{{IPA notice}}
[[English phonology|English pronunciation]] can be divided into two main [[accent (sociolinguistics)|accent]] groups: a '''[[rhotic consonant|rhotic]]''' ({{pron-en|ˈroʊtɨk}}, sometimes {{IPA|/ˈrɒtɨk/}}) speaker pronounces a [[rhotic consonant]] in words like ''hard''; a '''non-rhotic''' speaker does not. That is, rhotic speakers pronounce {{IPA|/r/}} in all positions, while non-rhotic speakers pronounce {{IPA|/r/}} only if it is followed by a [[vowel]] sound in the same [[phrase]] or [[prosodic unit]] (see "[[linking and intrusive R]]").
In [[linguistics|linguistic]] terms, non-rhotic accents are said to exclude the sound {{IPA|[r]}} from the [[syllable coda]] before a [[consonant]] or prosodic break. This is commonly (if misleadingly) referred to as "post-vocalic R".
==Development of non-rhotic accents==
[[File:RhoticEngland.png|thumb|left|On this map of [[England]], the red areas are where the rural accents were rhotic in the 1950s. Based on H. Orton et al., ''[[Survey of English Dialects]]'' (1962–71). Some areas with partial rhoticity (for example parts of the [[East Riding of Yorkshire]]) are not shaded on this map.]]
[[File:RhoticEngland2.png|thumb|right|Red areas are where English dialects of the late 20th century were rhotic. Based on P. Trudgill, ''The Dialects of England''.]]
The earliest traces of a loss of {{IPA|/r/}} in English are found in the environment before {{IPA|/s/}} in spellings from the mid-15th century: the [[Oxford English Dictionary]] reports ''bace'' for earlier ''barse'' (today "[[bass (fish)|bass]]", the fish) in 1440 and ''passel'' for ''parcel'' in 1468. In the 1630s, the word ''[[juggernaut]]'' is first attested, which represents the [[Sanskrit]] word ''jagannāth'', meaning "lord of the universe". The English spelling uses the [[digraph (orthography)|digraph]] ''er'' to represent a Hindi sound close to the English [[schwa]]. Loss of coda {{IPA|/r/}} apparently became widespread in southern England during the 18th century; [[John Walker (lexicographer)|John Walker]] uses the spelling ''ar'' to indicate the [[broad A]] of ''aunt'' in his 1775 dictionary and reports that ''card'' is pronounced "caad" in 1791 (Labov, Ash, and Boberg 2006: 47).
Non-rhotic speakers pronounce an {{IPA|/r/}} in ''red'', and most pronounce it in ''torrid'' and ''watery'', where R is followed by a vowel, but not in ''hard'', nor in ''car'' or ''water'' when those words are said in isolation. However, in most non-rhotic accents, if a word ending in written "r" is followed closely by a word beginning with a vowel, the {{IPA|/r/}} is pronounced—as in ''water ice''. This phenomenon is referred to as "[[linking R]]". Many non-rhotic speakers also insert an [[epenthesis|epenthetic]] {{IPA|/r/}} between vowels when the first vowel is one that can occur before syllable-final ''r'' (''drawring'' for ''drawing''). This so-called "[[intrusive R]]" has been stigmatized, but even speakers of so-called [[Received Pronunciation]] frequently "intrude" an [[epenthetic]] {{IPA|/r/}} at word boundaries, especially where one or both vowels is schwa; for example ''the idea of it'' becomes ''the idea-r-of it'', ''Australia and New Zealand'' becomes ''Australia-r-and New Zealand'', the formerly well-known [[India Office|''India-r-Office'']]. The typical alternative used by RP speakers is to insert a [[glottal stop]] where an intrusive R would otherwise be placed.
