- See Shiksa
Shiksa or shikse, is a Yiddish and Polish word that has moved into English usage, mostly in North American Jewish culture, as a term for a non-Jewish woman, initially and sometimes still pejorative but now often used satirically...
for the Yiddish slang word.
Shiksha (Devanagari: शिक्षा
IASTThe International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration is a transliteration scheme that allows a lossless romanization of Indic scripts as employed by the Sanskrit language.-Popularity:...
: ) is one of the six
VedangaThe Vedanga are six auxiliary disciplines traditionally associated with the study and understanding of the Vedas.#Shiksha : phonetics, phonology and morphophonology #Kalpa : ritual#Vyakarana : grammar...
s, treating the traditional
HinduHindu refers to an identity associated with the philosophical, religious and cultural systems that are indigenous to the Indian subcontinent. As used in the Constitution of India, the word "Hindu" is also attributed to all persons professing any Indian religion...
science of
phoneticsPhonetics is a branch of linguistics that comprises the study of the sounds of human speech, or—in the case of sign languages—the equivalent aspects of sign. It is concerned with the physical properties of speech sounds or signs : their physiological production, acoustic properties, auditory...
and
phonologyPhonology is, broadly speaking, the subdiscipline of linguistics concerned with the sounds of language. That is, it is the systematic use of sound to encode meaning in any spoken human language, or the field of linguistics studying this use...
of
SanskritSanskrit , is a historical Indo-Aryan language and the primary liturgical language of Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism.Buddhism: besides Pali, see Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Today, it is listed as one of the 22 scheduled languages of India and is an official language of the state of Uttarakhand...
.
Its aim is the teaching of the correct pronunciation of the
Vedic hymnsThe Vedas are a large body of texts originating in ancient India. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute the oldest layer of Sanskrit literature and the oldest scriptures of Hinduism....
and
mantraA mantra is a sound, syllable, word, or group of words that is considered capable of "creating transformation"...
s. The oldest phonetic textbooks are the
Pratishakyas (
, a
vrddhi' is a Sanskrit word meaning "growth" . In Panini's grammar, it is also a technical term for a group of long vowels. In Indo-European linguistics, it has become a term for the lengthened grade of the ablaut vowel gradation peculiar to the Indo-European languages...
abstract from
SanskritSanskrit , is a historical Indo-Aryan language and the primary liturgical language of Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism.Buddhism: besides Pali, see Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Today, it is listed as one of the 22 scheduled languages of India and is an official language of the state of Uttarakhand...
), describing pronunciation, intonation of Sanskrit, as well as the Sanskrit rules of
sandhiSandhi is a cover term for a wide variety of phonological processes that occur at morpheme or word boundaries . Examples include the fusion of sounds across word boundaries and the alteration of sounds due to neighboring sounds or due to the grammatical function of adjacent words...
(word combination), specific to individual schools or
ShakhaA shakha , is a Hindu theological school that specializes in learning certain Vedic texts, or else the traditional texts followed by such a school. An individual follower of a particular school or recension is called a ...
s of the Vedas.
Pratishakhyas
The Pratishakhyas, which evolved from the more ancient Vedic Texts padapathas between c. 3100-800 BCE, deal with the manner in which the Vedas are to be enunciated. There are separate Pratishakhyas for each Veda. They are a complement to the books called Shiksha written by various authorities.
Five Pratishakhyas are preserved:
- Rigveda
The Rigveda is an ancient Indian sacred collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns...
-Pratishakya (Shakala shakha), attributed to ShaunakaShaunaka is the name applied to teachers, and to a Shakha of the Atharvaveda. It is especially the name of a celebrated Sanskrit grammarian, author of the , the , the and five Anukramaṇīs to the Rigveda. He is claimed as the teacher of Katyayana and especially of Ashvalayana, and is said to have...
- Shukla Yajurveda-Pratishakhya
- Taittiriya
Taittirīya is a shaka of the Black Yajurveda*Taittiriya Samhita , see Black Yajurveda*Taittiriya Upanishad...
(Black Yajurveda) Pratishakhya, ed. Whitney 1871 http://www.sanskritweb.net/yajurveda/tp-comb.pdf
- Atharvaveda
The Atharvaveda is a sacred text of Hinduism and one of the four Vedas, often called the "fourth Veda"....
-Pratishakhya (Shaunakiya shakha)
- Shaunakiya Chaturaadhyaayika (Shaunakiya shakha)
The Shiksha Texts and the Pratishakhyas led to a great clarity in understanding the surface structure of language. For clarity of pronunciation, they propose breaking up the large Vedic compounds into
stemIn linguistics, a stem is a part of a word. The term is used with slightly different meanings.In one usage, a stem is a form to which affixes can be attached. Thus, in this usage, the English word friendships contains the stem friend, to which the derivational suffix -ship is attached to form a new...
s, prefixes, and suffixes. Certain styles of recitation (
) such as the
involved switching syllables, repeating the last word of a line at the beginning of the next, and other permutations. In the process, a considerable amount of
morphologyIn linguistics, morphology is the identification, analysis and description, in a language, of the structure of morphemes and other linguistic units, such as words, affixes, parts of speech, intonation/stress, or implied context...
is discussed, particularly regarding the combination of sequential sounds, which leads to the modalities of
sandhiSandhi is a cover term for a wide variety of phonological processes that occur at morpheme or word boundaries . Examples include the fusion of sounds across word boundaries and the alteration of sounds due to neighboring sounds or due to the grammatical function of adjacent words...
. An even more important discovery recorded in the Pratishakhya texts, particularly the Samaveda Pratishakhya, which is claimed to be the earliest), is an organization of the
stop consonantIn phonetics, a plosive, also known as an occlusive or an oral stop, is a stop consonant in which the vocal tract is blocked so that all airflow ceases. The occlusion may be done with the tongue , lips , and &...
sounds into a 5x5
varga or square:
- ca cha ja jha ña
- ta tha da dha na
- pa pha ba bha ma
in which difference between sounds is preserved whether you recite it horizontally or vertically. This was extended and completed with fricatives and sibilants, semi-vowels,
and
vowelIn phonetics, a vowel is a sound in spoken language, such as English ah! or oh! , pronounced with an open vocal tract so that there is no build-up of air pressure at any point above the glottis. This contrasts with consonants, such as English sh! , where there is a constriction or closure at some...
s, and was eventually codified into the Brahmi alphabet, which is one of the most systematic sound to writing mapping. A scholar has commented: Mendelejev's Periodic system of elements, the varga system was the result of centuries of analysis. In the course of that development, the basic concepts of phonology were discovered and defined.
