leaders who ruled the bulk of the region. After the fall of the Qing dynasty in China, Tibet government at Lhasa expelled all Chinese forces and declared itself independent (1913), however, this was not accepted by the newly founded Republic of China.
, India to discuss the issue of Tibet's status. The conference was attended by representatives of the British Empire
, the newly founded Republic of China
, and the Tibetan government at Lhasa. The British plenipotentiary, Sir Henry McMahon
, introduced the plan of dividing Tibetan-inhabited areas into "inner Tibet" and "outer Tibet" and apply different policies. "Inner Tibet," includes Tibetan-inhabited areas in Qinghai, Gansu, Sichuan and Yunnan provinces, would be under the jurisdiction of the Chinese government. "Outer Tibet," covering approximately the same area as the modern "Tibet Autonomous Region
" would enjoy autonomy. A boundary between Tibet and British India, later called the McMahon Line
, was drawn on a map referred to in the treaty.
The Tibetan Indian boundary was negotiated in Simla between representatives from British and Tibet, in the presence of the Chinese representative. During the Simla conference a map of the Tibetan Indian border was provided as an annex to the proposed agreement.
The Schedule appended to the Accord contained further notes. For example, it was to be understood that "Tibet forms part of Chinese territory" and after the Tibetans selected a Dalai Lama, the Chinese government was to be notified and the Chinese commissioner in Lhasa would "formally communicate to His Holiness the titles consistent with his dignity, which have been conferred by the Chinese Government"; that the Tibetan government appointed all officers for "Outer Tibet", and that "Outer Tibet" was not to be represented in the Chinese Parliament or any such assembly.
Negotiations failed when China and Tibet could not agree over the Sino-Tibetan boundary. After the Chinese plenipotentiary, Ivan Chen, withdrew from the convention, the British and Tibetan plenipotentiaries attached a note denying China any privileges under the agreement and signed it as a bilateral accord. At the same time the British and Lochen Shatra signed a fresh set of trade Regulations to replace those of 1908.
published a map showing the McMahon Line as the official boundary. In 1929, the British published the Simla Convention in Aitchison's Treaties.
In the late 1950s, the McMahon Line became a source of tension between China and India. China contends that Tibet was never an independent state and so it could not sign a treaty on behalf of China to delineate an international frontier. China and India fought the Sino-Indian War
in 1962, which nevertheless preserved the status quo ante bellum
. Years later, the area, then known as the North-East Frontier Agency
, gained Indian statehood as Arunachal Pradesh
.
, the British Foreign Secretary, described the old position as an anachronism originating in the geopolitics of the early 20th century. Britain revised this view on 29 October 2008, when it recognised Chinese sovereignty over Tibet by issuing a statement on its website. David Miliband
, Written Ministerial Statement on Tibet (29/10/2008), Foreign Office website, Retrieved 2008-11-25. The Economist
stated that although the British Foreign Office's website does not use the word sovereignty, officials at the Foreign Office said "it means that, as far as Britain is concerned, 'Tibet is part of China. Full stop.'"
The British Government sees their new stances as an updating of their position, while some others have viewed it as a major shift in the British position. It has been speculated that Britain's shift was made in exchange for China making greater contributions to the International Monetary Fund
.
Shimla
Shimla , formerly known as Simla, is the capital city of Himachal Pradesh. In 1864, Shimla was declared the summer capital of the British Raj in India. A popular tourist destination, Shimla is often referred to as the "Queen of Hills," a term coined by the British...
in 1913 and 1914.
The Simla Accord provided that "Outer Tibet" would "remain in the hands of the Tibetan Government at Lhasa." This region, approximately the same as today's Tibet Autonomous Region
Tibet Autonomous Region
The Tibet Autonomous Region , Tibet or Xizang for short, also called the Xizang Autonomous Region is a province-level autonomous region of the People's Republic of China , created in 1965....
, would be under Chinese suzerainty
Suzerainty
Suzerainty occurs where a region or people is a tributary to a more powerful entity which controls its foreign affairs while allowing the tributary vassal state some limited domestic autonomy. The dominant entity in the suzerainty relationship, or the more powerful entity itself, is called a...
, but China would not interfere in its administration. The accord with its annexes also defines the boundary between Tibet and China proper and between Tibet and British India (the latter became known as the McMahon Line
McMahon Line
The McMahon Line is a line agreed to by Great Britain and Tibet as part of Simla Accord, a treaty signed in 1914. Although its legal status is disputed by China, it is the effective boundary between China and India....
).
China refused to accept the Accord and their plenipotentiary
Plenipotentiary
The word plenipotentiary has two meanings. As a noun, it refers to a person who has "full powers." In particular, the term commonly refers to a diplomat fully authorized to represent his government as a prerogative...
