Russian-Manchu border conflicts
Encyclopedia
The Russian–Manchu border conflicts (1652–1689) were a series of intermittent skirmishes between the Manchus and the Cossacks in which the Cossacks tried and failed to gain the land north of the Amur River. The hostilities culminated in the Manchu siege of the Cossack fort of Albazin
(1686) and resulted in the Treaty of Nerchinsk
, concluded between the Russia
and the Qing Empire in 1689.
with some areas good for agriculture. Socially and politically, from about 600 AD, it was the northern fringe of the Chinese-Korean-Manchu world. Various Chinese, Korean and Manchu-like states would claim sovereignty, build forts and collect tribute when they were strong enough. There were posts at Haishenwai(Vladivostok
), Boli(Khabarovsk
), Deren on the lower Amur and Tyr
above Nikolaevsk-on-Amur. From 698 to 926 the Korean kingdom of Balhae
ruled part of the area from an administrative center at Shuaibinbu (Ussuriisk). Tributary delegations came from Kuyedao (Sakhalin
).
In 1643 russian adventurers spilled over the Stanovoys, but by 1689 they were driven back by the Manchus. In 1859/60 the area was annexed by Russia and quickly filled up with a Russian population.
1643-1644 : Vasili Poyarkov
1649-1653 : Yerofey Khabarov
1654-1658 : Onufriy Stepanov
1654-1658 : The Manchu-Korean alliances expeditions against Russians
In the following operations significant Korean forces were included into Manchu-led troops. The campaigns became known in Korean historiography as Naseon Jeongbeol.
1685-1687 : The Albazin/Yakesa
Campaign
see also Outer Manchuria
Russian expansion into Siberia
began with the conquest of the Khanate of Sibir in 1582. By 1643 they reached the Pacific at Okhotsk
. East of the Yenisei River
there was little land fit for agriculture, except Dauria, the land between the Stanovoy Mountains and the Amur River which was nominally subject to the Manchus. The Manchus had recently reestablished their authority in the area and were just beginning their conquest of China (Qing Dynasty). The land was populated by some 9,000 Daurs on the Zeya River
, 14,000 Duchers
downstream and several thousand Tungus
and Nivkhs toward the river mouth. The first Russians to hear of Dauria were probably Ivan Moskvitin
and Maxim Perfilev
about 1640.
1643-46:Poyarkov: In 1643 Vassili Poyarkov
traveled from Yakutsk
south to the Zeya River
. He then sailed down the Amur River to its mouth and then north along the Okhotsk coast, returning to Yakutsk three years later.
1649-50: Khabarov: In 1649 Yerofei Khabarov found a better route to the upper Amur and quickly returned to Yakutsk where he recommended that a larger force be sent to conquer the region.
1650-53 Khabarov again: He returned the same year and built winter quarters at Albazin
at the northernmost point on the river. Next summer he sailed down the Amur and built a fort at Achansk (Wuzhala (乌扎拉)) probably
near present-day Khabarovsk
. Again there was fighting and the natives called in their Manchu overlords. On 24 March 1652, Achansk was unsuccessfully attacked by a large Qing force [600 Manchu soldiers from Ninguta and about 1500 Daurs and Duchers led by the Manchu general known as Haise (海色), or Izenei (Изеней or Исиней). Haise was later executed for his poor performance.]. As soon as the ice broke up Khabarov withdrew upriver and built winter quarters at Kumarsk
. In the spring of 1653 reinforcements arrived under Dmitry Zinoviev. The two quarreled, Khabarov was arrested and escorted to Moscow for investigation.
1653-58:Stepanov: Onufriy Stepanov
was left in charge with about 400-500 men. They had little difficulty plundering the natives and defeating the local Qing troops. The Qing responded with two policies. First they ordered the local population to withdraw, thereby ending the grain production that had attracted the Russians in the first place. Second they appointed the experienced general Sarhuda
(who himself was from the Nierbo village from the mouth of Sungari) as the garrison commander at Ninguta. In 1657 he built more than 40 ships at the village of Ula (modern Jilin).. In 1658 a large Qing fleet under Sarhuda caught up with Stepanov and killed him and about 220 Cossacks. A few escaped and became freebooters.