However, it will be too childish to say that the Varga system is the only important contribution of the Shiksha Texts and the Pratishakshyas. These are much elaborate systems which deal with the generation and classification of sound. According to the old tradition, sound is generated when four conditions are satisfied: viz; a ground or base, an electromagnetic force, a gravitational force implying the existence of other nearby bodies or particles and space for the bodies to expand. The middle two parameters generate vibration in the bodies. Depending upon the magnitude of these parameters, there are 304 types of sounds, out of which 12 types are within human audible range. The lowest of these is called sphota and the highest is called mahaghanarava.
The Vedic language, which is a highly developed and scientific language, is supposed to have been brought by extra-terrestrial beings who inhabited Earth in its earlier period. They interacted with the population that grew indegeneously. Kashyap Samhita gives details of the evolutionary forms for the past 39 million years. According to it, the present human form developed only about 5100 years ago. The earliest forms resemble those of Dinosaurs. The indigenous language was without grammar; hence without clarity. Sanskrit, which literally means reformed, was a later creation due to fusion between the Vedic language and the local language. Classical Tamil or sentamil as distinct from modern Tamil (which is of later origin), is a sister language of Sanskrit. Since it was still difficult for common use, two other grammatical language groups developed in India - Prakrit and koduntamil, which is the precursor of modern Tamil. Other Indian languages developed from these.
The Brahmi script is named after the Vedic script. Shukla Yajurveda Pratishakhya (8-25) calls the letters of the alphabet as Brahma Rashi meaning Universal letter unit. From this, the name Brahmi originated for the script.
Other Shiksha texts
In addition, several Shiksha texts exist, most of them in metrical verse form but a few in sutra form. Some of these surviving texts are: English translation of Paniniya Siksa.pdf
- Amoghanandini Shiksha
- Apisali Shiksha (in sutra form)
- Aranya Shiksha
- Atreya Shiksha
- Avasananirnyaya Shiksha
- Bharadvaja Shiksha
- Chandra Shiksha of Chandragomin (sutra form)
- Charayaniya Shiksha
- Galadrka Shiksha
- Kalanirnya Shiksha
- Katyayani Shiksha
- Shiksha
- Kaundinya Shiksha
- Keshavi Shiksha
- Kramakarika Shiksha
- Kramasandhaana Shiksha
- Laghumoghanandini Shiksha
- Lakshmikanta Shiksha
- Lomashi Shiksha
- Madhyandina Shiksha
- Mandavya Shiksha
- Mallasharmakrta Shiksha
- Manasvaara Shiksha
- Manduki Shiksha
- Naradiya Shiksha
- Paniniya Shiksha (versified)
- Paniniya Shiksha (in sutra form)
- Paniniya Shiksha (with accents)
- Parashari Shiksha
- Padyaatmika Keshavi Shiksha
- Pari Shiksha
- Pratishakhyapradipa Shiksha
- Sarvasammata Shiksha
- Shaishiriya Shiksha
- Shamaana Shiksha
- Shambhu Shiksha
- Shodashashloki Shiksha
- Shikshasamgraha
- Siddhanta Shiksha
- Svaraankusha Shiksha
- Svarashtaka Shiksha
- Svaravyanjana Shiksha
- Vasishtha Shiksha
- Varnaratnapradipa Shiksha
- Vyaali Shiksha
- Vyasa Shiksha
- Yajnavalkya Shiksha
Although many of these Shiksha texts an attached to specific Vedic schools, others are late texts.
Syllabicity
Traditionally syllables (not letters) in Sanskrit are called "
AksharaAkshara may mean:*"letter" in Hindi*"everlasting" or "imperishable"*in Sanskrit grammar, "syllable", see Shiksha*a consonant grapheme, with an inherent vowel, of a script of the Brahmic family....
", meaning "imperishable (entity)", as it were "atoms" of speech. These aksharas are basically classified mainly into two types,
- Svara (pratyahara
The Shiva Sutras or Māheshvara Sutras are fourteen verses that organize the phonemes of the Sanskrit language as referred to in the of , the foundational text of Sanskrit grammar...
aC) : VowelIn phonetics, a vowel is a sound in spoken language, such as English ah! or oh! , pronounced with an open vocal tract so that there is no build-up of air pressure at any point above the glottis. This contrasts with consonants, such as English sh! , where there is a constriction or closure at some...
- Vyanjana (pratyahara haL) : Consonant
In articulatory phonetics, a consonant is a speech sound that is articulated with complete or partial closure of the vocal tract. Examples are , pronounced with the lips; , pronounced with the front of the tongue; , pronounced with the back of the tongue; , pronounced in the throat; and ,...
are also known as
i.e. they are main sounds in speech, without which speech is not possible. We find same notation used for referring the Tamil vowels calling them as
Uyir ezhutthu. Pāṇini referred to svara by
ac pratyahāra. After him, they are referred as
.
Vyañjana means embellishment, i.e., consonants are treated as embellishment for the vowels to make a language
sonorantIn phonetics and phonology, a sonorant is a speech sound that is produced without turbulent airflow in the vocal tract; fricatives and plosives are not sonorants. Vowels are sonorants, as are consonants like and . Other consonants, like or , restrict the airflow enough to cause turbulence, and...
. They are also known as
Prāni akshara i.e., they are like a body in which life (svara) will be present. We find same notation used for referring the Tamil consonants calling them as
Mey ezhutthu. Pāṇini referred to vyañjana by
Hal Pratyahāra. After him, they are referred as
Hal akshara.
Again vyañjana are divided into three types,
- Vyañjana
- Sparśa : Stop
In phonetics, a plosive, also known as an occlusive or an oral stop, is a stop consonant in which the vocal tract is blocked so that all airflow ceases. The occlusion may be done with the tongue , lips , and &...
- Antastha : Approximant
- : Sibilant
include syllables from
Ka to
Ma they are 25 in number. Antastha akṣaras include syllables
ya,
ra,
la and
va. include
śa,
sha,
sa and
ha.
It was told that a vowel can be pronounced in 18 ways (3x2x3) in Sanskrit language based on
timingIsochrony is the postulated rhythmic division of time into equal portions by a language. Isochrony is one of the three aspects of prosody, the others being intonation and stress.Three alternative ways in which a language can divide time are postulated:...
,
mannerIn linguistics, manner of articulation describes how the tongue, lips, jaw, and other speech organs are involved in making a sound. Often the concept is only used for the production of consonants, even though the movement of the articulars will also greatly alter the resonant properties of the...
