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	Topics Sanskrit literature Topic Home LiteratureIndian literature Indian literature is generally acknowledged, but not wholly established, as the oldest in the world.... in SanskritSanskrit The Sanskrit language is a classical language of India, a liturgical language of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, and one o... begins with the VedasVedas Summary The Vedas are the main scriptural texts of the Sanatana Dharma, and are a large corpus of texts originating in Ancient India... , and continues with the Sanskrit Epics of Iron Age IndiaIron Age India The Iron Age in the Indian subcontinent succeeds the Late Harappan culture, also known as the last phase of the Indus... ; the golden age of Classical Sanskrit literature dates to the Early Middle AgesEarly Middle Ages The Early Middle Ages are a period in the history of Europe following the fall of the Western Roman Empire, spanning roughly... (roughly the 3rd to 8th centuries AD). Literary production saw a late bloom in the 11th century before declining after 1100 AD. There are contemporary efforts towards revivalSanskrit revival Attempts at reviving the Sanskrit language have been undertaken in the Republic of India since its foundation in 1947 .... , with events like the "All-India Sanskrit Festival" (since 2002) holding composition contests. Given its extensive use in religious literature, primarily in HinduismHinduism Hinduism is a set of religious traditions that originated mainly in the Indian subcontinent.... , and the fact that most modern Indian languagesLanguages of India The languages of India primarily belong to two major linguistic families, Indo-European and Dravidian.... have been directly derived from or strongly influenced by Sanskrit, the language and its literature is of great importance in Indian cultureCulture of India The culture of India was moulded throughout various eras of history, all the while absorbing customs, traditions and ideas f... , not unlike that of GreekGreek language Greek has a documented history of 3,500 years, the longest of any single language within the Indo-European family.... and LatinLatin Latin is an ancient Indo-European language originally spoken in Latium, the region immediately surrounding Rome.... in European cultureCulture of Europe Overview as opposed to [[dle for many cultural innovations and movements, often at odds with each other such as [[proselytism\|Christian proselytism]]... . The Vedas Composed between approximately 1500 BC and 600 BC (the Late Bronze Age to Early Iron Age) in pre-classical SanskritVedic Sanskrit Vedic Sanskrit is the language of the Vedas, the oldest scriptures of Hinduism.... , Vedic literature forms the basis for the further development of HinduismHinduism Hinduism is a set of religious traditions that originated mainly in the Indian subcontinent.... . There are four VedasVedas The Vedas are the main scriptural texts of the Sanatana Dharma, and are a large corpus of texts originating in Ancient India... - RigRigveda The *Rigveda* is a collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns counted as the holiest of the four religious texts of Hindus, known... , YajurYajurveda The *Yajurveda* is one of the four Hindu Vedas.... , SāmaSamaveda The Samaveda is third in the usual order of enumeration of the four Vedas, the ancient core Hindu scriptures.... and AtharvaAtharvaveda The Atharvaveda is a sacred text of Hinduism, and one of the four Vedas, often called the "fourth Veda".... , each with a main SamhitaSamhita The *Samhita* is the basic text of each of the Vedas, comprising collections of hymns and ritual texts.... and a number of circum-vedic genres, including Brahmanas, AranyakaAranyaka The Aranyakas are part of the Hindu sruti; these religious scriptures are sometimes argued to be part of either the Brahmana... s,Vedang i.e. Grhyasutras and ShrautasutraShrautasutra The Shrautasutras form a part of the corpus of Sanskrit Sutra literature.... s and Dharmasutras. The main period of Vedic literary activity falls into ca. the 9th to 7th centuries when the various shakhaShakha Shakha, literally "branch" or "limb", is the Sanskrit term for a recension or version of Vedic texts according to a particul... s (schools) compiled and memorized their respective corpora. The older Upanishads belong to the Vedic period, but the larger part of the Muktika canon is post-Vedic. The Aranyakas form part of both the Brahmana and Upanishad corpus. Sutra literature Continuing the tradition of the late Vedic ShrautasutraShrautasutra The Shrautasutras form a part of the corpus of Sanskrit Sutra literature.... literature, Late Iron Age scholarship (ca. 500 to 100 BCE) organized knowledge into SutraSutra Sutra or Sutta literally means a rope or thread that holds things together, and more metaphorically refers to an ap... treatises, including the VedangaVedanga The Vedanga are six auxiliary disciplines for the understanding and tradition of the Vedas.... and the