1658-65:No man's land: By 1658 the Chinese had wiped out the Russians below Nerchinsk
and the deserted land became a haven for outlaws and renegade Cossacks. In 1660 a large band of Russians was destroyed. They had some difficulty pursuing the Cossacks since their own policy had removed most of the local food. In the 1670s the Chinese attempted to drive the Russians away from the Okhotsk coast, reaching as far north as the Maya River
.
1665-1689:Albazin: In 1665 Nikifor Chernigovsky murdered the voyvoda of Ilimsk and fled to the Amur and reoccupied the fort at Albazin
, which became the center of an unofficial colony. In 1670 it was unsuccessfully attacked. In 1672 Albazin received the Czar's pardon and was officially recognized. From 1673 to 1683 Manchu forces were tied up suppressing a rebellion in the south. In 1682 or 1684 a voyvoda was appointed by Moscow. In 1685 the Manchus, now freed from their wars, invested the fort which surrendered on liberal terms. Most of the Russians withdrew to Nerchinsk, but a few joined the Manchus, becoming the Albazin Cossacks at Peking. The Chinese withdrew from the area, but the Russians, hearing of this, returned with 800 men under Aleksei Tolbuzin and reoccupied the fort. (their original purpose was merely to harvest the local grain, a rare commodity in this part of Siberia.) From June 1686, the fort was again besieged. Either (the siege was raised in December when it was learned that the two empires were engaged in peace negotiations) or (the fort was captured after an 18 month siege and Tolbuzin killed). At that time less than 100 defenders were left alive.
, the Russians abandoned the whole Amur country including Albazin. The frontier was established as the Argun River
and the Stanovoy Mountains. In 1727 the Treaty of Kyakhta confirmed and clarified this border and regulated Russo-Chinese trade.
In 1858, almost two centuries after the fall of Albazin, by the Treaty of Aigun
, Russia annexed the land between the Stanovoy Mountains and the Amur (commonly referred to in Russian as Priamurye, i.e. the "Lands along the Amur"). In 1860, with the Convention of Beijing, Russia annexed the Primorye
(i.e. the "Martitme Region") down to Vladivostok
, an area that had not been in contention in the 17th century. See Amur Annexation
.
Albazin
Albazino is a village in Skovorodinsky District of Amur Oblast, Russia, noted as the site of Albazin , the first Russian settlement on the Amur River....
(1686) and resulted in the Treaty of Nerchinsk
Treaty of Nerchinsk
The Treaty of Nerchinsk of 1689 was the first treaty between Russia and China. The Russians gave up the area north of the Amur River as far as the Stanovoy Mountains and kept the area between the Argun River and Lake Baikal. This border along the Argun River and Stanovoy Mountains lasted until...
, concluded between the Russia
Russia
Russia or , officially known as both Russia and the Russian Federation , is a country in northern Eurasia. It is a federal semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects...
and the Qing Empire in 1689.
Background
This article concerns the southeast corner of Siberia south of the Stanovoy Mountains which was twice contested between Russia and China. Hydrologically, the Stanovoy Mountains separate the rivers that flow north into the Arctic from those that flow south into the Amur River. Ecologically, the area is the southeastern edge of the Siberian boreal forestTaiga
Taiga , also known as the boreal forest, is a biome characterized by coniferous forests.Taiga is the world's largest terrestrial biome. In North America it covers most of inland Canada and Alaska as well as parts of the extreme northern continental United States and is known as the Northwoods...
with some areas good for agriculture. Socially and politically, from about 600 AD, it was the northern fringe of the Chinese-Korean-Manchu world. Various Chinese, Korean and Manchu-like states would claim sovereignty, build forts and collect tribute when they were strong enough. There were posts at Haishenwai(Vladivostok
Vladivostok
The city is located in the southern extremity of Muravyov-Amursky Peninsula, which is about 30 km long and approximately 12 km wide.The highest point is Mount Kholodilnik, the height of which is 257 m...
