Shi'a Islam in Iraq
Encyclopedia
An estimated 65% of the population of Iraq
consider themselves Shi'a Muslims.
The question of religious demographics is controversial and some Iraqis who follow Sunni Islam dispute these figures, including an ex-Iraqi ambassador, referring to American sources. claiming that many reports only include Arab Sunnis as "Sunni", missing out the Kurdish and Turkmen Sunnis. Most Kurds are Sunnis, although the Feyli Kurds
are largely Shia.
In addition Iraq is the site of the holy cities of Najaf
and Karbala
, pilgrimage sites for millions of Shi'a Muslims. Najaf is the site of the tomb of Ali ibn Abi Talib's (the first Shi'a Imam
), and Karabala is the site of the tomb of the grandson of Muhammad and Shī‘ah Imām, Husayn ibn Ali
. Najaf is also a center of Shi'a learning and semenaries. Two other holy sites for Twelver Shia in Iraq are the Al-Kadhimiya Mosque in Baghdad
, which containing the tombs of the seventh and ninth Shī‘ah Imām
, Mūsā al-Kādhim
and Muhammad at-Taqī, and the Al-Askari Mosque
in Sāmarrā
, Iraq which contains the tombs of the tenth and eleventh Shia Imam, Ali al-Hadi
and Hasan al-‘Askarī.
were converted from Sunnism to Shi’ism by the Musha'sha'iyyah dynasty.
Banu Kaab (including its Khazraj section) was converted from Sunnism to Shi’ism in the mid 18th century.
), those of the Afak, the Bani Hukayyim, the Shibil (of the Khazal), the al Fatla, the many tribes along the Hindiya
canal, and the 5 tribes of Al Diwaniyah
(Aqra’, Budayyir, Afak, Jubur
and Jilaiha) that relied on the Daghara canal for their water supply.
This massive scope of conversion continued as late as the 20th century. Even in 1917, it was noted by the British that the conversions were still going on vigorously. Therefore, the Shi’a of Iraq are mostly recent converts (i.e. from the late 18th century and onwards).
This conversion process was so successful for a number of reasons. One reason was that, nomadic Sunni Arab tribes either settled to sedentary agricultural life in the hinterlands of Najaf and Karbala, or traded with them in the 19th century and increasingly interacted with the people of these two Shi’a holy places. Another reason was the Ottoman policy of settling the nomadic Sunni Arab tribes, in order to create greater centralization in Iraq. Another reason was that conversion was a form of protest of the tribes people to their treatment by their Sunni Ottoman overlords. There was also the ability of the Shi’a missionaries from Najaf and Karbala to proselytize among the Sunni Arab tribes without official hindrance, due to their relative autonomy from the Ottoman Empire and the Ottoman’s only trying to respond to the conversions after it was too late.
Starting with the British-controlled "State of Iraq" founded in 1920 after the defeat of the Ottoman Empire
, Shia opposed British rule.
s) were not politically active. Shia tended to be less well off economically and socially and supported leftist parties. In 1963, when the Arab nationalist and socialist Ba'ath Party came to power in a coup
, 53% of its membership was Shia. Gradually, however, Shia were shunted aside (by 1968 only 6% of the Ba'ath party was Shia) and turned again to the ulama for leadership.
Throughout the 1970s Shia became increasingly disaffected. al-Dawa ("the Call"), a political party dedicated to the establishment of an Islamic state in Iraq, was formed.
Religious processions during Muharram
in the shrine cities turned into political protests. After rioting in 1974 five members of the Daw'a party were executed after rioting in 1974 and in 1977 eight Shia were executed after worse rioting.
The Islamic Revolution in Iran
intensified unrest and repression. In June 1979 Ayatollah Mohammad Baqir al-Sadr was arrested and placed under house arrest. Less than a year later, after an attempt to assassinate Saddam Hussein
, Sadr was executed. In 1982 the Supreme Council for the Islamic Revolution in Iraq
was formed in Iran by Iraqi cleric Mohammed Baqir al-Hakim
as an umbrella group to overthrow the Sunnni-dominated Arab nationalist regime in Iraq. In Iran, Hakim attempted to united and co-ordinate the activities of the Dawa party and other major religious Shi'i groupings (the Paykar group (a guerilla organization similar to the Iranian Mujahidin) and the Jama'at al 'Ulama (groupings of pro-Khomeini ulema).