religious or philosophical Brahma SutrasBrahma Sutras The Brahma sutras, also called Vedanta Sutras, constitute the Nyaya prasthana, the logical starting point of the Ved... , Yoga Sutras, Nyaya SutrasNyaya Sutras The Nyaya Sutras are ancient Indian books of philosophy composed by Aksapada Gautama.... . In the Vedanga disciplines of grammarVyakarana The Sanskrit grammatical tradition of ', is one of the six Vedanga disciplines.... and phoneticsShiksha Shiksha is one of the six Vedangas, treating the traditional Hindu science of phonetics and phonology of Sanskrit.... , no author had greater influence than with his (ca. 5th century BC). In the tradition of Sutra literature exposing the full grammar of Sanskrit in extreme brevity, Panini's brilliance lies in the nature of his work of a prescriptive generative grammarGenerative grammar In linguistics, generative grammar generally refers to a proof-theoretic framework for the study of syntax partially inspir... , involving metarules, transformationTransformation (mathematics) In mathematics, a transformation in elementary terms is any of a variety of different operations from geometry, such as rota... s and recursionRecursion In mathematics and computer science, recursion specifies a class of objects or methods by defining a few very simple base ... . Being prescriptive for all later grammatical works, such as PatanjaliPatañjali Patajali is the compiler of the Yoga Sutra, a major work containing aphorisms on the practical and philosophical wisdom rega... 's , 's grammar effectively fixed the grammar of Classical Sanskrit. The Backus-Naur Form or BNF grammars used to describe modern programming languages have significant similarities with Panini's grammar rules. See also: Shulba Sutras, Kalpa Sutras, Dharma Sutras; ShastraShastra Overview Shastra is a Sanskrit word used to denote education/knowledge in a general sense.... s are commentaries on Sutras. The Epics The period between approximately the 6th to 1st centuries BC saw the composition and redaction of the two great epics, the MahabharataMahabharata Summary The , is one of the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India, the other being the .... and the Ramayana, with subsequent redaction progressing down to the 4th century AD. They are known as itihasaItihasa *Itihasa* is the word for History.... , or "that which occurred". The Mahabharata The Mahabharata (Great Bharata) is one of the largest poetic works in the world. While it is clearly a poetic epic, it contains large tracts of Hindu mythologyHindu mythology Hindu mythology is a term used by modern scholarship for a large body of Indian literature that details the lives and times ... , philosophyIndian philosophy The term Indian philosophy may refer to any of several traditions of philosophical thought, including:... and religious tracts.Traditionally, authorship of the Mahabharata is attributed to the sage VyasaVyasa Vyasa or Veda Vyasa is an important and much revered figure in the Hindu tradition and its literature.... .According to the Adi-parva of the Mahabharata (81, 101-102), the text was originally 8,800 verses when it was composed by Vyasa and was known as the Jaya (Victory), which later became 24,000 verses in the Bharata recited by Vaisampayana. The broad sweep of the story of the Mahabharata chronicles the story of the conflict between two families for control of Hastinapur, a city in Ancient IndiaIndia India , officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia.... . The impact of the Mahabharata on IndiaIndia India , officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia.... and Hinduism cannot be stressed enough. Having been molded by Indian culture, it has in turn molded the development of Indian culture. Thousands of later writers would draw freely from the story and sub-stories of the Mahabharata. The Ramayana While not as big as the Mahabharata, the Ramayana is still twice as big as the IliadIliad The *Iliad* is, together with the Odyssey, one of two ancient Greek epic poems attributed to Homer, a supposedly blin... and OdysseyOdyssey *The Odyssey* is one of the two major ancient Greek epic poems , attributed to the poet Homer.... put together. Traditionally, the authorship is attribued to the Hindu sage who is referred to as Adikavi, or "first poet." Valmiki in Ramayana introduced the Anushtubh meter for the first time. Akin to the Mahabharata, the Ramayana is also handed down orally and evolved through several centuries before being transferred into writing. It includes tales that form the basis for modern Hindu festivalsFacts About Hindu festivals The Hindu religion has many festivals. Some major festivals are Diwali, Dussehra or Daserra, Holi, and Durga Puja.... and even contains a description of the same marriage practice still observed in contemporary times by people of Hindu persuasion. The story deals with Prince RamaRama Ramachandra, or RamaRama's life and journey is one of perfect adherence of dharma despite harsh tests of life