SPLA-Nasir
Encyclopedia
The SPLA-Nasir was a splinter faction of the Sudan People's Liberation Army
(SPLA), a rebel group that fought in the Second Sudanese Civil War
. Originally created as an attempt by Nuer Tribe to replace SPLA leader John Garang
in August 1991, it gradually became coopted
by the government. The break away of Riek Machar from SPLM/A resulted in Nuer ethnic group fighting Garang's Born People, while a 1994 SPLM/A national conference (in Chukudum
) to end the fighting led to the reformation of the South Sudan Independence Movement/Army (SSIM/A) into the SPLM/A.
The Second Sudanese Civil War
had begun in 1983 as a response to the status of the underdeveloped South Sudan
in relation to the administrative and economic center of Khartoum
. The southern rebel groups quickly became dominated by the Sudan People's Liberation Army
under John Garang
, an ethnic Dinka
. However, by the end of the 1980s there was increasing discontent with the lack of any mechanisms to highlight issues within the Movement and seek redress. Widely voiced concerns around this time included that Garang had tied the SPLA too closely with the government of President Mengistu Haile Mariam
of Ethiopia
in exchange for Ethiopian support and that too many soldiers from Upper Nile and Bahr al-Ghazal had been transferred to be under Garang's direct command along the Equatoria
fronts.
The initiative for removing Garang came from Lam Akol
, a senior SPLA commander in Upper Nile. Other commanders with whom he initially spoke suggested that he bring in Riek Machar
, a well-liked senior commander whose base in Nasir gave him easy access across the Ethiopian border to Gambela
and the SPLA rear bases where Lam and Riek could gain political support. By early 1991, the Nuer in Gambela and Upper Nile were strongly behind the idea of a change in leadership. In contrast, most non-Nuer felt that, while administrative reform was needed, Garang did not need to be replaced.
By late 1990, the Mengistu regime was clearly crumbling in the face of the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front
rebellion. Refusing to abandon his ties to Mengistu, Garang intensified military efforts to take Juba
, the largest town in the south. The conspirators realized that while the fall of Mengistu would weaken Garang, he would be strengthened immensely if he took Juba.
was the only country to respond favorably to the Nasir commander's call for a separate South, which they interpreted as a sign of support. As thousands of refugees were returned from Ethiopia, the Nasir faction established contact with government forces beginning in July 1991 to arrange for relief supplies through government lines. By May, negotiations had led the government to agree to support the Nasir group against Garang. However, support for an attempt to remove Garang fell among other SPLA commanders, who felt that a coup attempt would further weaken the movement.
The Nasir first announced that they were overthrowing Garang via the SPLA radio network on 28 August 1991. They claimed that Garang was a dictator and that they would install greater democracy in the SPLA and respect human rights
more. Riek and Lam were joined in their announcement by Gordon Kong Chuol
, a former Anyanya-2 commander who had advocated secession and had also been allied with the government. The faction led by Garang never changed its name, but was similarly called "SPLA-Torit" or "SPLA-Mainstream" in order to distinguish.
SPLA-Nasir hoped that their announcement would result in a popular uprising against Garang in Equatoria
and Bahr al-Ghazal. However, there had been little preparation for the announcement in these areas. Only the SPLA units already under the Upper Nile command rallied to the call, along with the Nuer Anyanya-2 units promised by the government. Meanwhile, the Meban under Lam's command defected to SPLA-Torit.
were deeply riven, resulting in bloody fighting. In September, Garang ordered one of his commanders, William Nyuon Bany
, to advance along the Jonglei Canal
to Ayod
. A series of offensives and counteroffensives resulted. Nasir forces briefly occupied Twic East county
, deep in Dinka territory, in November and December, resulting in clear attacks aimed at killing and displacing civilians. The human rights violations resulted in a loss of support for SPLA-Nasir both domestically and abroad. It also became increasingly clear that SPLA-Nasir was receiving military support from the government, leading many to suspect that they were forming an alliance.