Meanwhile, the Baath leadership made a determined effort to woo support from Iraqi Shi'is during the Iran–Iraq War (1980-1988), diverting resources to the Shii south and emphasizing in war propaganda Iraqi Arabness in contrast to Iranian Persianness and the historical struggle between the Muslim Arabs and pagan Persians in the early days of Islam. Iraqi propaganda used symbolic key-words such as Qādisiyya
(the battle at which the Muslim Arab armies defeated the Iranian Empire, while the Iranian propaganda used Shia key-words such as Karbala
(where Sunni soldiers slain Husayn ibn Ali
. In June 1984, however, the Baath government stick replaced the carrot and some 95 Shi'i ulama, many of them members of the al-Hakim family, were executed.
, sectarian violence between Shi'a and the Sunnis steadily escalated. By 2007, the violence had increased to the point of being described in the United States' National Intelligence Estimate
as a "civil war". During the Civil war in Iraq, tens to hundreds of thousands of people have been killed and at least 2.7 million have been internally displaced due to inter-faction violence.
rule was organized. Shi'a activism from Najaf contributed to opposition to the Communist threat in the 1960s and to the Baath regime, which was dominated by Sunni's, since 1968.
Iraq
Iraq ; officially the Republic of Iraq is a country in Western Asia spanning most of the northwestern end of the Zagros mountain range, the eastern part of the Syrian Desert and the northern part of the Arabian Desert....
consider themselves Shi'a Muslims.
The question of religious demographics is controversial and some Iraqis who follow Sunni Islam dispute these figures, including an ex-Iraqi ambassador, referring to American sources. claiming that many reports only include Arab Sunnis as "Sunni", missing out the Kurdish and Turkmen Sunnis. Most Kurds are Sunnis, although the Feyli Kurds
Feyli Kurds
Fayli Kurds, "Feili Kurds", or Feyli Kurds are largely a Kurdish Shi'a community living in Baghdad and the Diyala Province of Iraq around Khanaqin and Mandali, and across the Iranian border, in the provinces of Ilam, Kermanshah and Luristan. They number an estimated 6.000.000. people...
are largely Shia.
In addition Iraq is the site of the holy cities of Najaf
Najaf
Najaf is a city in Iraq about 160 km south of Baghdad. Its estimated population in 2008 is 560,000 people. It is the capital of Najaf Governorate...
and Karbala
Karbala
Karbala is a city in Iraq, located about southwest of Baghdad. Karbala is the capital of Karbala Governorate, and has an estimated population of 572,300 people ....
, pilgrimage sites for millions of Shi'a Muslims. Najaf is the site of the tomb of Ali ibn Abi Talib's (the first Shi'a Imam
Imam
An imam is an Islamic leadership position, often the worship leader of a mosque and the Muslim community. Similar to spiritual leaders, the imam is the one who leads Islamic worship services. More often, the community turns to the mosque imam if they have a religious question...
), and Karabala is the site of the tomb of the grandson of Muhammad and Shī‘ah Imām, Husayn ibn Ali
Husayn ibn Ali
Hussein ibn ‘Alī ibn Abī Ṭālib was the son of ‘Alī ibn Abī Ṭālib and Fātimah Zahrā...
. Najaf is also a center of Shi'a learning and semenaries. Two other holy sites for Twelver Shia in Iraq are the Al-Kadhimiya Mosque in Baghdad
Baghdad
Baghdad is the capital of Iraq, as well as the coterminous Baghdad Governorate. The population of Baghdad in 2011 is approximately 7,216,040...
, which containing the tombs of the seventh and ninth Shī‘ah Imām
Imamah (Shi'a doctrine)
Imāmah is the Shia doctrine of religious, spiritual and political leadership of the Ummah. The Shīa believe that the A'immah are the true Caliphs or rightful successors of Muḥammad, and further that Imams are possessed of divine knowledge and authority as well as being part of the Ahl al-Bayt,...