For non-rhotic speakers, what was historically a vowel plus {{IPA|/r/}} is now usually realized as a [[long vowel]]. So in [[Received Pronunciation]] (RP) and many other non-rhotic accents ''card, fern, born'' are pronounced {{IPA|[kɑːd]}}, {{IPA|[fɜːn]}}, {{IPA|[bɔːn]}} or something similar; the pronunciations vary from accent to accent. This length may be retained in phrases, so while ''car'' pronounced in isolation is {{IPA|[kɑː]}}, ''car owner'' is {{IPA|[kɑːɹəʊnə]}}. But a final [[schwa]] usually remains short, so ''water'' in isolation is {{IPA|[wɔːtə]}}. In RP and similar accents the vowels {{IPA|/iː/}} and {{IPA|/uː/}} (or {{IPA|/ʊ/}}), when followed by ''r'', become [[diphthong]]s ending in schwa, so ''near'' is {{IPA|[nɪə]}} and ''poor'' is {{IPA|[pʊə]}}, though these have other realizations as well, including monophthongal ones; once again, the pronunciations vary from accent to accent. The same happens to [[diphthong]]s followed by R, though these may be considered to end in {{IPA|/ər/}} in rhotic speech, and it is the {{IPA|/ər/}} that reduces to schwa as usual in non-rhotic speech: ''tire'' said in isolation is {{IPA|[taɪə]}} and ''sour'' is {{IPA|[saʊə]}}. For some speakers, some long vowels alternate with a [[diphthong]] ending in schwa, so ''wear'' may be {{IPA|[wɛə]}} but ''wearing'' {{IPA|[wɛːɹiŋ]}}.
===Mergers characteristic of non-rhotic accents===
Some phonemic mergers are characteristic of non-rhotic accents. These usually include one item that historically contained an R (lost in the non-rhotic accent), and one that never did so. The section below lists mergers in order of approximately decreasing prevalence.
==== Panda–pander merger ====
In the terminology of Wells (1982), this consists of the merger of the [[lexical set]]s
commA and
lettER. It is found in all or nearly all non-rhotic accents, and is even present in some accents that are in other respects rhotic, such as those of some speakers in Jamaica and the Bahamas.
{{IPA notice}}
[[English phonology|English pronunciation]] can be divided into two main [[accent (sociolinguistics)|accent]] groups: a '''[[rhotic consonant|rhotic]]''' ({{pron-en|ˈroʊtɨk}}, sometimes {{IPA|/ˈrɒtɨk/}}) speaker pronounces a [[rhotic consonant]] in words like ''hard''; a '''non-rhotic''' speaker does not. That is, rhotic speakers pronounce {{IPA|/r/}} in all positions, while non-rhotic speakers pronounce {{IPA|/r/}} only if it is followed by a [[vowel]] sound in the same [[phrase]] or [[prosodic unit]] (see "[[linking and intrusive R]]").
In [[linguistics|linguistic]] terms, non-rhotic accents are said to exclude the sound {{IPA|[r]}} from the [[syllable coda]] before a [[consonant]] or prosodic break. This is commonly (if misleadingly) referred to as "post-vocalic R".
==Development of non-rhotic accents==
[[File:RhoticEngland.png|thumb|left|On this map of [[England]], the red areas are where the rural accents were rhotic in the 1950s. Based on H. Orton et al., ''[[Survey of English Dialects]]'' (1962–71). Some areas with partial rhoticity (for example parts of the [[East Riding of Yorkshire]]) are not shaded on this map.]]
[[File:RhoticEngland2.png|thumb|right|Red areas are where English dialects of the late 20th century were rhotic. Based on P. Trudgill, ''The Dialects of England''.]]
The earliest traces of a loss of {{IPA|/r/}} in English are found in the environment before {{IPA|/s/}} in spellings from the mid-15th century: the [[Oxford English Dictionary]] reports ''bace'' for earlier ''barse'' (today "[[bass (fish)|bass]]", the fish) in 1440 and ''passel'' for ''parcel'' in 1468. In the 1630s, the word ''[[juggernaut]]'' is first attested, which represents the [[Sanskrit]] word ''jagannāth'', meaning "lord of the universe". The English spelling uses the [[digraph (orthography)|digraph]] ''er'' to represent a Hindi sound close to the English [[schwa]]. Loss of coda {{IPA|/r/}} apparently became widespread in southern England during the 18th century; [[John Walker (lexicographer)|John Walker]] uses the spelling ''ar'' to indicate the [[broad A]] of ''aunt'' in his 1775 dictionary and reports that ''card'' is pronounced "caad" in 1791 (Labov, Ash, and Boberg 2006: 47).