), Boli(Khabarovsk
Khabarovsk
Khabarovsk is the largest city and the administrative center of Khabarovsk Krai, Russia. It is located some from the Chinese border. It is the second largest city in the Russian Far East, after Vladivostok. The city became the administrative center of the Far Eastern Federal District of Russia...
), Deren on the lower Amur and Tyr
Tyr, Russia
Tyr is a settlement in Ulchsky District of Khabarovsk Krai, Russia, located on the right bank of the Amur River, near the mouth of the Amgun River, about upstream from Nikolayevsk-on-Amur....
above Nikolaevsk-on-Amur. From 698 to 926 the Korean kingdom of Balhae
Balhae
Balhae was a Manchurian kingdom established after the fall of Goguryeo. After Goguryeo's capital and southern territories fell to Unified Silla, Dae Jo-yeong, a Mohe general, whose father was Dae Jung-sang, established Jin , later called Balhae.Balhae occupied southern parts of Manchuria and...
ruled part of the area from an administrative center at Shuaibinbu (Ussuriisk). Tributary delegations came from Kuyedao (Sakhalin
Sakhalin
Sakhalin or Saghalien, is a large island in the North Pacific, lying between 45°50' and 54°24' N.It is part of Russia, and is Russia's largest island, and is administered as part of Sakhalin Oblast...
).
In 1643 russian adventurers spilled over the Stanovoys, but by 1689 they were driven back by the Manchus. In 1859/60 the area was annexed by Russia and quickly filled up with a Russian population.
The Qing Perspective
1639-1643 : Campaign led by Manchus against the indigenous rulers of the region- December 1639-May 1640 : 1st battle - the natives and the Qing : Battle of Gualar : between 2 regiments of Manchu and a detachment of 500 Solon-Daurs led by the SolonSolonSolon was an Athenian statesman, lawmaker, and poet. He is remembered particularly for his efforts to legislate against political, economic and moral decline in archaic Athens...
-EvenkEvenksThe Evenks are a Tungusic people of Northern Asia. In Russia, the Evenks are recognized as one of the Indigenous peoples of the Russian North, with a population of 35,527...
leader BombogorBombogor (Evenk chief)Bombogor was an Evenk chief, leader of the Evenk federation. His power base laid on the basin of the Amur river...
(ChineseChinese languageThe Chinese language is a language or language family consisting of varieties which are mutually intelligible to varying degrees. Originally the indigenous languages spoken by the Han Chinese in China, it forms one of the branches of Sino-Tibetan family of languages...
: 博木博果尔 or 博穆博果尔 pinyinPinyinPinyin is the official system to transcribe Chinese characters into the Roman alphabet in China, Malaysia, Singapore and Taiwan. It is also often used to teach Mandarin Chinese and spell Chinese names in foreign publications and used as an input method to enter Chinese characters into...
:Bomboguoer) while the second native leader Bardači kept neutral. - September 1640 : 2nd battle - the natives and the Qing : Battle of YaksaAlbazinAlbazino is a village in Skovorodinsky District of Amur Oblast, Russia, noted as the site of Albazin , the first Russian settlement on the Amur River....
: between the natives (SolonSolonSolon was an Athenian statesman, lawmaker, and poet. He is remembered particularly for his efforts to legislate against political, economic and moral decline in archaic Athens...
, Daur, Oroqen) and the Manchus. - May 1643 : 3rd battle. The native tribes submitted to the Qing Empire.