The topic of Sudanese support to SPLA-Nasir is highly controversial. Riek's influential wife Emma McCune
denied any such connection and Riek's numerous supporters refused to believe the leaked evidence. In September 1991, Lam established contact with government representative Ali al-Hajj Muhammad, who funneled money through SPLA-Nasir's Nairobi
office. Similarly, SPLA-Nasir representative was sent to Khartoum to set up a liaison office, where he met Omar al-Bashir
, Hassan al-Turabi
and army commanders. The stance of SPLA-Torit, who were able to monitor government support activities over radio, was that this proved that the coup was entirely a plot of the government. In an attempt to cause a similar split in the north, Torit forces were put under the command of Daud Bolad
and sent to start an insurgency in Darfur
, western Sudan. Sources within SPLA-Nasir present a picture in which the leaders thought they could use government support tactically to quickly overthrow Garang, while maintaining an anti-government strategy. When the initial coup failed, the Nasir command required more government support and thus was increasingly directed by Khartoum. In January 1992, the Nasir faction and Khartoum announced an agreement in Frankfurt
. The agreement, which contained no mention of independence for the south, caused two Dinka members of the negotiating delegation to quit in disgust.
The split in the southern rebel movement and SPLA-Nasir support allowed the government to regain the initiative and seize territory it had previously lost. In the 1992 government offensive, troops moved freely through SPLA-Nasir territory and regained parts of Jonglei
and East Equatoria
by July. SPLA-Torit launched a major attack on Juba in response that proved unsuccessful. The government and SPLA-Nasir also persuaded William Nyuon Bany to defect to their side in September 1992.
The government refrained from a large-scale offensive the following year. This was partly due to concerns that the American Operation Provide Relief
and subsequent operations in Somalia
might lead them to declare a no-fly zone
over Southern Sudan. Regardless, there were significant land engagements through the 1992-1993 dry season. Also, at the beginning of 1993, Nyuon moved south and established lines of communication with the Lord's Resistance Army
(LRA), a rebel group active in northern Uganda
. The government would eventually agree to supply the LRA in return for the LRA attacking the SPLA-United lines of supply across the Ugandan border. In 1993, the organization announced that it was changing its name to "SPLA-United". Khartoum resumed full scale operations for the 1994 dry season, but SPLA-Torit had begun to regain the initiative as their diplomatic climate improved and increasing signs of economic and social strain in the north from the war.
and announced that it was renaming itself the South Sudan Independence Movement/Army (SSIM/A). However, Lam Akol left the convention in protest at a proposal for self-determination for areas outside of the south. He later announced that he was the chairman of the SPLA-United, based in Tonga, that was separate from the newly-renamed SSIM/A. (Depending on the source and time period, "SPLA-United" may thus refer to one of two organizations.)
By January 1995, Riek had publicly repudiated Lam, Nyuon and Kerubino for their collaboration with the government. As each left, they created yet another rebel group. These were joined by other government-sponsored rebel groups during the latter half of the 1990s. In January 2002, Riek and Garang were reconciled and Riek was brought back within the SPLA. The war ended with a peace agreement in January 2005 and Garang went on to become the first southern Vice President in Sudanese history. His death later that year resulted in Riek becoming the vice-president of autonomous Southern Sudan.
Sudan People's Liberation Army
The Sudan People's Liberation Movement is a political party in South Sudan. It was initially founded as a rebel political movement with a military wing known as the Sudan People's Liberation Army estimated at 180,000 soldiers. The SPLM fought in the Second Sudanese Civil War against the Sudanese...
(SPLA), a rebel group that fought in the Second Sudanese Civil War
Second Sudanese Civil War
The Second Sudanese Civil War started in 1983, although it was largely a continuation of the First Sudanese Civil War of 1955 to 1972. Although it originated in southern Sudan, the civil war spread to the Nuba mountains and Blue Nile by the end of the 1980s....
. Originally created as an attempt by Nuer Tribe to replace SPLA leader John Garang
John Garang
John Garang de Mabior was a Sudanese politician and rebel leader. From 1983 to 2005, he led the Sudan People's Liberation Army during the Second Sudanese Civil War, and following a peace agreement he briefly served as First Vice President of Sudan from January 2005 until he died in a July 2005...
in August 1991, it gradually became coopted
Co-option
A co-opting or less frequently co-optation most commonly refers to action performed in a number of fields whereby an opponent is nullified or neutralized by absorption but there are other distinct senses as well....
by the government. The break away of Riek Machar from SPLM/A resulted in Nuer ethnic group fighting Garang's Born People, while a 1994 SPLM/A national conference (in Chukudum
Chukudum
Chukudum is a village in Budi County of the Eastern Equatoria state of South Sudan.-Location:The village lies at the base of the Didinga Mountains, which are often shrouded in clouds, in spectacularly beautiful country...