Non-rhotic speakers pronounce an {{IPA|/r/}} in ''red'', and most pronounce it in ''torrid'' and ''watery'', where R is followed by a vowel, but not in ''hard'', nor in ''car'' or ''water'' when those words are said in isolation. However, in most non-rhotic accents, if a word ending in written "r" is followed closely by a word beginning with a vowel, the {{IPA|/r/}} is pronounced—as in ''water ice''. This phenomenon is referred to as "[[linking R]]". Many non-rhotic speakers also insert an [[epenthesis|epenthetic]] {{IPA|/r/}} between vowels when the first vowel is one that can occur before syllable-final ''r'' (''drawring'' for ''drawing''). This so-called "[[intrusive R]]" has been stigmatized, but even speakers of so-called [[Received Pronunciation]] frequently "intrude" an [[epenthetic]] {{IPA|/r/}} at word boundaries, especially where one or both vowels is schwa; for example ''the idea of it'' becomes ''the idea-r-of it'', ''Australia and New Zealand'' becomes ''Australia-r-and New Zealand'', the formerly well-known [[India Office|''India-r-Office'']]. The typical alternative used by RP speakers is to insert a [[glottal stop]] where an intrusive R would otherwise be placed.
For non-rhotic speakers, what was historically a vowel plus {{IPA|/r/}} is now usually realized as a [[long vowel]]. So in [[Received Pronunciation]] (RP) and many other non-rhotic accents ''card, fern, born'' are pronounced {{IPA|[kɑːd]}}, {{IPA|[fɜːn]}}, {{IPA|[bɔːn]}} or something similar; the pronunciations vary from accent to accent. This length may be retained in phrases, so while ''car'' pronounced in isolation is {{IPA|[kɑː]}}, ''car owner'' is {{IPA|[kɑːɹəʊnə]}}. But a final [[schwa]] usually remains short, so ''water'' in isolation is {{IPA|[wɔːtə]}}. In RP and similar accents the vowels {{IPA|/iː/}} and {{IPA|/uː/}} (or {{IPA|/ʊ/}}), when followed by ''r'', become [[diphthong]]s ending in schwa, so ''near'' is {{IPA|[nɪə]}} and ''poor'' is {{IPA|[pʊə]}}, though these have other realizations as well, including monophthongal ones; once again, the pronunciations vary from accent to accent. The same happens to [[diphthong]]s followed by R, though these may be considered to end in {{IPA|/ər/}} in rhotic speech, and it is the {{IPA|/ər/}} that reduces to schwa as usual in non-rhotic speech: ''tire'' said in isolation is {{IPA|[taɪə]}} and ''sour'' is {{IPA|[saʊə]}}. For some speakers, some long vowels alternate with a [[diphthong]] ending in schwa, so ''wear'' may be {{IPA|[wɛə]}} but ''wearing'' {{IPA|[wɛːɹiŋ]}}.
===Mergers characteristic of non-rhotic accents===
Some phonemic mergers are characteristic of non-rhotic accents. These usually include one item that historically contained an R (lost in the non-rhotic accent), and one that never did so. The section below lists mergers in order of approximately decreasing prevalence.
==== Panda–pander merger ====
In the terminology of Wells (1982), this consists of the merger of the [[lexical set]]s
commA and
lettER. It is found in all or nearly all non-rhotic accents, and is even present in some accents that are in other respects rhotic, such as those of some speakers in Jamaica and the Bahamas.
{{IPA notice}}
[[English phonology|English pronunciation]] can be divided into two main [[accent (sociolinguistics)|accent]] groups: a '''[[rhotic consonant|rhotic]]''' ({{pron-en|ˈroʊtɨk}}, sometimes {{IPA|/ˈrɒtɨk/}}) speaker pronounces a [[rhotic consonant]] in words like ''hard''; a '''non-rhotic''' speaker does not. That is, rhotic speakers pronounce {{IPA|/r/}} in all positions, while non-rhotic speakers pronounce {{IPA|/r/}} only if it is followed by a [[vowel]] sound in the same [[phrase]] or [[prosodic unit]] (see "[[linking and intrusive R]]").