1643-1644 : Vasili Poyarkov
- Winter 1643 - Spring 1644 : a detachment of a Russian expedition led by the Cossack Vasili Poyarkov explored the stream of the Jingkiri river, present-day ZeyaZeya RiverZeya River , 1,242 km long, is a northern tributary of the Amur River. It rises in the Tokiysky Stanovik mountain ridge, a part of the Stanovoy Range. The first Russian to enter the area was Vassili Poyarkov....
, and the Amur rivers.
1649-1653 : Yerofey Khabarov
Yerofey Khabarov
Yerofey Pavlovich Khabarov or Svyatitsky Erofej Pavlovič Chabarov , was a Russian entrepreneur and adventurer, best known for his exploring the Amur river region and his attempts to colonize the area for Russia...
- 1650-1651 : Occupation of the Daur's fort AlbazinAlbazinAlbazino is a village in Skovorodinsky District of Amur Oblast, Russia, noted as the site of Albazin , the first Russian settlement on the Amur River....
by Khabarov after subduing the Daurs led by Arbaši . - March 24, 1652 : Battle of AchanskKhabarovskKhabarovsk is the largest city and the administrative center of Khabarovsk Krai, Russia. It is located some from the Chinese border. It is the second largest city in the Russian Far East, after Vladivostok. The city became the administrative center of the Far Eastern Federal District of Russia...
1654-1658 : Onufriy Stepanov
Onufriy Stepanov
Onufriy Stepanov was a Siberian Cossack and explorer of the Amur River. For background see Russian–Manchu border conflicts....
- March–April 1655 : Siege of KomarHuma CountyHuma County is a county in the far north of the Heilongjiang province, People's Republic of China. The county seat is located on the right bank of the Amur River, a few kilometers upstream from the fall of the Huma River into the Amur.It is under the administration of the Da Hinggan Ling...
- 1655 : Russian Tsardom has established a "military governor of the Amur region".
- 1657 : 2nd Battle of Sharhody.
1654-1658 : The Manchu-Korean alliances expeditions against Russians
In the following operations significant Korean forces were included into Manchu-led troops. The campaigns became known in Korean historiography as Naseon Jeongbeol.
- January 1654 : the first time a Korean contingent arrived to join a Manchu army near Ninguta.
- July 1654 : Battle of Hutong (on lower reaches of the Sungari at the present-day YilanYilan County, HeilongjiangYilan County is a county of central Heilongjiang province in Northeast China. It administratively belonging to Harbin, the provincial capital, more than to the west...
) between a joint Korean-Manchu army of 1500 men led by Byeon Geup (HangulHangulHangul,Pronounced or ; Korean: 한글 Hangeul/Han'gŭl or 조선글 Chosŏn'gŭl/Joseongeul the Korean alphabet, is the native alphabet of the Korean language. It is a separate script from Hanja, the logographic Chinese characters which are also sometimes used to write Korean...
: 변급 HanjaHanjaHanja is the Korean name for the Chinese characters hanzi. More specifically, it refers to those Chinese characters borrowed from Chinese and incorporated into the Korean language with Korean pronunciation...
: 邊岌) against 400-500 Russians. - 1658 : SarhudaSarhudaŠarhūda, known also under the Chinese transcription of his name, Shaerhuda , was a Manchu military commander during the early Qing Dynasty, active both before and after the Manchus' seizing control of the entire China....
's Manchu fleet from Ninguta, including a large Korean contingent led by Shin RyuShin RyuShin Ryu was a general of the Joseon Dynasty. He was born into a yangban family of the Pyeongsan Shin lineage in modern-day Chilgok County, Gyeongsangbuk-do, near where his shrine now stands in Yangmok-myeon. He passed the military gwageo in 1645, and went on to hold various state positions...
sails down the Sungari into the Amur, and meets Onufriy StepanovOnufriy StepanovOnufriy Stepanov was a Siberian Cossack and explorer of the Amur River. For background see Russian–Manchu border conflicts....