) to end the fighting led to the reformation of the South Sudan Independence Movement/Army (SSIM/A) into the SPLM/A.
Creation
Second Sudanese Civil War
The Second Sudanese Civil War started in 1983, although it was largely a continuation of the First Sudanese Civil War of 1955 to 1972. Although it originated in southern Sudan, the civil war spread to the Nuba mountains and Blue Nile by the end of the 1980s....
had begun in 1983 as a response to the status of the underdeveloped South Sudan
South Sudan
South Sudan , officially the Republic of South Sudan, is a landlocked country located in the Sahel region of northeastern Africa. It is also part of the North Africa UN sub-region. Its current capital is Juba, which is also its largest city; the capital city is planned to be moved to the more...
in relation to the administrative and economic center of Khartoum
Khartoum
Khartoum is the capital and largest city of Sudan and of Khartoum State. It is located at the confluence of the White Nile flowing north from Lake Victoria, and the Blue Nile flowing west from Ethiopia. The location where the two Niles meet is known as "al-Mogran"...
. The southern rebel groups quickly became dominated by the Sudan People's Liberation Army
Sudan People's Liberation Army
The Sudan People's Liberation Movement is a political party in South Sudan. It was initially founded as a rebel political movement with a military wing known as the Sudan People's Liberation Army estimated at 180,000 soldiers. The SPLM fought in the Second Sudanese Civil War against the Sudanese...
under John Garang
John Garang
John Garang de Mabior was a Sudanese politician and rebel leader. From 1983 to 2005, he led the Sudan People's Liberation Army during the Second Sudanese Civil War, and following a peace agreement he briefly served as First Vice President of Sudan from January 2005 until he died in a July 2005...
, an ethnic Dinka
Dinka
The Dinka is an ethnic group inhabiting the Bahr el Ghazal region of the Nile basin, Jonglei and parts of southern Kordufan and Upper Nile regions. They are mainly agro-pastoral people, relying on cattle herding at riverside camps in the dry season and growing millet and other varieties of grains ...
. However, by the end of the 1980s there was increasing discontent with the lack of any mechanisms to highlight issues within the Movement and seek redress. Widely voiced concerns around this time included that Garang had tied the SPLA too closely with the government of President Mengistu Haile Mariam
Mengistu Haile Mariam
Mengistu Haile Mariam is a politician who was formerly the most prominent officer of the Derg, the Communist military junta that governed Ethiopia from 1974 to 1987, and the President of the People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia from 1987 to 1991...
of Ethiopia
Ethiopia
Ethiopia , officially known as the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, is a country located in the Horn of Africa. It is the second-most populous nation in Africa, with over 82 million inhabitants, and the tenth-largest by area, occupying 1,100,000 km2...
in exchange for Ethiopian support and that too many soldiers from Upper Nile and Bahr al-Ghazal had been transferred to be under Garang's direct command along the Equatoria
Equatoria
Equatoria is a region in the south of present-day South Sudan along the upper reaches of the White Nile. Originally a province of Egypt, it also contained most of Northern part of present day Uganda including Albert Lake...
fronts.
The initiative for removing Garang came from Lam Akol
Lam Akol
Dr. Lam Akol Ajawin is a South Sudanese politician of Kenyan descent. He is the current leader of SPLM for Democratic Change , which he founded 6 June 2009...
, a senior SPLA commander in Upper Nile. Other commanders with whom he initially spoke suggested that he bring in Riek Machar
Riek Machar
Riek Machar Teny Dhurgon , is the first vice-president of the independent Republic of South Sudan.Riek Machar obtained a PhD in mechanical engineering in 1984 and then joined the rebel Sudan People's Liberation Movement/Army during the Second Sudanese Civil War...