In [[linguistics|linguistic]] terms, non-rhotic accents are said to exclude the sound {{IPA|[r]}} from the [[syllable coda]] before a [[consonant]] or prosodic break. This is commonly (if misleadingly) referred to as "post-vocalic R".
==Development of non-rhotic accents==
[[File:RhoticEngland.png|thumb|left|On this map of [[England]], the red areas are where the rural accents were rhotic in the 1950s. Based on H. Orton et al., ''[[Survey of English Dialects]]'' (1962–71). Some areas with partial rhoticity (for example parts of the [[East Riding of Yorkshire]]) are not shaded on this map.]]
[[File:RhoticEngland2.png|thumb|right|Red areas are where English dialects of the late 20th century were rhotic. Based on P. Trudgill, ''The Dialects of England''.]]
The earliest traces of a loss of {{IPA|/r/}} in English are found in the environment before {{IPA|/s/}} in spellings from the mid-15th century: the [[Oxford English Dictionary]] reports ''bace'' for earlier ''barse'' (today "[[bass (fish)|bass]]", the fish) in 1440 and ''passel'' for ''parcel'' in 1468. In the 1630s, the word ''[[juggernaut]]'' is first attested, which represents the [[Sanskrit]] word ''jagannāth'', meaning "lord of the universe". The English spelling uses the [[digraph (orthography)|digraph]] ''er'' to represent a Hindi sound close to the English [[schwa]]. Loss of coda {{IPA|/r/}} apparently became widespread in southern England during the 18th century; [[John Walker (lexicographer)|John Walker]] uses the spelling ''ar'' to indicate the [[broad A]] of ''aunt'' in his 1775 dictionary and reports that ''card'' is pronounced "caad" in 1791 (Labov, Ash, and Boberg 2006: 47).
Non-rhotic speakers pronounce an {{IPA|/r/}} in ''red'', and most pronounce it in ''torrid'' and ''watery'', where R is followed by a vowel, but not in ''hard'', nor in ''car'' or ''water'' when those words are said in isolation. However, in most non-rhotic accents, if a word ending in written "r" is followed closely by a word beginning with a vowel, the {{IPA|/r/}} is pronounced—as in ''water ice''. This phenomenon is referred to as "[[linking R]]". Many non-rhotic speakers also insert an [[epenthesis|epenthetic]] {{IPA|/r/}} between vowels when the first vowel is one that can occur before syllable-final ''r'' (''drawring'' for ''drawing''). This so-called "[[intrusive R]]" has been stigmatized, but even speakers of so-called [[Received Pronunciation]] frequently "intrude" an [[epenthetic]] {{IPA|/r/}} at word boundaries, especially where one or both vowels is schwa; for example ''the idea of it'' becomes ''the idea-r-of it'', ''Australia and New Zealand'' becomes ''Australia-r-and New Zealand'', the formerly well-known [[India Office|''India-r-Office'']]. The typical alternative used by RP speakers is to insert a [[glottal stop]] where an intrusive R would otherwise be placed.
For non-rhotic speakers, what was historically a vowel plus {{IPA|/r/}} is now usually realized as a [[long vowel]]. So in [[Received Pronunciation]] (RP) and many other non-rhotic accents ''card, fern, born'' are pronounced {{IPA|[kɑːd]}}, {{IPA|[fɜːn]}}, {{IPA|[bɔːn]}} or something similar; the pronunciations vary from accent to accent. This length may be retained in phrases, so while ''car'' pronounced in isolation is {{IPA|[kɑː]}}, ''car owner'' is {{IPA|[kɑːɹəʊnə]}}. But a final [[schwa]] usually remains short, so ''water'' in isolation is {{IPA|[wɔːtə]}}. In RP and similar accents the vowels {{IPA|/iː/}} and {{IPA|/uː/}} (or {{IPA|/ʊ/}}), when followed by ''r'', become [[diphthong]]s ending in schwa, so ''near'' is {{IPA|[nɪə]}} and ''poor'' is {{IPA|[pʊə]}}, though these have other realizations as well, including monophthongal ones; once again, the pronunciations vary from accent to accent. The same happens to [[diphthong]]s followed by R, though these may be considered to end in {{IPA|/ər/}} in rhotic speech, and it is the {{IPA|/ər/}} that reduces to schwa as usual in non-rhotic speech: ''tire'' said in isolation is {{IPA|[taɪə]}} and ''sour'' is {{IPA|[saʊə]}}. For some speakers, some long vowels alternate with a [[diphthong]] ending in schwa, so ''wear'' may be {{IPA|[wɛə]}} but ''wearing'' {{IPA|[wɛːɹiŋ]}}.