's smaller fleet from AlbazinAlbazinAlbazino is a village in Skovorodinsky District of Amur Oblast, Russia, noted as the site of Albazin , the first Russian settlement on the Amur River....
. In a naval battle in the Amur a few miles downstream from the mouth of the Sungari (July 10, 1658). The 11-ship Russian flotilla is destroyed (the survivors flee on just one ship), and Stepanov himself dies.
1685-1687 : The Albazin/Yakesa
Albazin
Albazino is a village in Skovorodinsky District of Amur Oblast, Russia, noted as the site of Albazin , the first Russian settlement on the Amur River....
Campaign
- May–July 1685 : The siege of Albazin
- July–October 1686 : The siege of New Albazin.
see also Outer Manchuria
Outer Manchuria
Outer Manchuria , is the territory ceded by China to Russia in the Treaty of Aigun in 1858 and the Treaty of Peking in 1860. . The northern part of the area was also in dispute between 1643 and 1689...
Russian Point of View
This section retells the story from the Russian side (or rather from a Western reading of Russian sources). The sources, for the most part are Forsyth Lincoln and March.Russian expansion into Siberia
Siberian River Routes
Siberian River Routes were the main ways of communication in the Russian Siberia before the 1730s, when roads began to be built. The rivers also were of primary importance in the process of Russian exploration and colonisation of vast Siberian territories...
began with the conquest of the Khanate of Sibir in 1582. By 1643 they reached the Pacific at Okhotsk
Okhotsk
Okhotsk is an urban locality and a seaport at the mouth of the Okhota River on the Sea of Okhotsk, in Okhotsky District, Khabarovsk Krai, Russia. Population: 4,470 ;...
. East of the Yenisei River
Yenisei River
Yenisei , also written as Yenisey, is the largest river system flowing to the Arctic Ocean. It is the central of the three great Siberian rivers that flow into the Arctic Ocean...
there was little land fit for agriculture, except Dauria, the land between the Stanovoy Mountains and the Amur River which was nominally subject to the Manchus. The Manchus had recently reestablished their authority in the area and were just beginning their conquest of China (Qing Dynasty). The land was populated by some 9,000 Daurs on the Zeya River
Zeya River
Zeya River , 1,242 km long, is a northern tributary of the Amur River. It rises in the Tokiysky Stanovik mountain ridge, a part of the Stanovoy Range. The first Russian to enter the area was Vassili Poyarkov....
, 14,000 Duchers
Duchers
The Duchers was the Russian name of the people populating the shores of the middle course of the Amur River, approximately from the mouth of the Zeya down to the mouth of the Ussury, and possibly even somewhat further downstream...
downstream and several thousand Tungus
Evenks
The Evenks are a Tungusic people of Northern Asia. In Russia, the Evenks are recognized as one of the Indigenous peoples of the Russian North, with a population of 35,527...
and Nivkhs toward the river mouth. The first Russians to hear of Dauria were probably Ivan Moskvitin
Ivan Moskvitin
Ivan Yuryevich Moskvitin was a Russian explorer, presumably a native of Moscow, who led a Russian reconnaissance party to the Pacific Ocean, becoming the first Russian to reach the Sea of Okhotsk....
and Maxim Perfilev
Vitim River
Vitim River is a major tributary of the Lena River. With its source east of Lake Baikal, the Vitim flows 1,978 km north through the Transbaykalian Mountains and the town of Bodaybo. The river peaks in June and freezes from November to May. It is navigable from the Lena to Bodaybo. Upstream,...
about 1640.
1643-46:Poyarkov: In 1643 Vassili Poyarkov
Vassili Poyarkov
Vassili Danilovich Poyarkov was the first Russian explorer of the Amur region.The Russian expansion into Siberia began with the conquest of the Khanate of Sibir in 1582. By 1643 they reached the Pacific at Okhotsk...
traveled from Yakutsk
Yakutsk
With a subarctic climate , Yakutsk is the coldest city, though not the coldest inhabited place, on Earth. Average monthly temperatures range from in July to in January. The coldest temperatures ever recorded on the planet outside Antarctica occurred in the basin of the Yana River to the northeast...
south to the Zeya River
Zeya River
Zeya River , 1,242 km long, is a northern tributary of the Amur River. It rises in the Tokiysky Stanovik mountain ridge, a part of the Stanovoy Range. The first Russian to enter the area was Vassili Poyarkov....