, Mūsā al-Kādhim
Musa al-Kadhim
' was the seventh of the Twelve Imams of Twelver Shi'a Islam. He was the son of Imam and his mother was Hamidah Khātūn, a student and former Zanjiyyah slave...
and Muhammad at-Taqī, and the Al-Askari Mosque
Al-Askari Mosque
Al ‘Askarī Mosque or the ‘Askariyya Mosque/Shrine is a Shī‘ah Muslim holy site located in the Iraqi city of Sāmarrā from Baghdad. It is one of the most important Shī‘ah mosques in the world, built in 944...
in Sāmarrā
Samarra
Sāmarrā is a city in Iraq. It stands on the east bank of the Tigris in the Salah ad-Din Governorate, north of Baghdad and, in 2003, had an estimated population of 348,700....
, Iraq which contains the tombs of the tenth and eleventh Shia Imam, Ali al-Hadi
Ali al-Hadi
‘Alī al-Hādī , also known as ‘Alī an-Naqī was the tenth of the Twelve Imams. His full name is ‘Alī ibn Muhammad ibn ‘Alī. The exact date of his birth and death are unknown, but it is generally accepted that he was born between 827–830 CE and he died in 868 CE.- Early years :‘Alī al-Hādī was born...
and Hasan al-‘Askarī.
15th and 16th Centuries
The Bani Sallama, Tayy and al-Soudan in the Mesopotamian MarshesMesopotamian Marshes
The Mesopotamian Marshes are a wetland area located in southern Iraq and partially in southwestern Iran. Historically the marshlands, mainly composed of the separate but adjacent Central, Hawizeh and Hammar Marshes, used to be the largest wetland ecosystem of Western Eurasia...
were converted from Sunnism to Shi’ism by the Musha'sha'iyyah dynasty.
18th Century
Banu Khazal was converted from Sunnism to Shi’ism in the early 18th century.Banu Kaab (including its Khazraj section) was converted from Sunnism to Shi’ism in the mid 18th century.
Late 18th century and onwards
From the late 18th century and onwards, there was a massive conversion of the majority of Iraq’s Sunni Arab tribes to Shi’ism (especially during the 19th century). The following tribes were converted during this period: Some sections of Zubaid, Banu Lam, al bu Muhammad, large sections of the Rabiah (including al-Dafaf'a, Bani Amir and al-Jaghayfa), Banu Tamim (including their largest section in Iraq –Bani Sa’d), the Shammar Toga, some sections of Dulaim, the Zafir, the Dawwar, the Sawakin, al-Muntafiq confederation, the Bani Hasan (of the Bani MalikBani Malik (tribe)
Bani Malik or Banu Malik is one of the major Arab tribes of the Arabian Peninsula. They are descendants of Malik al-Ashtar who fought with Ali ibn Abi Talib, the cousin of prophet Mohammad...
), those of the Afak, the Bani Hukayyim, the Shibil (of the Khazal), the al Fatla, the many tribes along the Hindiya
Hindiya
Al-Hindiya or Hindiya is a city in Iraq on the Euphrates River. Nouri al Maliki went to school there in his younger days. Al-Hindiya is located in the Kerbala Governorate...
canal, and the 5 tribes of Al Diwaniyah
Al Diwaniyah
Al Diwaniyah is the capital city of Iraq's Al-Qādisiyyah Governorate. In 2002, its population was estimated at 440,927. The area around Al Diwaniyah, which is well irrigated from the nearby Euphrates river, is often considered to be one on the most fertile parts of Iraq, and is heavily cultivated...
(Aqra’, Budayyir, Afak, Jubur
Jubur
Jubur is one of the Arab Tribes in Iraq that scattered throughout central and northern Iraq. Part of the tribe settled in Kirkuk in the 1970s...
and Jilaiha) that relied on the Daghara canal for their water supply.