, a well-liked senior commander whose base in Nasir gave him easy access across the Ethiopian border to Gambela
Gambela, Ethiopia
Gambela is a city in Ethiopia and the capital of the Gambela Region or kilil. Located in Administrative Zone 1, at the confluence of the Baro River and its tributary the Jajjaba, the city has a latitude and longitude of and an elevation of 526 meters....
and the SPLA rear bases where Lam and Riek could gain political support. By early 1991, the Nuer in Gambela and Upper Nile were strongly behind the idea of a change in leadership. In contrast, most non-Nuer felt that, while administrative reform was needed, Garang did not need to be replaced.
By late 1990, the Mengistu regime was clearly crumbling in the face of the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front
Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front
The Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front is the ruling political coalition in Ethiopia. It is an alliance of four other groups: the Oromo Peoples' Democratic Organization , the Amhara National Democratic Movement , the South Ethiopian Peoples' Democratic Front The Ethiopian People's...
rebellion. Refusing to abandon his ties to Mengistu, Garang intensified military efforts to take Juba
Juba, Sudan
Juba is the capital and largest city of the Republic of South Sudan. It also serves as the capital of Central Equatoria, the smallest of the ten states of South Sudan. The city is situated on the White Nile and functions as the seat and metropolis of Juba County.- Population :In 2005, Juba's...
, the largest town in the south. The conspirators realized that while the fall of Mengistu would weaken Garang, he would be strengthened immensely if he took Juba.
Coup announcement
Mengistu's overthrow in May 1991 caused a number of shifts. With the shifting of forces towards the Western Equatoria offensive and the beginning of the rains, commanders in Upper Nile felt dangerously exposed. At the same time, the Nasir faction noted that Western support for Garang had fallen due to his alliance with the socialist Mengistu; the United StatesUnited States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
was the only country to respond favorably to the Nasir commander's call for a separate South, which they interpreted as a sign of support. As thousands of refugees were returned from Ethiopia, the Nasir faction established contact with government forces beginning in July 1991 to arrange for relief supplies through government lines. By May, negotiations had led the government to agree to support the Nasir group against Garang. However, support for an attempt to remove Garang fell among other SPLA commanders, who felt that a coup attempt would further weaken the movement.
The Nasir first announced that they were overthrowing Garang via the SPLA radio network on 28 August 1991. They claimed that Garang was a dictator and that they would install greater democracy in the SPLA and respect human rights
Human rights
Human rights are "commonly understood as inalienable fundamental rights to which a person is inherently entitled simply because she or he is a human being." Human rights are thus conceived as universal and egalitarian . These rights may exist as natural rights or as legal rights, in both national...
more. Riek and Lam were joined in their announcement by Gordon Kong Chuol
Gordon Kong Chuol
Gordon Kong Chuol is a former militia commander in South Sudan, who fought for the Sudan People's Liberation Army and later for the forces led by Riek Machar during the Second Sudanese Civil War.-Independence fighter:...
, a former Anyanya-2 commander who had advocated secession and had also been allied with the government. The faction led by Garang never changed its name, but was similarly called "SPLA-Torit" or "SPLA-Mainstream" in order to distinguish.
SPLA-Nasir hoped that their announcement would result in a popular uprising against Garang in Equatoria
Equatoria
Equatoria is a region in the south of present-day South Sudan along the upper reaches of the White Nile. Originally a province of Egypt, it also contained most of Northern part of present day Uganda including Albert Lake...
and Bahr al-Ghazal. However, there had been little preparation for the announcement in these areas. Only the SPLA units already under the Upper Nile command rallied to the call, along with the Nuer Anyanya-2 units promised by the government. Meanwhile, the Meban under Lam's command defected to SPLA-Torit.
Resulting fighting
There was immediately some skirmishing between SPLA troops who declared for Riek and those who remained loyal to Garang. However, the Shilluk SPLA based around the White NileWhite Nile
The White Nile is a river of Africa, one of the two main tributaries of the Nile from Egypt, the other being the Blue Nile. In the strict meaning, "White Nile" refers to the river formed at Lake No at the confluence of the Bahr al Jabal and Bahr el Ghazal rivers...
were deeply riven, resulting in bloody fighting. In September, Garang ordered one of his commanders, William Nyuon Bany
William Nyuon Bany
William Nyuon Bany was a Southern Sudanese politician who was also a high-ranking officer in The Sudan People's Liberation Army. While he worked as a commander of the SPLA he lived in Itang a small Ethiopian town in the Gambela Region. He was older than Dr. John Garang, Salva Kiir, Arok Thon...