and tim... (Indian vernaculars: Raam or Sri Ram), his exile and the abduction of his wife by the Rakshas king RavanaRavana Summary In Hindu mythology, Ravana is the principal antagonist of the Hindu epic, the Ramayana.... , and the LankaLanka Lanka is the name given in Hindu mythology to the island fortress capital of the king Ravana in the epic Ramayana.... n war. Similar to the Mahabharata, the Ramayana also has several full-fledged stories appearing as sub-plots. The Ramayana has also played a similar and equally important role in the development of Indian culture as the Mahabharata. The Ramayana is also extant in Classical Sanskrit Literature The classical period of Sanskrit literature dates to the Gupta period and the successive pre-Islamic Middle kingdoms of IndiaMiddle kingdoms of India Middle kingdoms of India refers to the political entities in India from the 2nd century BCE marked by the waves of invasions... , spanning roughly the 3rd to 8th centuries CE. Drama Drama as a distinct genre of Sanskrit literature emerges in the final centuries BC, influenced partly by Vedic mythologyVedic mythology Overview Vedic mythology that occupies a pivotal position in the history of religions, is a significant aspect of Hindu mythology and... and partly by Hellenistic drama. It reaches its peak between the 4th and 7th centuries before declining together with Sanskrit literature as a whole. Famous Sanskrit dramatists include Shudraka, BhasaBhasa Bhasa is one of the earliest and most celebrated Indian playwrights in Sanskrit.... , AsvaghosaAsvaghosa Asvagho?a was an Indian philosopher-poet, born in Saketa in Central India.... and KalidasaKalidasa Kalidasa was a Sanskrit poet and dramatist, his title Kavikulaguru bearing testimony to his stature.... . Though numerous plays written by these playwrights are still available, little is known about the authors themselves. One of the earliest known Sanskrit plays is the Mrichakatika, thought to have been composed by Shudraka in the 2nd century BC. The Natya Shastra (ca. 2nd century AD, literally "Scripture of Dance," though it sometimes translated as "Science of Theatre'") is a keystone work in Sanskrit literature on the subject of stagecraft. BhasaBhasa Bhasa is one of the earliest and most celebrated Indian playwrights in Sanskrit.... and KalidasaKalidasa Kalidasa was a Sanskrit poet and dramatist, his title Kavikulaguru bearing testimony to his stature.... are major early authors of the first centuries AD, Kalidasa qualifying easily as the greatest poet and playwright in Sanskrit He deals primarily with famous HinduHindu A Hindu , as per modern definition, is an adherent of the philosophies and scriptures of Hinduism, the religious, phi... legends and themes; three famous plays by Kalidasa are VikramorvasiyamVikramorvasiyam Vikramorvasiyam is a Sanskrit play by medieval Indian poet Kalidasa, on the Vedic love story of king Pururavas and celestia... (Vikrama and Urvashi), MalavikagnimitramMalavikagnimitram Malavikagnimitram "Malavika and Agnimitra") is a Sanskrit play by Kalidasa.... (Malavika and Agnimitra), and the play that he is most known for: AbhijñanasakuntalamAbhijñanasakuntalam #REDIRECT Abhij?anasakuntalam ... (The Recognition of Shakuntala). Late (post 6th century) dramatists include DandiDandi Dandi might be:* The village of Dandi, Gujarat, scene of Gandhi's Salt Satyagraha... and Sri Harsha. The only surviving ancient Sanskrit drama theatre is KoodiyattamKoodiyattam Koodiyattam is a traditional performing artform from Kerala, India.... . Which is being preserved in KeralaKerala Kerala is a state on the tropical Malabar Coast of southwestern India.... by the ChakyarChakyar Chakyar is a caste from the Kerala state of south India.... community. Scholarly treatises The earliest surviving treatise on astrology is the YavanajatakaFacts About Yavanajataka The Yavanajataka is the earliest writing of Indian astrology.... "sayings of the Greeks" (3rd century). Classical Hindu astrology is based on early medieval compilations, notably the B?hat Parasara Horasastra The is a foundational compilation of Indian astrology.... and SaravaliSaravali Saravaliis a community located 6 km SE of the centre and a suburb of Patras, Greece, north of Ovrya, northeast of Mintilogi ... (7th to 8th century). The earliest surviving treatise on (non-divinatory) Indian astronomy predates the Yavanajataka: the Vedanga JyotishaVedanga Jyotisha The *Vedanga Jyotisha, is an Indian text on Vedic astronomy, redacted by Lagadha, and which has been dated to 1350 BCE.... of Ladaga documents the state of in the Maurya period. The astronomy of the classical Gupta period, the centuries following Indo-Greek contact, is documented in treatises known as SiddhantaSiddhanta Siddhanta, a Sanskrit term, roughly translates as the Doctrine* or the Tradition. It denotes the establised and accep... s (which means "established conclusions" ). VarahamihiraVarahamihira Varahamihira was an Indian astronomer, mathematician, and astrologer born in