This massive scope of conversion continued as late as the 20th century. Even in 1917, it was noted by the British that the conversions were still going on vigorously. Therefore, the Shi’a of Iraq are mostly recent converts (i.e. from the late 18th century and onwards).
This conversion process was so successful for a number of reasons. One reason was that, nomadic Sunni Arab tribes either settled to sedentary agricultural life in the hinterlands of Najaf and Karbala, or traded with them in the 19th century and increasingly interacted with the people of these two Shi’a holy places. Another reason was the Ottoman policy of settling the nomadic Sunni Arab tribes, in order to create greater centralization in Iraq. Another reason was that conversion was a form of protest of the tribes people to their treatment by their Sunni Ottoman overlords. There was also the ability of the Shi’a missionaries from Najaf and Karbala to proselytize among the Sunni Arab tribes without official hindrance, due to their relative autonomy from the Ottoman Empire and the Ottoman’s only trying to respond to the conversions after it was too late.
Starting with the British-controlled "State of Iraq" founded in 1920 after the defeat of the Ottoman Empire
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...
, Shia opposed British rule.
During the Baathist regime
For many years "Arab nationalism and party politics superseded" Shi'i unity in Iraqi politics, and Shi'i mujtahids (AyatollahAyatollah
Ayatollah is a high ranking title given to Usuli Twelver Shī‘ah clerics. Those who carry the title are experts in Islamic studies such as jurisprudence, ethics, and philosophy and usually teach in Islamic seminaries. The next lower clerical rank is Hojatoleslam wal-muslemin...
s) were not politically active. Shia tended to be less well off economically and socially and supported leftist parties. In 1963, when the Arab nationalist and socialist Ba'ath Party came to power in a coup
February 1963 Iraqi coup d'état
The February 1963 Iraqi coup d'état was a February 8, 1963 armed military coup by the Ba'ath Party's Iraqi wing which overthrew the regime of the Prime Minister of Iraq, Brigadier General Abd al-Karim Qasim. General Ahmed Hasan al-Bakr became the new Prime Minister and Colonel Abdul Salam Arif...
, 53% of its membership was Shia. Gradually, however, Shia were shunted aside (by 1968 only 6% of the Ba'ath party was Shia) and turned again to the ulama for leadership.
Throughout the 1970s Shia became increasingly disaffected. al-Dawa ("the Call"), a political party dedicated to the establishment of an Islamic state in Iraq, was formed.
Religious processions during Muharram
Mourning of Muharram
The Mourning of Muharram is an important period of mourning in Shia Islam, taking place in Muharram which is the first month of the Islamic calendar. It is also called the Remembrance of Muharram...
in the shrine cities turned into political protests. After rioting in 1974 five members of the Daw'a party were executed after rioting in 1974 and in 1977 eight Shia were executed after worse rioting.
The Islamic Revolution in Iran
Iranian Revolution
The Iranian Revolution refers to events involving the overthrow of Iran's monarchy under Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi and its replacement with an Islamic republic under Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, the leader of the...
intensified unrest and repression. In June 1979 Ayatollah Mohammad Baqir al-Sadr was arrested and placed under house arrest. Less than a year later, after an attempt to assassinate Saddam Hussein
Saddam Hussein
Saddam Hussein Abd al-Majid al-Tikriti was the fifth President of Iraq, serving in this capacity from 16 July 1979 until 9 April 2003...
, Sadr was executed. In 1982 the Supreme Council for the Islamic Revolution in Iraq
Supreme Council for the Islamic Revolution in Iraq
The Islamic Supreme Council of Iraq is an Iraqi political party. Its political support comes from the country's Shi'a Muslim community. Prior to his assassination in August 2003, SCIRI was led by Ayatollah Mohammed Baqir al-Hakim; afterwards it was led by the ayatollah's brother, Abdul Aziz...
was formed in Iran by Iraqi cleric Mohammed Baqir al-Hakim
Mohammed Baqir al-Hakim
Ayatollah Sayed Mohammad Baqir al-Hakim , also known as Shaheed al-Mehraab was one of the foremost Twelver Shi'a Muslim leaders in Iraq until his assassination in a bombing in Najaf...
as an umbrella group to overthrow the Sunnni-dominated Arab nationalist regime in Iraq. In Iran, Hakim attempted to united and co-ordinate the activities of the Dawa party and other major religious Shi'i groupings (the Paykar group (a guerilla organization similar to the Iranian Mujahidin) and the Jama'at al 'Ulama (groupings of pro-Khomeini ulema).