, to advance along the Jonglei Canal
Jonglei Canal
The Jonglei Canal is a project that has been proposed, started but never completed to divert water through the vast Sudd wetlands of South Sudan so as to deliver more water downstream to Sudan and Egypt for use in agriculture.-Concept:...
to Ayod
Ayod
Ayod is a community in Jonglei state, South Sudan, headquarters of Ayod County.The Nuer people are the main inhabitants.Riek Machar, first vice-president of South Sudan, is the 26th son of the chief of both Ayod and Leer....
. A series of offensives and counteroffensives resulted. Nasir forces briefly occupied Twic East county
Twic East County
Dinka or Jieng Twic East is one of the Dinka communities located in Jonglei State of the Republic of South Sudan. Twic East County is bordering Bor County, Pibor County, Uror County, Duk County and White Nile/River Nile...
, deep in Dinka territory, in November and December, resulting in clear attacks aimed at killing and displacing civilians. The human rights violations resulted in a loss of support for SPLA-Nasir both domestically and abroad. It also became increasingly clear that SPLA-Nasir was receiving military support from the government, leading many to suspect that they were forming an alliance.
The topic of Sudanese support to SPLA-Nasir is highly controversial. Riek's influential wife Emma McCune
Emma McCune
Emma McCune was an expatriate British foreign aid worker in Sudan who married guerrilla leader Riek Machar. She was killed in a car accident in Kenya....
denied any such connection and Riek's numerous supporters refused to believe the leaked evidence. In September 1991, Lam established contact with government representative Ali al-Hajj Muhammad, who funneled money through SPLA-Nasir's Nairobi
Nairobi
Nairobi is the capital and largest city of Kenya. The city and its surrounding area also forms the Nairobi County. The name "Nairobi" comes from the Maasai phrase Enkare Nyirobi, which translates to "the place of cool waters". However, it is popularly known as the "Green City in the Sun" and is...
office. Similarly, SPLA-Nasir representative was sent to Khartoum to set up a liaison office, where he met Omar al-Bashir
Omar al-Bashir
Lieutenant General Omar Hassan Ahmad Al-Bashir is the current President of Sudan and the head of the National Congress Party. He came to power in 1989 when he, as a brigadier in the Sudanese army, led a group of officers in a bloodless military coup that ousted the government of Prime Minister...
, Hassan al-Turabi
Hassan al-Turabi
Dr. Hassan 'Abd Allah al-Turabi , commonly called Hassan al-Turabi , is a religious and Islamist political leader in Sudan, who may have been instrumental in institutionalizing sharia in the northern part of the...
and army commanders. The stance of SPLA-Torit, who were able to monitor government support activities over radio, was that this proved that the coup was entirely a plot of the government. In an attempt to cause a similar split in the north, Torit forces were put under the command of Daud Bolad
Daud Bolad
Daud Yahya Ibrahim Bolad was a Sudanese politician and rebel leader. He came from the Fur people of the Darfur region of the country. In the early 1970s, Bolad was nominated by the Islamist National Islamic Front to be the president of the Khartoum University Students Union...
and sent to start an insurgency in Darfur
Darfur
Darfur is a region in western Sudan. An independent sultanate for several hundred years, it was incorporated into Sudan by Anglo-Egyptian forces in 1916. The region is divided into three federal states: West Darfur, South Darfur, and North Darfur...
, western Sudan. Sources within SPLA-Nasir present a picture in which the leaders thought they could use government support tactically to quickly overthrow Garang, while maintaining an anti-government strategy. When the initial coup failed, the Nasir command required more government support and thus was increasingly directed by Khartoum. In January 1992, the Nasir faction and Khartoum announced an agreement in Frankfurt
Frankfurt
Frankfurt am Main , commonly known simply as Frankfurt, is the largest city in the German state of Hesse and the fifth-largest city in Germany, with a 2010 population of 688,249. The urban area had an estimated population of 2,300,000 in 2010...