Ujjain.... in his Pancha-Siddhantika contrasts five of these: The Surya SiddhantaSurya Siddhanta The Surya Siddhanta was an astronomical treatise written in India circa 400, which had rules laid down to determine the true... besides the Paitamaha SiddhantaPaitamaha Siddhanta Paitamaha Siddhanta is one of the earliest astronomical systems in use in India, which is summarized in Varahamihira's Panch... s (which is more similar to the "classical" Vedanga JyotishaVedanga Jyotisha The *Vedanga Jyotisha, is an Indian text on Vedic astronomy, redacted by Lagadha, and which has been dated to 1350 BCE.... ), the Paulisha and RomakaRomaka Siddhanta The Romaka Siddhanta* is an Indian astronomical treatise, based on the works of the ancient Romans.... Siddhantas (directly based on Hellenistic astronomy) and the Vasishta Siddhanta. The earliest treatise in Indian mathematicsIndian mathematics The chronology of Indian mathematics spans from the Indus Valley civilization and Vedic civilization to modern India.... is the Aryabhatiya *Aryabhatiya, an astronomical treatise, is the magnum opus and only extant work of the 5th century Indian mathematician, ... (written ca. 500 CE), a work on astronomy and mathematics. The mathematical portion of the was composed of 33 sutras* (in verse form) consisting of mathematical statements or rules, but without any proofs. However, according to , "this does not necessarily mean that their authors did not prove them. It was probably a matter of style of exposition." From the time of Bhaskara IBhaskara I Bhaskara, or Bhaskara I, was a 7th century Indian mathematician, who was apparently the first to write numbers in the ... (600 CE onwards), prose commentaries increasingly began to include some derivations (upapatti). "Tantra" is a general term for a scientific, magical or mystical treatise and mystical texts both HinduHindu A Hindu , as per modern definition, is an adherent of the philosophies and scriptures of Hinduism, the religious, phi... and Buddhist said to concern themselves with five subjects, 1. the creation, 2. the destruction of the world, 3. the worship of the gods, 4. the attainment of all objects, 5. the four modes of union with the supreme spirit by meditation. These texts date to the entire lifespan of Classical Sanskrit literature. The PanchatantraPanchatantra The Panchatantra or Kelileh va Dimneh or Anvar-i-Suhayli or The Lights of Canopus or ... is a collection of fables estimated to have reached its fixed form around 200 BCE. Classical Poetry This refers to the poetry produced from the approximately the 3rd to 8th centuries. KalidasaKalidasa Kalidasa was a Sanskrit poet and dramatist, his title Kavikulaguru bearing testimony to his stature.... is the foremost example of a classical poet. Great poets are great poets everywhere because their language is beautiful without being recherché, whatever language they work with. In this sense, Kalidasa is not second to, say, Shakespeare or Kavafis. But a striking characteristic of Indian literary tradition is that sometimes poets show off their technical dexterity with highly Oulipian word-games, like stanzas that read the same backwards and forwards, words that can be split in different ways to produce different meanings, sophisticated metaphors, and so on. This style is referred to as kavyaKavya Kavya in Sanskrit means "poetry." Specifically, it refers to the tradition of ornate court poetry whose greatest exponents i... . A classic example is the poet BharaviBharavi Bharavi was a Sanskrit poet known for his Mahakavya , the Kiratarjuniya in 18 cantos based on an episode from the ... and his magnum opus, the Kiratarjuniya (6th-7th century). The greatest works of poetry in this period are the six Mahakavyas, or "great composition": Kumarasambhavam by KalidasaKalidasa Kalidasa was a Sanskrit poet and dramatist, his title Kavikulaguru bearing testimony to his stature.... Raghuvamsham by Kalidasa Kiratarjuniya by Bharavi Shishupala VadhaShishupala Vadha The Shishupala Vadha is a work of classical Sanskrit poetry, one of the six Mahakavya or "epic poems".... by Sri Maagha Naishadiya Charitam by Sri Harsha Some would include the Bhattikavya as a seventh Mahakavya. Other major literary works from this period are Kadambari by Bana Bhatta, the first Sanskrit novelist (6th-7th centuries), the Kama SutraKama Sutra *Kamasutram, generally known to the Western world as Kama Sutra, is an ancient Indian text on human sexual beha... by VatsyayanaVatsyayana Mallanaga Vatsyayana* is the name of an Indian philosopher in the Carvaka or Lokyata tradition, who lived some time in the Gu... , and the shatakas of . Puranas The corpus of the HinduFacts About Hindu A Hindu , as per modern definition, is an adherent of the philosophies and scriptures of Hinduism, the religious, phi... PuranasPuranas *Purana* is the name of a genre of Indian written literature.... likewise falls into the classical period of Sanskrit literature, dating to between the 5th and 10th centuries, and marks the emergence