Meanwhile, the Baath leadership made a determined effort to woo support from Iraqi Shi'is during the Iran–Iraq War (1980-1988), diverting resources to the Shii south and emphasizing in war propaganda Iraqi Arabness in contrast to Iranian Persianness and the historical struggle between the Muslim Arabs and pagan Persians in the early days of Islam. Iraqi propaganda used symbolic key-words such as Qādisiyya
Battle of al-Qadisiyyah
The Battle of al-Qādisiyyah was fought in 636; it was the decisive engagement between the Arab muslim army and the Sassanid Persian army during the first period of Muslim expansion. It resulted in the Islamic conquest of Persia, and was key to the conquest of Iraq...
(the battle at which the Muslim Arab armies defeated the Iranian Empire, while the Iranian propaganda used Shia key-words such as Karbala
Battle of Karbala
The Battle of Karbala took place on Muharram 10, in the year 61 of the Islamic calendar in Karbala, in present day Iraq. On one side of the highly uneven battle were a small group of supporters and relatives of Muhammad's grandson Husain ibn Ali, and on the other was a large military detachment...
(where Sunni soldiers slain Husayn ibn Ali
Husayn ibn Ali
Hussein ibn ‘Alī ibn Abī Ṭālib was the son of ‘Alī ibn Abī Ṭālib and Fātimah Zahrā...
. In June 1984, however, the Baath government stick replaced the carrot and some 95 Shi'i ulama, many of them members of the al-Hakim family, were executed.
Present conflict
Following the US led 2003 invasion of Iraq2003 invasion of Iraq
The 2003 invasion of Iraq , was the start of the conflict known as the Iraq War, or Operation Iraqi Freedom, in which a combined force of troops from the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia and Poland invaded Iraq and toppled the regime of Saddam Hussein in 21 days of major combat operations...
, sectarian violence between Shi'a and the Sunnis steadily escalated. By 2007, the violence had increased to the point of being described in the United States' National Intelligence Estimate
National Intelligence Estimate
National Intelligence Estimates are United States federal government documents that are the authoritative assessment of the Director of National Intelligence on intelligence related to a particular national security issue...
as a "civil war". During the Civil war in Iraq, tens to hundreds of thousands of people have been killed and at least 2.7 million have been internally displaced due to inter-faction violence.
Najaf
Najaf was also the center from which opposition to BritishUnited Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
rule was organized. Shi'a activism from Najaf contributed to opposition to the Communist threat in the 1960s and to the Baath regime, which was dominated by Sunni's, since 1968.
Notable people
- Malik al-Ashtar
- Habib ibn MuzahirHabib ibn MuzahirHabīb ibn Muzāhir al-Asadi was of the Banu Asad clan, one of the companions of Muhammad who was martyred in Karbala.-Battle of Karbala:Habib heavily contributed in the Battle of Karbala. He fought with the third Shia Imam, Husayn ibn Ali against the forces of Yazid, led by Umar ibn Sa'ad...
- Al-MukhtarAl-Mukhtaral-Mukhtār ibn Abī ‘Ubayd Allah al-Thaqafī was an early Islamic revolutionary who led an abortive rebellion against the Umayyad Caliphs after the death of Husayn ibn Ali at the Battle of Karbala.-Life:...
- Abu al-Aswad al-Du'aliAbu al-Aswad al-Du'aliAbu al-Aswad Al-Du'ali was a close companion of Ali ibn Abi Talib and grammarian. He was the first to place dots on Arabic letters and the first to write on Arabic linguistics...
- Kumait Ibn ZaidKumait Ibn ZaidKumait Ibn Zaid was an Arabian poet born in the reign of the first Omayyad caliph and lived in the reigns of nine others. He was, however, a strong supporter of the house of Hashim and an enemy of the South Arabians...