. He then sailed down the Amur River to its mouth and then north along the Okhotsk coast, returning to Yakutsk three years later.
1649-50: Khabarov: In 1649 Yerofei Khabarov found a better route to the upper Amur and quickly returned to Yakutsk where he recommended that a larger force be sent to conquer the region.
1650-53 Khabarov again: He returned the same year and built winter quarters at Albazin
Albazin
Albazino is a village in Skovorodinsky District of Amur Oblast, Russia, noted as the site of Albazin , the first Russian settlement on the Amur River....
at the northernmost point on the river. Next summer he sailed down the Amur and built a fort at Achansk (Wuzhala (乌扎拉)) probably
Boris Petrovich Polevoy
Boris Petrovich Polevoy was a Russian historian known for his work on the history of the Russian Far East. He was honored in Kamchatka for his work on the study of the region's history,...
near present-day Khabarovsk
Khabarovsk
Khabarovsk is the largest city and the administrative center of Khabarovsk Krai, Russia. It is located some from the Chinese border. It is the second largest city in the Russian Far East, after Vladivostok. The city became the administrative center of the Far Eastern Federal District of Russia...
. Again there was fighting and the natives called in their Manchu overlords. On 24 March 1652, Achansk was unsuccessfully attacked by a large Qing force [600 Manchu soldiers from Ninguta and about 1500 Daurs and Duchers led by the Manchu general known as Haise (海色), or Izenei (Изеней or Исиней). Haise was later executed for his poor performance.]. As soon as the ice broke up Khabarov withdrew upriver and built winter quarters at Kumarsk
Huma County
Huma County is a county in the far north of the Heilongjiang province, People's Republic of China. The county seat is located on the right bank of the Amur River, a few kilometers upstream from the fall of the Huma River into the Amur.It is under the administration of the Da Hinggan Ling...
. In the spring of 1653 reinforcements arrived under Dmitry Zinoviev. The two quarreled, Khabarov was arrested and escorted to Moscow for investigation.
1653-58:Stepanov: Onufriy Stepanov
Onufriy Stepanov
Onufriy Stepanov was a Siberian Cossack and explorer of the Amur River. For background see Russian–Manchu border conflicts....
was left in charge with about 400-500 men. They had little difficulty plundering the natives and defeating the local Qing troops. The Qing responded with two policies. First they ordered the local population to withdraw, thereby ending the grain production that had attracted the Russians in the first place. Second they appointed the experienced general Sarhuda
Sarhuda
Šarhūda, known also under the Chinese transcription of his name, Shaerhuda , was a Manchu military commander during the early Qing Dynasty, active both before and after the Manchus' seizing control of the entire China....
(who himself was from the Nierbo village from the mouth of Sungari) as the garrison commander at Ninguta. In 1657 he built more than 40 ships at the village of Ula (modern Jilin).. In 1658 a large Qing fleet under Sarhuda caught up with Stepanov and killed him and about 220 Cossacks. A few escaped and became freebooters.
1658-65:No man's land: By 1658 the Chinese had wiped out the Russians below Nerchinsk
Nerchinsk
Nerchinsk is a town and the administrative center of Nerchinsky District of Zabaykalsky Krai, Russia, located east of Lake Baikal, east of Chita, and about west of the Chinese border on the left bank of the Nercha River, above its confluence with the Shilka River, which flows into the Amur...
and the deserted land became a haven for outlaws and renegade Cossacks. In 1660 a large band of Russians was destroyed. They had some difficulty pursuing the Cossacks since their own policy had removed most of the local food. In the 1670s the Chinese attempted to drive the Russians away from the Okhotsk coast, reaching as far north as the Maya River
Maya River
Maya River is a river in Khabarovsk Krai and Sakha, Russia. It is a right tributary of the Aldan River of the Lena basin. The length of the river is 1053 km. The area of its basin 171,000 km². The Maya River freezes up in late October and stays under the ice until May. The Yudoma River is one of...