, and
accent-Speech and language:* Accent , pronunciation characteristic of a certain locality* Accent , of a word* Stress , tone levels and emphasis used in many languages for words or grammar* A diacritical mark is also known as an accent....
of pronunciation.
Morae
Each vowel can be classified into three types based on the time of pronunciation (morae). The unit of time is
mātra (approx. 0.4 second). They are,
- Hrasva : Short vowel, Eka-mātra
- Dīrgha : Long vowel, Dvi-mātra
- : Prolonged vowel, Tri-mātra (
- See Shiksa
Shiksa or shikse, is a Yiddish and Polish word that has moved into English usage, mostly in North American Jewish culture, as a term for a non-Jewish woman, initially and sometimes still pejorative but now often used satirically...
for the Yiddish slang word.
{{Hindu scriptures}}
Shiksha (Devanagari: शिक्षा IASTThe International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration is a transliteration scheme that allows a lossless romanization of Indic scripts as employed by the Sanskrit language.-Popularity:...
: {{IAST|śikṣā}}) is one of the six VedangaThe Vedanga are six auxiliary disciplines traditionally associated with the study and understanding of the Vedas.#Shiksha : phonetics, phonology and morphophonology #Kalpa : ritual#Vyakarana : grammar...
s, treating the traditional HinduHindu refers to an identity associated with the philosophical, religious and cultural systems that are indigenous to the Indian subcontinent. As used in the Constitution of India, the word "Hindu" is also attributed to all persons professing any Indian religion...
science of phoneticsPhonetics is a branch of linguistics that comprises the study of the sounds of human speech, or—in the case of sign languages—the equivalent aspects of sign. It is concerned with the physical properties of speech sounds or signs : their physiological production, acoustic properties, auditory...
and phonologyPhonology is, broadly speaking, the subdiscipline of linguistics concerned with the sounds of language. That is, it is the systematic use of sound to encode meaning in any spoken human language, or the field of linguistics studying this use...
of SanskritSanskrit , is a historical Indo-Aryan language and the primary liturgical language of Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism.Buddhism: besides Pali, see Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Today, it is listed as one of the 22 scheduled languages of India and is an official language of the state of Uttarakhand...
.
Its aim is the teaching of the correct pronunciation of the Vedic hymnsThe Vedas are a large body of texts originating in ancient India. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute the oldest layer of Sanskrit literature and the oldest scriptures of Hinduism....
and mantraA mantra is a sound, syllable, word, or group of words that is considered capable of "creating transformation"...
s. The oldest phonetic textbooks are the Pratishakyas ({{IAST|prātiśākhya}}, a vrddhi' is a Sanskrit word meaning "growth" . In Panini's grammar, it is also a technical term for a group of long vowels. In Indo-European linguistics, it has become a term for the lengthened grade of the ablaut vowel gradation peculiar to the Indo-European languages...
abstract from SanskritSanskrit , is a historical Indo-Aryan language and the primary liturgical language of Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism.Buddhism: besides Pali, see Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Today, it is listed as one of the 22 scheduled languages of India and is an official language of the state of Uttarakhand...
{{IAST|prati-śākhā}}), describing pronunciation, intonation of Sanskrit, as well as the Sanskrit rules of sandhiSandhi is a cover term for a wide variety of phonological processes that occur at morpheme or word boundaries . Examples include the fusion of sounds across word boundaries and the alteration of sounds due to neighboring sounds or due to the grammatical function of adjacent words...
(word combination), specific to individual schools or ShakhaA shakha , is a Hindu theological school that specializes in learning certain Vedic texts, or else the traditional texts followed by such a school. An individual follower of a particular school or recension is called a ...
s of the Vedas.
Pratishakhyas
The Pratishakhyas, which evolved from the more ancient Vedic Texts padapathas ({{IAST|padapāṭha}}) between c. 3100-800 BCE, deal with the manner in which the Vedas are to be enunciated. There are separate Pratishakhyas for each Veda. They are a complement to the books called Shiksha written by various authorities.
Five Pratishakhyas are preserved:
- Rigveda
The Rigveda is an ancient Indian sacred collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns...
-Pratishakya (Shakala shakha), attributed to ShaunakaShaunaka is the name applied to teachers, and to a Shakha of the Atharvaveda. It is especially the name of a celebrated Sanskrit grammarian, author of the , the , the and five Anukramaṇīs to the Rigveda. He is claimed as the teacher of Katyayana and especially of Ashvalayana, and is said to have...
- Shukla Yajurveda-Pratishakhya
- Taittiriya
Taittirīya is a shaka of the Black Yajurveda*Taittiriya Samhita , see Black Yajurveda*Taittiriya Upanishad...
(Black Yajurveda) Pratishakhya, ed. Whitney 1871 http://www.sanskritweb.net/yajurveda/tp-comb.pdf
- Atharvaveda
The Atharvaveda is a sacred text of Hinduism and one of the four Vedas, often called the "fourth Veda"....
-Pratishakhya (Shaunakiya shakha)
- Shaunakiya Chaturaadhyaayika (Shaunakiya shakha)
The Shiksha Texts and the Pratishakhyas led to a great clarity in understanding the surface structure of language. For clarity of pronunciation, they propose breaking up the large Vedic compounds into stemIn linguistics, a stem is a part of a word. The term is used with slightly different meanings.In one usage, a stem is a form to which affixes can be attached. Thus, in this usage, the English word friendships contains the stem friend, to which the derivational suffix -ship is attached to form a new...
s, prefixes, and suffixes. Certain styles of recitation ({{IAST|pāṭha}}) such as the {{IAST|jaṭāpāṭha}} involved switching syllables, repeating the last word of a line at the beginning of the next, and other permutations. In the process, a considerable amount of morphologyIn linguistics, morphology is the identification, analysis and description, in a language, of the structure of morphemes and other linguistic units, such as words, affixes, parts of speech, intonation/stress, or implied context...
is discussed, particularly regarding the combination of sequential sounds, which leads to the modalities of sandhiSandhi is a cover term for a wide variety of phonological processes that occur at morpheme or word boundaries . Examples include the fusion of sounds across word boundaries and the alteration of sounds due to neighboring sounds or due to the grammatical function of adjacent words...