, Ivan Chen, withdrew on 3 July 1914. After his withdrawal the British and Tibetan plenipotentiaries attached a note denying China any privileges under the Accord and sealed it as a bilateral agreement on the same day.This accord was initialed and sealed by the British plenipotentiary, A. Henry McMahon, and sealed by the Tibetan plenipotentiary Lochen Shatra but not the Chinese plenipotentiary, Ivan Chen, as he had withdrawn from the Convention before the Accord was initialed and sealed.("Convention Between Great Britain, China, and Tibet, Simla (1914)", Tibet Justice Center, Retrieved 2009-03-20). The British published the McMahon Line on Survey of India
Survey of India
The Survey of India is India's central engineering agency in charge of mapping and surveying. Set up in 1767 to help consolidate the territories of the British East India Company, it is one of the oldest Engineering Departments of the Government of India...
maps, and the Simla Accord was published officially in 1929.
Background
Early British efforts to create a boundary for north east India were triggered by their discovery in the mid-19th century that Tawang, an important trading town, had Tibetan presence. Britain had concluded treaties with Qing China concerning Tibet's boundaries with Burma and Sikkim. However, Tibet refused to recognize the boundaries drawn by these treaties. British forces led by Sir Francis YounghusbandFrancis Younghusband
Lieutenant Colonel Sir Francis Edward Younghusband, KCSI, KCIE was a British Army officer, explorer, and spiritual writer...
entered Tibet in 1904
British expedition to Tibet
The British expedition to Tibet during 1903 and 1904 was an invasion of Tibet by British Indian forces, whose mission was to establish diplomatic relations and trade between the British Raj and Tibet...
and made a treaty with the Tibetans. In 1907, Britain and Russia acknowledged Chinese "suzerainty
Suzerainty
Suzerainty occurs where a region or people is a tributary to a more powerful entity which controls its foreign affairs while allowing the tributary vassal state some limited domestic autonomy. The dominant entity in the suzerainty relationship, or the more powerful entity itself, is called a...
" over Tibet.
British interest in the borderlands was renewed when the Qing government sent military forces to establish a Chinese administration in Tibet (1910-12). A British military expedition was sent into what is now Arunachal Pradesh
Arunachal Pradesh
Arunachal Pradesh is a state of India, located in the far northeast. It borders the states of Assam and Nagaland to the south, and shares international borders with Burma in the east, Bhutan in the west, and the People's Republic of China in the north. The majority of the territory is claimed by...
and the North-East Frontier Agency
North-East Frontier Agency
The North-East Frontier Agency was one of the political divisions in British India and later the Republic of India till 1972, when it became the Union Territory of Arunachal Pradesh...
was created to administer the area (1912). In 1912-13, this agency reached agreements with the tribal leaders who ruled the bulk of the region. After the fall of the Qing dynasty in China, Tibet government at Lhasa expelled all Chinese forces and declared itself independent (1913), however, this was not accepted by the newly founded Republic of China.
Conference
In 1913, the British convoked a conference at SimlaShimla
Shimla , formerly known as Simla, is the capital city of Himachal Pradesh. In 1864, Shimla was declared the summer capital of the British Raj in India. A popular tourist destination, Shimla is often referred to as the "Queen of Hills," a term coined by the British...
, India to discuss the issue of Tibet's status. The conference was attended by representatives of the British Empire
British Empire
The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom. It originated with the overseas colonies and trading posts established by England in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. At its height, it was the...
, the newly founded Republic of China
Republic of China
The Republic of China , commonly known as Taiwan , is a unitary sovereign state located in East Asia. Originally based in mainland China, the Republic of China currently governs the island of Taiwan , which forms over 99% of its current territory, as well as Penghu, Kinmen, Matsu and other minor...
, and the Tibetan government at Lhasa. The British plenipotentiary, Sir Henry McMahon
Henry McMahon (diplomat)
Lieutenant-Colonel Sir Arthur Henry McMahon, GCMG, GCVO, KCIE, CSI was a British diplomat and Indian Army officer who served as the High Commissioner in Egypt from 1915 to 1917. He was also an administrator in British India, and served twice as Chief Commissioner of Balochistan...
, introduced the plan of dividing Tibetan-inhabited areas into "inner Tibet" and "outer Tibet" and apply different policies. "Inner Tibet," includes Tibetan-inhabited areas in Qinghai, Gansu, Sichuan and Yunnan provinces, would be under the jurisdiction of the Chinese government. "Outer Tibet," covering approximately the same area as the modern "Tibet Autonomous Region
Tibet Autonomous Region
The Tibet Autonomous Region , Tibet or Xizang for short, also called the Xizang Autonomous Region is a province-level autonomous region of the People's Republic of China , created in 1965....