. The agreement, which contained no mention of independence for the south, caused two Dinka members of the negotiating delegation to quit in disgust.
The split in the southern rebel movement and SPLA-Nasir support allowed the government to regain the initiative and seize territory it had previously lost. In the 1992 government offensive, troops moved freely through SPLA-Nasir territory and regained parts of Jonglei
Jonglei
Jonglei is one of the 10 states of South Sudan. Jonglei is the largest state in the Republic of South Sudan, with approximately 122,479 km2, as well as the most populous according to the controversial 2008 census conducted during present-day South Sudan's second period of autonomy. Bor is the...
and East Equatoria
East Equatoria
-External links:**...
by July. SPLA-Torit launched a major attack on Juba in response that proved unsuccessful. The government and SPLA-Nasir also persuaded William Nyuon Bany to defect to their side in September 1992.
The government refrained from a large-scale offensive the following year. This was partly due to concerns that the American Operation Provide Relief
Operation Provide Relief
Operation Provide Relief was part of United Nations endorsed effort called The Unified Task Force to secure and facilitate humanitarian relief for the people of Somalia, an effort that was assisted by the UN UNOSOM I mission beginning in 1991 in light of a severe famine, initiated and exacerbated...
and subsequent operations in Somalia
Somalia
Somalia , officially the Somali Republic and formerly known as the Somali Democratic Republic under Socialist rule, is a country located in the Horn of Africa. Since the outbreak of the Somali Civil War in 1991 there has been no central government control over most of the country's territory...
might lead them to declare a no-fly zone
No-fly zone
A no-fly zone is a territory or an area over which aircraft are not permitted to fly. Such zones are usually set up in a military context, somewhat like a demilitarized zone in the sky, and usually prohibit military aircraft of a belligerent nation from operating in the region.-Iraq,...
over Southern Sudan. Regardless, there were significant land engagements through the 1992-1993 dry season. Also, at the beginning of 1993, Nyuon moved south and established lines of communication with the Lord's Resistance Army
Lord's Resistance Army
The Lord's Resistance Army insurgency is an ongoing guerrilla campaign waged since 1987 by the Lord's Resistance Army rebel group, operating mainly in northern Uganda, but also in South Sudan and eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo...
(LRA), a rebel group active in northern Uganda
Uganda
Uganda , officially the Republic of Uganda, is a landlocked country in East Africa. Uganda is also known as the "Pearl of Africa". It is bordered on the east by Kenya, on the north by South Sudan, on the west by the Democratic Republic of the Congo, on the southwest by Rwanda, and on the south by...
. The government would eventually agree to supply the LRA in return for the LRA attacking the SPLA-United lines of supply across the Ugandan border. In 1993, the organization announced that it was changing its name to "SPLA-United". Khartoum resumed full scale operations for the 1994 dry season, but SPLA-Torit had begun to regain the initiative as their diplomatic climate improved and increasing signs of economic and social strain in the north from the war.
Dissolution
The collaboration of SPLA-United with the government increasingly harmed its support among the populace as well as caused troops to leave in disillusionment. From 26 September to 16 October 1994, SPLA-United held a National Convention in AkoboAkobo, Sudan
-Location:It is located in Akobo County, Jonglei State, in the northeastern part of South Sudan, near the International border with Ethiopia. Its location lies approximately , by road, northeast of Juba, the capital and largest city in the country.-Population:...
and announced that it was renaming itself the South Sudan Independence Movement/Army (SSIM/A). However, Lam Akol left the convention in protest at a proposal for self-determination for areas outside of the south. He later announced that he was the chairman of the SPLA-United, based in Tonga, that was separate from the newly-renamed SSIM/A. (Depending on the source and time period, "SPLA-United" may thus refer to one of two organizations.)
By January 1995, Riek had publicly repudiated Lam, Nyuon and Kerubino for their collaboration with the government. As each left, they created yet another rebel group. These were joined by other government-sponsored rebel groups during the latter half of the 1990s. In January 2002, Riek and Garang were reconciled and Riek was brought back within the SPLA. The war ended with a peace agreement in January 2005 and Garang went on to become the first southern Vice President in Sudanese history. His death later that year resulted in Riek becoming the vice-president of autonomous Southern Sudan.