. An even more important discovery recorded in the Pratishakhya texts, particularly the Samaveda Pratishakhya, which is claimed to be the earliest), is an organization of the stop consonantIn phonetics, a plosive, also known as an occlusive or an oral stop, is a stop consonant in which the vocal tract is blocked so that all airflow ceases. The occlusion may be done with the tongue , lips , and &...
sounds into a 5x5 varga or square:
- {{IAST|ka kha ga gha ṅa}}
- ca cha ja jha ña
- {{IAST|ṭa ṭha ḍa ḍha ṇa}}
- ta tha da dha na
- pa pha ba bha ma
in which difference between sounds is preserved whether you recite it horizontally or vertically. This was extended and completed with fricatives and sibilants, semi-vowels,
and vowelIn phonetics, a vowel is a sound in spoken language, such as English ah! or oh! , pronounced with an open vocal tract so that there is no build-up of air pressure at any point above the glottis. This contrasts with consonants, such as English sh! , where there is a constriction or closure at some...
s, and was eventually codified into the Brahmi alphabet, which is one of the most systematic sound to writing mapping. A scholar has commented: Mendelejev's Periodic system of elements, the varga system was the result of centuries of analysis. In the course of that development, the basic concepts of phonology were discovered and defined.
However, it will be too childish to say that the Varga system is the only important contribution of the Shiksha Texts and the Pratishakshyas. These are much elaborate systems which deal with the generation and classification of sound. According to the old tradition, sound is generated when four conditions are satisfied: viz; a ground or base, an electromagnetic force, a gravitational force implying the existence of other nearby bodies or particles and space for the bodies to expand. The middle two parameters generate vibration in the bodies. Depending upon the magnitude of these parameters, there are 304 types of sounds, out of which 12 types are within human audible range. The lowest of these is called sphota and the highest is called mahaghanarava.
The Vedic language, which is a highly developed and scientific language, is supposed to have been brought by extra-terrestrial beings who inhabited Earth in its earlier period. They interacted with the population that grew indegeneously. Kashyap Samhita gives details of the evolutionary forms for the past 39 million years. According to it, the present human form developed only about 5100 years ago. The earliest forms resemble those of Dinosaurs. The indigenous language was without grammar; hence without clarity. Sanskrit, which literally means reformed, was a later creation due to fusion between the Vedic language and the local language. Classical Tamil or sentamil as distinct from modern Tamil (which is of later origin), is a sister language of Sanskrit. Since it was still difficult for common use, two other grammatical language groups developed in India - Prakrit and koduntamil, which is the precursor of modern Tamil. Other Indian languages developed from these.
The Brahmi script is named after the Vedic script. Shukla Yajurveda Pratishakhya (8-25) calls the letters of the alphabet as Brahma Rashi meaning Universal letter unit. From this, the name Brahmi originated for the script.
Other Shiksha texts
In addition, several Shiksha texts exist, most of them in metrical verse form but a few in sutra form. Some of these surviving texts are: English translation of Paniniya Siksa.pdf
- Amoghanandini Shiksha
- Apisali Shiksha (in sutra form)
- Aranya Shiksha
- Atreya Shiksha
- Avasananirnyaya Shiksha
- Bharadvaja Shiksha
- Chandra Shiksha of Chandragomin (sutra form)
- Charayaniya Shiksha
- Galadrka Shiksha
- Kalanirnya Shiksha
- Katyayani Shiksha
- Shiksha
- Kaundinya Shiksha
- Keshavi Shiksha
- Kramakarika Shiksha
- Kramasandhaana Shiksha
- Laghumoghanandini Shiksha
- Lakshmikanta Shiksha
- Lomashi Shiksha
- Madhyandina Shiksha
- Mandavya Shiksha
- Mallasharmakrta Shiksha
- Manasvaara Shiksha
- Manduki Shiksha
- Naradiya Shiksha
- Paniniya Shiksha (versified)
- Paniniya Shiksha (in sutra form)
- Paniniya Shiksha (with accents)
- Parashari Shiksha
- Padyaatmika Keshavi Shiksha
- Pari Shiksha
- Pratishakhyapradipa Shiksha
- Sarvasammata Shiksha
- Shaishiriya Shiksha
- Shamaana Shiksha
- Shambhu Shiksha
- Shodashashloki Shiksha
- Shikshasamgraha
- Siddhanta Shiksha
- Svaraankusha Shiksha
- Svarashtaka Shiksha
- Svaravyanjana Shiksha
- Vasishtha Shiksha
- Varnaratnapradipa Shiksha
- Vyaali Shiksha
- Vyasa Shiksha
- Yajnavalkya Shiksha
Although many of these Shiksha texts an attached to specific Vedic schools, others are late texts.
Syllabicity
Traditionally syllables (not letters) in Sanskrit are called "AksharaAkshara may mean:*"letter" in Hindi*"everlasting" or "imperishable"*in Sanskrit grammar, "syllable", see Shiksha*a consonant grapheme, with an inherent vowel, of a script of the Brahmic family....
", meaning "imperishable (entity)", as it were "atoms" of speech. These aksharas are basically classified mainly into two types,
- Svara (pratyahara
The Shiva Sutras or Māheshvara Sutras are fourteen verses that organize the phonemes of the Sanskrit language as referred to in the of , the foundational text of Sanskrit grammar...
aC) : VowelIn phonetics, a vowel is a sound in spoken language, such as English ah! or oh! , pronounced with an open vocal tract so that there is no build-up of air pressure at any point above the glottis. This contrasts with consonants, such as English sh! , where there is a constriction or closure at some...
- Vyanjana (pratyahara haL) : Consonant
In articulatory phonetics, a consonant is a speech sound that is articulated with complete or partial closure of the vocal tract. Examples are , pronounced with the lips; , pronounced with the front of the tongue; , pronounced with the back of the tongue; , pronounced in the throat; and ,...
{{IAST|Svara akṣaras}} are also known as {{IAST|prāṇa akṣara}} i.e. they are main sounds in speech, without which speech is not possible. We find same notation used for referring the Tamil vowels calling them as Uyir ezhutthu. Pāṇini referred to svara by ac pratyahāra. After him, they are referred as {{IAST|ac Akṣara}}.
Vyañjana means embellishment, i.e., consonants are treated as embellishment for the vowels to make a language sonorantIn phonetics and phonology, a sonorant is a speech sound that is produced without turbulent airflow in the vocal tract; fricatives and plosives are not sonorants. Vowels are sonorants, as are consonants like and . Other consonants, like or , restrict the airflow enough to cause turbulence, and...
. They are also known as Prāni akshara i.e., they are like a body in which life (svara) will be present. We find same notation used for referring the Tamil consonants calling them as Mey ezhutthu. Pāṇini referred to vyañjana by Hal Pratyahāra. After him, they are referred as Hal akshara.