- Al-FarazdaqAl-FarazdaqHammam ibn Ghalib Abu Firas, commonly known as al-Farazdaq was an Arab poet....
- Abu Hamza al-ThumaliAbu Hamza al-ThumaliAbū Hamzah al-Thumālī Thābit ibn Dīnār was a close companion of Ali Zayn al-Abidin.-Life:Abu Hamza al-Thumali was pious and righteous companion of Ali Zayn al-Abidin. He was also a companion of Muhammad al-Baqir and Ja'far al-Sadiq...
- Al-KindiAl-Kindi' , known as "the Philosopher of the Arabs", was a Muslim Arab philosopher, mathematician, physician, and musician. Al-Kindi was the first of the Muslim peripatetic philosophers, and is unanimously hailed as the "father of Islamic or Arabic philosophy" for his synthesis, adaptation and promotion...
- Al-Shaykh Al-Mufid
- Sharif RaziSharif RaziAbul-Hasan Muhammad ibn Al-Husayn Al-Musawi known in Arabic as al-Sharif al-Radi or in Persian Sharif Razi or Seyyed Razi was a Shi`ite Muslim scholar and poet who was born in Baghdad. He wrote several books on Islamic issues and interpretation of the Koran...
- Al-HilliAl-HilliJamal ad-Din Hasan ibn Yusuf ibn 'Ali ibn Muthahhar al-Hilli , also known as al-Allamah al-Hilli , born December 15, 1250 CE , died December 18, 1325, was a Twelver Shia theologian and mujtahid. Known as a Marja , he was one of the greatest Muslim jurists and scholars of his time...
- Abu'l-Hassan Isfahani
- Ayatollah Muhsin al-Hakim
- Ayatollah Abu al-Qasim al-Khoei
- Ayatollah Mohammad Baqir al-Sadr
- Hujjatu'l-Islam Mohammed Baqir al-HakimMohammed Baqir al-HakimAyatollah Sayed Mohammad Baqir al-Hakim , also known as Shaheed al-Mehraab was one of the foremost Twelver Shi'a Muslim leaders in Iraq until his assassination in a bombing in Najaf...
- Mohammad Sadeq al-Sadr
- Muqtada as-Sadr (b.1973)
- Muhammad Muhammad Sadiq as-Sadr (1943–1999)
- Ahmed Al-WaeliAhmed Al-WaeliAhmed Al-Waeli is one of the most well-known Shi'a Islamic prominent clerks in the twentieth century. He preached the Islamic thoughts through books and lectures. He is also a poet. His poems represent his personality, spirituality and belief....
- Nazik Al-MalaikaNazik Al-MalaikaNazik Al-Malaika , Al-Malaika in English: Angels , she was an Iraqi female poet and is considered by many to be one of most influential contemporary Iraqi female poets....
- Muhammad Mahdi Al-JawahiriMuhammad Mahdi Al-JawahiriBorn 26 July 1899. Died 1 January 1997. Famous Iraqi poet.Muhammad Mahdi Al-Jawahiri was born in the city of Najaf in Iraq. His father, 'Abd al-Husayn was a religious scholar among the clergy in Najaf who wanted his son to be a cleric as well. So he dressed him in an cleric's 'Abaya and turban...
- FuzûlîFuzûlîFużūlī was the pen name of the Azerbaijani or the Bayat branch of Oghuz Turkish and Ottoman poet, writer and thinker Muhammad bin Suleyman...
- Nouri al-MalikiNouri al-MalikiNouri Kamil Mohammed Hasan al-Maliki , also known as Jawad al-Maliki or Abu Esraa, is the Prime Minister of Iraq and the secretary-general of the Islamic Dawa Party. Al-Maliki and his government succeeded the Iraqi Transitional Government. He is currently in his second term as Prime Minister...
External links
- The Shi'is of Iraq By Yitzhak Nakash, pg.xiii- 48
- http://www.minorityrights.org/5730/iraq/twelver-ithnaashari-shias.html