.
1665-1689:Albazin: In 1665 Nikifor Chernigovsky murdered the voyvoda of Ilimsk and fled to the Amur and reoccupied the fort at Albazin
Albazin
Albazino is a village in Skovorodinsky District of Amur Oblast, Russia, noted as the site of Albazin , the first Russian settlement on the Amur River....
, which became the center of an unofficial colony. In 1670 it was unsuccessfully attacked. In 1672 Albazin received the Czar's pardon and was officially recognized. From 1673 to 1683 Manchu forces were tied up suppressing a rebellion in the south. In 1682 or 1684 a voyvoda was appointed by Moscow. In 1685 the Manchus, now freed from their wars, invested the fort which surrendered on liberal terms. Most of the Russians withdrew to Nerchinsk, but a few joined the Manchus, becoming the Albazin Cossacks at Peking. The Chinese withdrew from the area, but the Russians, hearing of this, returned with 800 men under Aleksei Tolbuzin and reoccupied the fort. (their original purpose was merely to harvest the local grain, a rare commodity in this part of Siberia.) From June 1686, the fort was again besieged. Either (the siege was raised in December when it was learned that the two empires were engaged in peace negotiations) or (the fort was captured after an 18 month siege and Tolbuzin killed). At that time less than 100 defenders were left alive.
Treaties
In 1689, by the Treaty of NerchinskTreaty of Nerchinsk
The Treaty of Nerchinsk of 1689 was the first treaty between Russia and China. The Russians gave up the area north of the Amur River as far as the Stanovoy Mountains and kept the area between the Argun River and Lake Baikal. This border along the Argun River and Stanovoy Mountains lasted until...
, the Russians abandoned the whole Amur country including Albazin. The frontier was established as the Argun River
Argun River (Asia)
Ergune or Argun is the river which is a part of the Russia–China border. Its upper reaches are known as Hailar River in China. Its length is 1,007 mi...
and the Stanovoy Mountains. In 1727 the Treaty of Kyakhta confirmed and clarified this border and regulated Russo-Chinese trade.
In 1858, almost two centuries after the fall of Albazin, by the Treaty of Aigun
Treaty of Aigun
The Treaty of Aigun was a 1858 treaty between the Russian Empire, and the empire of the Qing Dynasty, the sinicized-Manchu rulers of China, that established much of the modern border between the Russian Far East and Manchuria , which is now known as Northeast China...
, Russia annexed the land between the Stanovoy Mountains and the Amur (commonly referred to in Russian as Priamurye, i.e. the "Lands along the Amur"). In 1860, with the Convention of Beijing, Russia annexed the Primorye
Primorsky Krai
Primorsky Krai , informally known as Primorye , is a federal subject of Russia . Primorsky means "maritime" in Russian, hence the region is sometimes referred to as Maritime Province or Maritime Territory. Its administrative center is in the city of Vladivostok...
(i.e. the "Martitme Region") down to Vladivostok
Vladivostok
The city is located in the southern extremity of Muravyov-Amursky Peninsula, which is about 30 km long and approximately 12 km wide.The highest point is Mount Kholodilnik, the height of which is 257 m...
, an area that had not been in contention in the 17th century. See Amur Annexation
Amur Annexation
The Amur Annexation refers to the annexation of the southeast corner of Siberia by Russia from China in 1858–60. The two areas involved are the Priamurye between the Amur River and the Stanovoy Range to the north and the Primorye which runs down the coast from the Amur mouth to the Korean border...
.