Again vyañjana {{IAST|akṣaras}} are divided into three types,
- Vyañjana
- Sparśa : Stop
In phonetics, a plosive, also known as an occlusive or an oral stop, is a stop consonant in which the vocal tract is blocked so that all airflow ceases. The occlusion may be done with the tongue , lips , and &...
- Antastha : Approximant
- {{IAST|Ūṣman}}: Sibilant
{{IAST|Sparśa akṣaras}} include syllables from Ka to Ma they are 25 in number. Antastha akṣaras include syllables ya, ra, la and va. {{IAST|Ūshman akṣaras}} include śa, sha, sa and ha.
It was told that a vowel can be pronounced in 18 ways (3x2x3) in Sanskrit language based on timingIsochrony is the postulated rhythmic division of time into equal portions by a language. Isochrony is one of the three aspects of prosody, the others being intonation and stress.Three alternative ways in which a language can divide time are postulated:...
, mannerIn linguistics, manner of articulation describes how the tongue, lips, jaw, and other speech organs are involved in making a sound. Often the concept is only used for the production of consonants, even though the movement of the articulars will also greatly alter the resonant properties of the...
, and accent-Speech and language:* Accent , pronunciation characteristic of a certain locality* Accent , of a word* Stress , tone levels and emphasis used in many languages for words or grammar* A diacritical mark is also known as an accent....
of pronunciation.
Morae
Each vowel can be classified into three types based on the time of pronunciation (morae). The unit of time is mātra (approx. 0.4 second). They are,
- Hrasva : Short vowel, Eka-mātra
- Dīrgha : Long vowel, Dvi-mātra
- {{IAST|Pluta}} : Prolonged vowel, Tri-mātra (
- See Shiksa
Shiksa or shikse, is a Yiddish and Polish word that has moved into English usage, mostly in North American Jewish culture, as a term for a non-Jewish woman, initially and sometimes still pejorative but now often used satirically...
for the Yiddish slang word.
{{Hindu scriptures}}
Shiksha (Devanagari: शिक्षा IASTThe International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration is a transliteration scheme that allows a lossless romanization of Indic scripts as employed by the Sanskrit language.-Popularity:...
: {{IAST|śikṣā}}) is one of the six VedangaThe Vedanga are six auxiliary disciplines traditionally associated with the study and understanding of the Vedas.#Shiksha : phonetics, phonology and morphophonology #Kalpa : ritual#Vyakarana : grammar...
s, treating the traditional HinduHindu refers to an identity associated with the philosophical, religious and cultural systems that are indigenous to the Indian subcontinent. As used in the Constitution of India, the word "Hindu" is also attributed to all persons professing any Indian religion...
science of phoneticsPhonetics is a branch of linguistics that comprises the study of the sounds of human speech, or—in the case of sign languages—the equivalent aspects of sign. It is concerned with the physical properties of speech sounds or signs : their physiological production, acoustic properties, auditory...
and phonologyPhonology is, broadly speaking, the subdiscipline of linguistics concerned with the sounds of language. That is, it is the systematic use of sound to encode meaning in any spoken human language, or the field of linguistics studying this use...
of SanskritSanskrit , is a historical Indo-Aryan language and the primary liturgical language of Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism.Buddhism: besides Pali, see Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Today, it is listed as one of the 22 scheduled languages of India and is an official language of the state of Uttarakhand...
.
Its aim is the teaching of the correct pronunciation of the Vedic hymnsThe Vedas are a large body of texts originating in ancient India. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute the oldest layer of Sanskrit literature and the oldest scriptures of Hinduism....
and mantraA mantra is a sound, syllable, word, or group of words that is considered capable of "creating transformation"...
s. The oldest phonetic textbooks are the Pratishakyas ({{IAST|prātiśākhya}}, a vrddhi' is a Sanskrit word meaning "growth" . In Panini's grammar, it is also a technical term for a group of long vowels. In Indo-European linguistics, it has become a term for the lengthened grade of the ablaut vowel gradation peculiar to the Indo-European languages...
abstract from SanskritSanskrit , is a historical Indo-Aryan language and the primary liturgical language of Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism.Buddhism: besides Pali, see Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Today, it is listed as one of the 22 scheduled languages of India and is an official language of the state of Uttarakhand...
{{IAST|prati-śākhā}}), describing pronunciation, intonation of Sanskrit, as well as the Sanskrit rules of sandhiSandhi is a cover term for a wide variety of phonological processes that occur at morpheme or word boundaries . Examples include the fusion of sounds across word boundaries and the alteration of sounds due to neighboring sounds or due to the grammatical function of adjacent words...
(word combination), specific to individual schools or ShakhaA shakha , is a Hindu theological school that specializes in learning certain Vedic texts, or else the traditional texts followed by such a school. An individual follower of a particular school or recension is called a ...
s of the Vedas.
Pratishakhyas
The Pratishakhyas, which evolved from the more ancient Vedic Texts padapathas ({{IAST|padapāṭha}}) between c. 3100-800 BCE, deal with the manner in which the Vedas are to be enunciated. There are separate Pratishakhyas for each Veda. They are a complement to the books called Shiksha written by various authorities.
Five Pratishakhyas are preserved:
- Rigveda
The Rigveda is an ancient Indian sacred collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns...
-Pratishakya (Shakala shakha), attributed to ShaunakaShaunaka is the name applied to teachers, and to a Shakha of the Atharvaveda. It is especially the name of a celebrated Sanskrit grammarian, author of the , the , the and five Anukramaṇīs to the Rigveda. He is claimed as the teacher of Katyayana and especially of Ashvalayana, and is said to have...
- Shukla Yajurveda-Pratishakhya
- Taittiriya
Taittirīya is a shaka of the Black Yajurveda*Taittiriya Samhita , see Black Yajurveda*Taittiriya Upanishad...
(Black Yajurveda) Pratishakhya, ed. Whitney 1871 http://www.sanskritweb.net/yajurveda/tp-comb.pdf
- Atharvaveda
The Atharvaveda is a sacred text of Hinduism and one of the four Vedas, often called the "fourth Veda"....