of the Vaishna and Shaiva denominations of classical HinduismHinduism Overview Hinduism is a set of religious traditions that originated mainly in the Indian subcontinent.... . The Puranas are classified into a Maha- ("great") and a Upa- ("lower, additional") corpus. Traditionally they are said to narrate five subjects, called ("five distinguishing marks"), which are: Sarga - The creation of the universe. Pratisarga - Secondary creations, mostly re-creations after dissolution. Vamsa - Genealogy of gods and sages. Manvañtara - The creation of the human race and the first human beings. Vamsanucaritam - Dynastic histories. A Purana usually gives prominence to a certain deity and depicts the other gods as subservient. Later Sanskrit literature Some important works from the 11th century include the Katha-sarit-sagaraKathasaritsagara A famous 11th century CE collection of Indian legends, fairy tales and folk tales by Somadeva.... and the Geeta Govinda. The Katha-sarita-sagara (An Ocean of Stories) by SomadevaSomadeva Somadeva, 11th century CE, from Kashmir was the author of a famous compendium of Indian legends, fairy tales and folk tales ... was an 11th century poetic adaptation in Sanskrit of Brihat-katha, written in the 5th century BC in the Paishachi dialect. One of the famous series of stories in this work is the Vikrama and Vetaala series, known to every child in India. The Gita GovindaGita Govinda The Gita Govinda is a work composed in the 12th century by Jayadeva.... (The song of Govinda) by the Orissan composer JayadevaJayadeva Jayadeva Goswami was an Oriya composer of Hindu hymns and poetic works.... is the story of KrishnaKrishna Krishna , according to various Hindu traditions, is the eighth avatar of Vishnu.... 's love for Radha, and is written in spectacularly lyrical and musical Sanskrit. A central text for several Hindu sects in eastern India, the Gita Govinda is recited regularly at major Hindu pilgrimage sites such as JagannathJagannath Jagannath is a Sanskrit name used to describe a deity form of Krishna.... temple at Puri, OrissaOrissa Orissa , 60,162 sq mi is a state situated in the east coast of India.... . The Ashtapadis of the Gita Govinda also form a staple theme in BharatanatyamBharatanatyam Bharatanatyam is a classical dance form originating from Tamil Nadu of Southern India.... and OdissiOdissi IntroductionThe classical dance style of Orissa - the land of temples, the land of sculptures.... classical dance recitals. Beyond the 11th century, the use of Sanskrit for general literature declined, most importantly because of the emergence of literature in vernacular Indian languages (notably HindiHindi Hindi , an Indo-European language spoken mainly in northern and central India, is the official language of the Union governm... , Marathi, Kannada, and TeluguTelugu language Telugu is a Dravidian language spoken in the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh, where it is the official language.... ). Sanskrit continued to be used, largely for Hindu religious and philosophical literature. Sanskrit literature fueled literature in vernacular languages, and the Sanskrit language itself continued to have a profound influence over the development of Indian literatureIndian literature Indian literature is generally acknowledged, but not wholly established, as the oldest in the world.... in general. Attempts at revival of SanskritSanskrit revival Attempts at reviving the Sanskrit language have been undertaken in the Republic of India since its foundation in 1947 .... have been undertaken in the Republic of India since its foundation in 1947. Further reading Winternitz, M. A History of Indian Literature. Oriental books, New Delhi, 1927 (1907) J. Gonda (ed.) A History of Indian Literature, Otto Harrasowitz, Wiesbaden. See also Sanskrit dramaSanskrit drama Drama as a distinct genre of Sanskrit literature emerges in the final centuries BC, although its exact origins remain unknow... Hindu scriptureHindu scripture Hindu scripture, which is known as "Shastra" is predominantly written in Sanskrit.... Indian literatureIndian literature Indian literature is generally acknowledged, but not wholly established, as the oldest in the world.... Early Medieval literatureEarly Medieval literature Summary See also: Ancient literature, 10th century in literature, list of years in literature.... List of Sanskrit poets External links a cumulative register of the numerous download sites for electronic texts in Indian languages. vaishnava literatures with word for word translations from Sanskrit to English. of the Clay Sanskrit LibraryClay Sanskrit Library he Clay Sanskrit Library is a series of books published by New York University Press and the JJC Foundation.... , publisher of classical Indian literature with facing-page texts and translations. Also offers numerous downloadable materials. : Documents in ITX format of Upanishads, Stotras etc, and a metasite with links to translations, dictionaries, tutorials, tools and other Sanskrit resources.