===Mergers characteristic of non-rhotic accents===
Some phonemic mergers are characteristic of non-rhotic accents. These usually include one item that historically contained an R (lost in the non-rhotic accent), and one that never did so. The section below lists mergers in order of approximately decreasing prevalence.
==== Panda–pander merger ====
In the terminology of Wells (1982), this consists of the merger of the [[lexical set]]s
commA and
lettER. It is found in all or nearly all non-rhotic accents, and is even present in some accents that are in other respects rhotic, such as those of some speakers in Jamaica and the Bahamas.
{| class="collapsible collapsed"
|-
! Homophonous pairs
|-
|
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! {{IPA|/ə/}}
! {{IPA|/ər/}}
! IPA
! Notes
|-
| area || airier || {{IPA|ˈɛːriə}}
|-
| cheetah || cheater || {{IPA|ˈtʃiːtə}}
|-
| custody || custardy || {{IPA|ˈkʌstədi}}
|-
| formally || formerly || {{IPA|ˈfɔːməli}}
|-
| karma || calmer || {{IPA|ˈkɑːmə}}
|-
| kava || carver || {{IPA|ˈkɑːvə}}
|-
| [[Lisa]] || leaser || {{IPA|ˈliːsə}}
|-
| [[Maya]] || [[Meier]] || {{IPA|ˈmaɪə}}
|-
| manna || manner || {{IPA|ˈmænə}}
|-
| manna || manor || {{IPA|ˈmænə}}
|-
| [[Mona]] || moaner || {{IPA|ˈmoʊnə}}
|-
| panda || pander || {{IPA|ˈpændə}}
|-
| [[PETA]] || [[Peter (given name)|Peter]] || {{IPA|ˈpiːtə}}
|-
| pharma || farmer || {{IPA|ˈfɑːmə}}
|-
| [[Rhoda]] || rotor || {{IPA|ˈroʊɾə}} || With [[intervocalic alveolar flapping]].
|-
| rota || rotor || {{IPA|ˈroʊtə}}
|-
| schema || schemer || {{IPA|ˈskiːmə}}
|-
| tuba || tuber || {{IPA|ˈt(j)uːbə}}
|-
| [[Wanda (disambiguation)|Wanda]] || wander || {{IPA|ˈwɒndə}}
|}
|}
==== Father–farther merger ====
In Wells' terminology, this consists of the merger of the lexical sets
PALM and
START. It is found in the speech of the great majority of non-rhotic speakers, including those of England, Wales, the United States, the Caribbean, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa. It may be absent in some non-rhotic speakers in the Bahamas.
{| class="collapsible collapsed"
|-
! Homophonous pairs
|-
|
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! {{IPA|/ɑː/}}
! {{IPA|/ɑːr/}}
! IPA
! Notes
|-
| alms || arms || {{IPA|ˈɑːmz}}
|-
| balmy || barmy || {{IPA|ˈbɑːmi}}
|-
| calmer || karma || {{IPA|ˈkɑːmə}}
|-
| [[Chalmers]] || charmers || {{IPA|ˈtʃɑːmərz}}
|-
| fa || far || {{IPA|ˈfɑː}}
|-
| father || farther || {{IPA|ˈfɑːðə}}
|-
| kava || carver || {{IPA|ˈkɑːvə}}
|-
| lava || larva || {{IPA|ˈlɑːvə}}
|-
| ma || mar || {{IPA|ˈmɑː}}
|-
| pa || par || {{IPA|ˈpɑː}}
|-
| ska || scar || {{IPA|ˈskɑː}}
|-
| spa || spar || {{IPA|ˈspɑː}}
|}
|}
==== Pawn–porn merger ====
In Wells' terminology, this consists of the merger of the lexical sets
THOUGHT and
NORTH. It is found in the same accents as the ''father–farther'' merger described above, but is absent from the Bahamas and Guyana.