-Pratishakhya (Shaunakiya shakha)
- Shaunakiya Chaturaadhyaayika (Shaunakiya shakha)
The Shiksha Texts and the Pratishakhyas led to a great clarity in understanding the surface structure of language. For clarity of pronunciation, they propose breaking up the large Vedic compounds into stemIn linguistics, a stem is a part of a word. The term is used with slightly different meanings.In one usage, a stem is a form to which affixes can be attached. Thus, in this usage, the English word friendships contains the stem friend, to which the derivational suffix -ship is attached to form a new...
s, prefixes, and suffixes. Certain styles of recitation ({{IAST|pāṭha}}) such as the {{IAST|jaṭāpāṭha}} involved switching syllables, repeating the last word of a line at the beginning of the next, and other permutations. In the process, a considerable amount of morphologyIn linguistics, morphology is the identification, analysis and description, in a language, of the structure of morphemes and other linguistic units, such as words, affixes, parts of speech, intonation/stress, or implied context...
is discussed, particularly regarding the combination of sequential sounds, which leads to the modalities of sandhiSandhi is a cover term for a wide variety of phonological processes that occur at morpheme or word boundaries . Examples include the fusion of sounds across word boundaries and the alteration of sounds due to neighboring sounds or due to the grammatical function of adjacent words...
. An even more important discovery recorded in the Pratishakhya texts, particularly the Samaveda Pratishakhya, which is claimed to be the earliest), is an organization of the stop consonantIn phonetics, a plosive, also known as an occlusive or an oral stop, is a stop consonant in which the vocal tract is blocked so that all airflow ceases. The occlusion may be done with the tongue , lips , and &...
sounds into a 5x5 varga or square:
- {{IAST|ka kha ga gha ṅa}}
- ca cha ja jha ña
- {{IAST|ṭa ṭha ḍa ḍha ṇa}}
- ta tha da dha na
- pa pha ba bha ma
in which difference between sounds is preserved whether you recite it horizontally or vertically. This was extended and completed with fricatives and sibilants, semi-vowels,
and vowelIn phonetics, a vowel is a sound in spoken language, such as English ah! or oh! , pronounced with an open vocal tract so that there is no build-up of air pressure at any point above the glottis. This contrasts with consonants, such as English sh! , where there is a constriction or closure at some...
s, and was eventually codified into the Brahmi alphabet, which is one of the most systematic sound to writing mapping. A scholar has commented: Mendelejev's Periodic system of elements, the varga system was the result of centuries of analysis. In the course of that development, the basic concepts of phonology were discovered and defined.
However, it will be too childish to say that the Varga system is the only important contribution of the Shiksha Texts and the Pratishakshyas. These are much elaborate systems which deal with the generation and classification of sound. According to the old tradition, sound is generated when four conditions are satisfied: viz; a ground or base, an electromagnetic force, a gravitational force implying the existence of other nearby bodies or particles and space for the bodies to expand. The middle two parameters generate vibration in the bodies. Depending upon the magnitude of these parameters, there are 304 types of sounds, out of which 12 types are within human audible range. The lowest of these is called sphota and the highest is called mahaghanarava.
The Vedic language, which is a highly developed and scientific language, is supposed to have been brought by extra-terrestrial beings who inhabited Earth in its earlier period. They interacted with the population that grew indegeneously. Kashyap Samhita gives details of the evolutionary forms for the past 39 million years. According to it, the present human form developed only about 5100 years ago. The earliest forms resemble those of Dinosaurs. The indigenous language was without grammar; hence without clarity. Sanskrit, which literally means reformed, was a later creation due to fusion between the Vedic language and the local language. Classical Tamil or sentamil as distinct from modern Tamil (which is of later origin), is a sister language of Sanskrit. Since it was still difficult for common use, two other grammatical language groups developed in India - Prakrit and koduntamil, which is the precursor of modern Tamil. Other Indian languages developed from these.
The Brahmi script is named after the Vedic script. Shukla Yajurveda Pratishakhya (8-25) calls the letters of the alphabet as Brahma Rashi meaning Universal letter unit. From this, the name Brahmi originated for the script.
Other Shiksha texts
In addition, several Shiksha texts exist, most of them in metrical verse form but a few in sutra form. Some of these surviving texts are: English translation of Paniniya Siksa.pdf
- Amoghanandini Shiksha
- Apisali Shiksha (in sutra form)
- Aranya Shiksha
- Atreya Shiksha
- Avasananirnyaya Shiksha
- Bharadvaja Shiksha
- Chandra Shiksha of Chandragomin (sutra form)
- Charayaniya Shiksha
- Galadrka Shiksha
- Kalanirnya Shiksha
- Katyayani Shiksha
- Shiksha
- Kaundinya Shiksha
- Keshavi Shiksha
- Kramakarika Shiksha
- Kramasandhaana Shiksha
- Laghumoghanandini Shiksha
- Lakshmikanta Shiksha
- Lomashi Shiksha
- Madhyandina Shiksha
- Mandavya Shiksha
- Mallasharmakrta Shiksha
- Manasvaara Shiksha
- Manduki Shiksha
- Naradiya Shiksha
- Paniniya Shiksha (versified)
- Paniniya Shiksha (in sutra form)
- Paniniya Shiksha (with accents)
- Parashari Shiksha
- Padyaatmika Keshavi Shiksha
- Pari Shiksha
- Pratishakhyapradipa Shiksha
- Sarvasammata Shiksha
- Shaishiriya Shiksha
- Shamaana Shiksha
- Shambhu Shiksha
- Shodashashloki Shiksha
- Shikshasamgraha
- Siddhanta Shiksha
- Svaraankusha Shiksha
- Svarashtaka Shiksha
- Svaravyanjana Shiksha
- Vasishtha Shiksha
- Varnaratnapradipa Shiksha
- Vyaali Shiksha
- Vyasa Shiksha
- Yajnavalkya Shiksha
Although many of these Shiksha texts an attached to specific Vedic schools, others are late texts.
Syllabicity
Traditionally syllables (not letters) in Sanskrit are called "AksharaAkshara may mean:*"letter" in Hindi*"everlasting" or "imperishable"*in Sanskrit grammar, "syllable", see Shiksha*a consonant grapheme, with an inherent vowel, of a script of the Brahmic family....
", meaning "imperishable (entity)", as it were "atoms" of speech. These aksharas are basically classified mainly into two types,
- Svara (pratyahara
The Shiva Sutras or Māheshvara Sutras are fourteen verses that organize the phonemes of the Sanskrit language as referred to in the of , the foundational text of Sanskrit grammar...
aC) : VowelIn phonetics, a vowel is a sound in spoken language, such as English ah! or oh! , pronounced with an open vocal tract so that there is no build-up of air pressure at any point above the glottis. This contrasts with consonants, such as English sh! , where there is a constriction or closure at some...