" would enjoy autonomy. A boundary between Tibet and British India, later called the McMahon Line
McMahon Line
The McMahon Line is a line agreed to by Great Britain and Tibet as part of Simla Accord, a treaty signed in 1914. Although its legal status is disputed by China, it is the effective boundary between China and India....
, was drawn on a map referred to in the treaty.
The Tibetan Indian boundary was negotiated in Simla between representatives from British and Tibet, in the presence of the Chinese representative. During the Simla conference a map of the Tibetan Indian border was provided as an annex to the proposed agreement.
The Schedule appended to the Accord contained further notes. For example, it was to be understood that "Tibet forms part of Chinese territory" and after the Tibetans selected a Dalai Lama, the Chinese government was to be notified and the Chinese commissioner in Lhasa would "formally communicate to His Holiness the titles consistent with his dignity, which have been conferred by the Chinese Government"; that the Tibetan government appointed all officers for "Outer Tibet", and that "Outer Tibet" was not to be represented in the Chinese Parliament or any such assembly.
Negotiations failed when China and Tibet could not agree over the Sino-Tibetan boundary. After the Chinese plenipotentiary, Ivan Chen, withdrew from the convention, the British and Tibetan plenipotentiaries attached a note denying China any privileges under the agreement and signed it as a bilateral accord. At the same time the British and Lochen Shatra signed a fresh set of trade Regulations to replace those of 1908.
Aftermath
After the Simla Conference, the Anglo-Russian Convention was renounced by Russia and Britain jointly in 1921. The Survey of IndiaSurvey of India
The Survey of India is India's central engineering agency in charge of mapping and surveying. Set up in 1767 to help consolidate the territories of the British East India Company, it is one of the oldest Engineering Departments of the Government of India...
published a map showing the McMahon Line as the official boundary. In 1929, the British published the Simla Convention in Aitchison's Treaties.
In the late 1950s, the McMahon Line became a source of tension between China and India. China contends that Tibet was never an independent state and so it could not sign a treaty on behalf of China to delineate an international frontier. China and India fought the Sino-Indian War
Sino-Indian War
The Sino-Indian War , also known as the Sino-Indian Border Conflict , was a war between China and India that occurred in 1962. A disputed Himalayan border was the main pretext for war, but other issues played a role. There had been a series of violent border incidents after the 1959 Tibetan...
in 1962, which nevertheless preserved the status quo ante bellum
Status quo ante bellum
The term status quo ante bellum is Latin, meaning literally "the state in which things were before the war".The term was originally used in treaties to refer to the withdrawal of enemy troops and the restoration of prewar leadership. When used as such, it means that no side gains or loses...
. Years later, the area, then known as the North-East Frontier Agency
North-East Frontier Agency
The North-East Frontier Agency was one of the political divisions in British India and later the Republic of India till 1972, when it became the Union Territory of Arunachal Pradesh...
, gained Indian statehood as Arunachal Pradesh
Arunachal Pradesh
Arunachal Pradesh is a state of India, located in the far northeast. It borders the states of Assam and Nagaland to the south, and shares international borders with Burma in the east, Bhutan in the west, and the People's Republic of China in the north. The majority of the territory is claimed by...
.
2008 British policy change
Until 2008 the British Government's position remained the same that China held suzerainty over Tibet but not full sovereignty. David MilibandDavid Miliband
David Wright Miliband is a British Labour Party politician who has been the Member of Parliament for South Shields since 2001, and was the Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs from 2007 to 2010. He is the elder son of the late Marxist theorist Ralph Miliband...
, the British Foreign Secretary, described the old position as an anachronism originating in the geopolitics of the early 20th century. Britain revised this view on 29 October 2008, when it recognised Chinese sovereignty over Tibet by issuing a statement on its website. David Miliband
David Miliband
David Wright Miliband is a British Labour Party politician who has been the Member of Parliament for South Shields since 2001, and was the Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs from 2007 to 2010. He is the elder son of the late Marxist theorist Ralph Miliband...
, Written Ministerial Statement on Tibet (29/10/2008), Foreign Office website, Retrieved 2008-11-25. The Economist
The Economist
The Economist is an English-language weekly news and international affairs publication owned by The Economist Newspaper Ltd. and edited in offices in the City of Westminster, London, England. Continuous publication began under founder James Wilson in September 1843...
stated that although the British Foreign Office's website does not use the word sovereignty, officials at the Foreign Office said "it means that, as far as Britain is concerned, 'Tibet is part of China. Full stop.'"
The British Government sees their new stances as an updating of their position, while some others have viewed it as a major shift in the British position. It has been speculated that Britain's shift was made in exchange for China making greater contributions to the International Monetary Fund
International Monetary Fund
The International Monetary Fund is an organization of 187 countries, working to foster global monetary cooperation, secure financial stability, facilitate international trade, promote high employment and sustainable economic growth, and reduce poverty around the world...
.