- Vyanjana (pratyahara haL) : Consonant
In articulatory phonetics, a consonant is a speech sound that is articulated with complete or partial closure of the vocal tract. Examples are , pronounced with the lips; , pronounced with the front of the tongue; , pronounced with the back of the tongue; , pronounced in the throat; and ,...
{{IAST|Svara akṣaras}} are also known as {{IAST|prāṇa akṣara}} i.e. they are main sounds in speech, without which speech is not possible. We find same notation used for referring the Tamil vowels calling them as Uyir ezhutthu. Pāṇini referred to svara by ac pratyahāra. After him, they are referred as {{IAST|ac Akṣara}}.
Vyañjana means embellishment, i.e., consonants are treated as embellishment for the vowels to make a language sonorantIn phonetics and phonology, a sonorant is a speech sound that is produced without turbulent airflow in the vocal tract; fricatives and plosives are not sonorants. Vowels are sonorants, as are consonants like and . Other consonants, like or , restrict the airflow enough to cause turbulence, and...
. They are also known as Prāni akshara i.e., they are like a body in which life (svara) will be present. We find same notation used for referring the Tamil consonants calling them as Mey ezhutthu. Pāṇini referred to vyañjana by Hal Pratyahāra. After him, they are referred as Hal akshara.
Again vyañjana {{IAST|akṣaras}} are divided into three types,
- Vyañjana
- Sparśa : Stop
In phonetics, a plosive, also known as an occlusive or an oral stop, is a stop consonant in which the vocal tract is blocked so that all airflow ceases. The occlusion may be done with the tongue , lips , and &...
- Antastha : Approximant
- {{IAST|Ūṣman}}: Sibilant
{{IAST|Sparśa akṣaras}} include syllables from Ka to Ma they are 25 in number. Antastha akṣaras include syllables ya, ra, la and va. {{IAST|Ūshman akṣaras}} include śa, sha, sa and ha.
It was told that a vowel can be pronounced in 18 ways (3x2x3) in Sanskrit language based on timingIsochrony is the postulated rhythmic division of time into equal portions by a language. Isochrony is one of the three aspects of prosody, the others being intonation and stress.Three alternative ways in which a language can divide time are postulated:...
, mannerIn linguistics, manner of articulation describes how the tongue, lips, jaw, and other speech organs are involved in making a sound. Often the concept is only used for the production of consonants, even though the movement of the articulars will also greatly alter the resonant properties of the...
, and accent-Speech and language:* Accent , pronunciation characteristic of a certain locality* Accent , of a word* Stress , tone levels and emphasis used in many languages for words or grammar* A diacritical mark is also known as an accent....
of pronunciation.
Morae
Each vowel can be classified into three types based on the time of pronunciation (morae). The unit of time is mātra (approx. 0.4 second). They are,
- Hrasva : Short vowel, Eka-mātra
- Dīrgha : Long vowel, Dvi-mātra
- {{IAST|Pluta}} : Prolonged vowel, Tri-mātra ({{IAST
Pluti is the term for overlong vowels in Sanskrit. Pluti vowels are usually noted with a numeral "3" , , also ....
)
Each vowel can be pronounced in three ways according to timespan of articulation.
×
Nasality
Each vowel can be classified into two types based on the manner of pronunciation. They are
- Mukha : Oral
- Nāsika : Nasal
A nasal vowel is a vowel that is produced with a lowering of the velum so that air escapes both through nose as well as the mouth. By contrast, oral vowels are ordinary vowels without this nasalisation...
(all vowels are considered phonemically oral)
Pitch accent
{{main|Vedic accent}}
Each vowel can be classified into three types based on accent of articulation. This was lost in Classical Sanskrit, but used in reciting VedicThe Vedas are a large body of texts originating in ancient India. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute the oldest layer of Sanskrit literature and the oldest scriptures of Hinduism....
& UpanishadThe Upanishads are philosophical texts considered to be an early source of Hindu religion. More than 200 are known, of which the first dozen or so, the oldest and most important, are variously referred to as the principal, main or old Upanishads...
ic hymnA hymn is a type of song, usually religious, specifically written for the purpose of praise, adoration or prayer, and typically addressed to a deity or deities, or to a prominent figure or personification...
s and mantraA mantra is a sound, syllable, word, or group of words that is considered capable of "creating transformation"...
s.
- Udātta : high pitch
- Anudātta : low pitch
- Svarita : falling pitch
Each vowel can be pronounced in three ways according to the accent of pronunciation.
Traditional articulatory phonetics
According to Indian linguistic tradition, articulation is analysed by different parameters and features.
Places of articulation
Generally, in articulatory phoneticsThe field of articulatory phonetics is a subfield of phonetics. In studying articulation, phoneticians explain how humans produce speech sounds via the interaction of different physiological structures....
, the place of articulationIn articulatory phonetics, the place of articulation of a consonant is the point of contact where an obstruction occurs in the vocal tract between an articulatory gesture, an active articulator , and a passive location...
(also point of articulation) of a consonant is the point of contact, where an obstruction occurs in the vocal tract between an active (moving) articulator (typically some part of the tongue) and a passive (stationary) articulator (typically some part of the roof of the mouth).
According to Indian linguistic tradition, the places of articulation (passive) are classified as five. They are:-
- {{IAST|Kaṇṭhya}} : Velar
Velars are consonants articulated with the back part of the tongue against the soft palate, the back part of the roof of the mouth, known also as the velum)....
- Tālavya : Palatal
Palatal consonants are consonants articulated with the body of the tongue raised against the hard palate...
- Mūrdhanya : Retroflex
A retroflex consonant is a coronal consonant where the tongue has a flat, concave, or even curled shape, and is articulated between the alveolar ridge and the hard palate. They are sometimes referred to as cerebral consonants, especially in Indology...
- Dantya : Dental
- Ōshtya : Labial
Labial consonants are consonants in which one or both lips are the active articulator. This precludes linguolabials, in which the tip of the tongue reaches for the posterior side of the upper lip and which are considered coronals...
Apart from that, other places are combinations of the above five places. They are:-
- Dantōsthya : Labio-dental (Eg: v)
- Kantatālavya : Eg: Diphthong
A diphthong , also known as a gliding vowel, refers to two adjacent vowel sounds occurring within the same syllable. Technically, a diphthong is a vowel with two different targets: That is, the tongue moves during the pronunciation of the vowel...
e
- Kantōsthya : labial-velar (Eg: Diphthong o)
The places of articulation (active) are classified as three, they are
- Jihvāmūla : tongue root
Radical consonants are those consonants articulated with the root of the tongue in the throat. This includes the pharyngeal, epiglottal, and epiglotto-pharyngeal places of articulation, though technically epiglottal consonants take place in the larynx....
, for velar
- Jihvāmadhya : tongue body, for palatal
- Jihvāgra : tip of tongue
An apical consonant is a phone produced by obstructing the air passage with the apex of the tongue . This contrasts with laminal consonants, which are produced by creating an obstruction with the blade of the tongue .This is not a very common distinction, and typically applied only to fricatives...
, for cerebralA retroflex consonant is a coronal consonant where the tongue has a flat, concave, or even curled shape, and is articulated between the alveolar ridge and the hard palate. They are sometimes referred to as cerebral consonants, especially in Indology...
and dental
- {{IAST|Adhōṣṭa}} : lower lip
The lower lip covers the anterior body of the mandible.It is lowered by the Depressor labii inferioris muscle....
, for labialLabial consonants are consonants in which one or both lips are the active articulator. This precludes linguolabials, in which the tip of the tongue reaches for the posterior side of the upper lip and which are considered coronals...
Efforts of Articulation
Effort of articulation ({{IAST|Uccāraṇa Prayatna}}) is of two types for consonants,
- Bāhya Prayatna : External effort
- {{IAST|Spṛṣṭa}} : Plosive
- {{IAST|Īshat Spṛṣṭa}} : Approximant
- {{IAST|Īshat Saṃvṛta}} : Fricative
- Abhyantara Prayatna : Internal effort
- Alpaprāna : Unaspirated
- Mahāprāna : Aspirated
In phonetics, aspiration is the strong burst of air that accompanies either the release or, in the case of preaspiration, the closure of some obstruents. To feel or see the difference between aspirated and unaspirated sounds, one can put a hand or a lit candle in front of one's mouth, and say pin ...
- Śvāsa : Unvoiced
- Nāda : Voiced
Virtual Organization for Innovative Conceptual Engineering Design is a virtual organization that promotes innovation in engineering design. This project is the collaborative work of researchers at five universities across the United States, and is funded by the National Science Foundation...
Articulation of consonants
Articulation of consonants will be a logical combination of components in the two prayatnas. The below table gives a view upon articulation of consonants.
Samskrita Vyanjana Ucchārana Pattika
| Prayatna Niyamāvalī |
KanthyaVelars are consonants articulated with the back part of the tongue against the soft palate, the back part of the roof of the mouth, known also as the velum)....
(jihvāmūla) |
TālavyaPalatal consonants are consonants articulated with the body of the tongue raised against the hard palate...
(jihvāmadhya) |
Mūrdhanya A retroflex consonant is a coronal consonant where the tongue has a flat, concave, or even curled shape, and is articulated between the alveolar ridge and the hard palate. They are sometimes referred to as cerebral consonants, especially in Indology...
(jihvāgra) |
Dantya
(jihvāgra) |
{{IASTIn phonetics, labiodentals are consonants articulated with the lower lip and the upper teeth.-Labiodental consonant in IPA:The labiodental consonants identified by the International Phonetic Alphabet are:...
|
Ōshtya Labial consonants are consonants in which one or both lips are the active articulator. This precludes linguolabials, in which the tip of the tongue reaches for the posterior side of the upper lip and which are considered coronals...
(adhōsta) |
| Sparśa, Śvāsa, Alpaprāna |
ka |
ca |
{{IAST|ṭa}} |
ta |
— |
pa |
| Sparśam, Śvāsa, Mahāprāna |
kha |
cha |
{{IAST|ṭha}} |
tha |
— |
pha |
| Sparśa, Nāda Virtual Organization for Innovative Conceptual Engineering Design is a virtual organization that promotes innovation in engineering design. This project is the collaborative work of researchers at five universities across the United States, and is funded by the National Science Foundation...
, Alpaprāna |
ga |
ja |
{{IAST|ḍa}} |
da |
— |
ba |
| Sparśa, Nāda Virtual Organization for Innovative Conceptual Engineering Design is a virtual organization that promotes innovation in engineering design. This project is the collaborative work of researchers at five universities across the United States, and is funded by the National Science Foundation...
, Mahāprāna |
gha |
jha |
{{IAST|ḍha}} |
dha |
— |
bha |
| Sparśa, Nāda Virtual Organization for Innovative Conceptual Engineering Design is a virtual organization that promotes innovation in engineering design. This project is the collaborative work of researchers at five universities across the United States, and is funded by the National Science Foundation...
, Alpaprāna,
AnunāsikaA nasal consonant is a type of consonant produced with a lowered velum in the mouth, allowing air to escape freely through the nose. Examples of nasal consonants in English are and , in words such as nose and mouth.- Definition :...
, DravaLiquid is one of the three classical states of matter . Like a gas, a liquid is able to flow and take the shape of a container. Some liquids resist compression, while others can be compressed. Unlike a gas, a liquid does not disperse to fill every space of a container, and maintains a fairly...
, Avyāhata |
{{IAST|ṅa}} |
ña |
{{IAST|ṇa}} |
na |
— |
ma |
| Antastha, Nāda Virtual Organization for Innovative Conceptual Engineering Design is a virtual organization that promotes innovation in engineering design. This project is the collaborative work of researchers at five universities across the United States, and is funded by the National Science Foundation...
, {{IAST,
DravaLiquid is one of the three classical states of matter . Like a gas, a liquid is able to flow and take the shape of a container. Some liquids resist compression, while others can be compressed. Unlike a gas, a liquid does not disperse to fill every space of a container, and maintains a fairly...
, Avyāhata |
— |
ya |
ra
(Lunthita) |
la
(PārśvikaA lateral is an el-like consonant, in which airstream proceeds along the sides of the tongue, but is blocked by the tongue from going through the middle of the mouth....
) |
va |
— |
| {{IAST, Śvāsa, {{IAST, Avyāhata |
Visarga Visarga is a Sanskrit word meaning "sending forth, discharge". In Sanskrit phonology , is the name of a phone, , written as IAST , Harvard-Kyoto , Devanagari . Visarga is an allophone of and in pausa...
|
śa |
{{IAST|ṣa}} |
sa |
— |
— |
| Ūshman, Nāda Virtual Organization for Innovative Conceptual Engineering Design is a virtual organization that promotes innovation in engineering design. This project is the collaborative work of researchers at five universities across the United States, and is funded by the National Science Foundation...
, Mahāprāna, Avyāhata |
ha |
— |
— |
— |
— |
— |