{| class="collapsible collapsed"
|-
! Homophonous pairs
|-
|
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! {{IPA|/ɔː/}}
! {{IPA|/ɔːr/}}
! IPA
! Notes
|-
| alk || orc || {{IPA|ˈɔːk}}
|-
| auk || orc || {{IPA|ˈɔːk}}
|-
| awe || or || {{IPA|ˈɔː}}
|-
| awk || orc || {{IPA|ˈɔːk}}
|-
| balk || bork || {{IPA|ˈbɔːk}}
|-
| bawn || born || {{IPA|ˈbɔːn}}
|-
| caulk || cork || {{IPA|ˈkɔːk}}
|-
| cawed || cord || {{IPA|ˈkɔːd}}
|-
| cawed || chord || {{IPA|ˈkɔːd}}
|-
| draw || drawer || {{IPA|ˈdrɔː}}
|-
| gnaw || nor || {{IPA|ˈnɔː}}
|-
| laud || lord || {{IPA|ˈlɔːd}}
|-
| lawed || lord || {{IPA|ˈlɔːd}}
|-
| lawn || [[Lorne (disambiguation)|Lorne]] || {{IPA|ˈlɔːn}}
|-
| pawn || porn || {{IPA|ˈpɔːn}}
|-
| sought || sort || {{IPA|ˈsɔːt}}
|-
| stalk || stork || {{IPA|ˈstɔːk}}
|-
| talk || torque || {{IPA|ˈtɔːk}}
|-
| taught || tort || {{IPA|ˈtɔːt}}
|-
| taut || tort || {{IPA|ˈtɔːt}}
|-
| taw || tor || {{IPA|ˈtɔː}}
|-
| thaw || [[Thor]] || {{IPA|ˈθɔː}}
|}
|}
==== Caught–court merger ====
In Wells' terminology, this consists of the merger of the lexical sets
THOUGHT and
FORCE. It is found in those non-rhotic accents containing the ''pawn''–''porn'' merger that have also undergone the [[horse–hoarse merger]]. These include the accents of Southern England, Wales, non-rhotic New York City speakers, Trinidad and the Southern hemisphere. In such accents a three-way merger ''awe''-''or''-''ore/oar'' results.
{| class="collapsible collapsed"
|-
! Homophonous pairs
|-
|
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! {{IPA|/ɔː/}}
! {{IPA|/oːr/}}
! IPA
! Notes
|-
| awe || oar || {{IPA|ˈɔː}}
|-
| awe || ore || {{IPA|ˈɔː}}
|-
| bawd || board || {{IPA|ˈbɔːd}}
|-
| bawd || bored || {{IPA|ˈbɔːd}}
|-
| bawn || borne || {{IPA|ˈbɔːn}}
|-
| bawn || Bourne || {{IPA|ˈbɔːn}}
|-
| caught || court || {{IPA|ˈkɔːt}}
|-
| caw || core || {{IPA|ˈkɔː}}
|-
| daw || door || {{IPA|ˈdɔː}}
|-
| flaw || floor || {{IPA|ˈflɔː}}
|-
| fought || fort || {{IPA|ˈfɔːt}}
|-
| gaud || gored || {{IPA|ˈɡɔːd}}
|-
| haw || whore || {{IPA|ˈhɔː}}
|-
| law || lore || {{IPA|ˈlɔː}}
|-
| maw || more || {{IPA|ˈmɔː}}
|-
| maw || [[Moore (disambiguation)|Moore]] || {{IPA|ˈmɔː}}
|-
| paw || pore || {{IPA|ˈpɔː}}
|-
| paw || pour || {{IPA|ˈpɔː}}
|-
| raw || roar || {{IPA|ˈrɔː}}
|-
| sauce || source || {{IPA|ˈsɔːs}}
|-
| saw || soar || {{IPA|ˈsɔː}}
|-
| saw || sore || {{IPA|ˈsɔː}}
|-
| sawed || soared || {{IPA|ˈsɔːd}}
|-
| sawed || sword || {{IPA|ˈsɔːd}}
|-
| [[Sean]] || shorn || {{IPA|ˈʃɔːn}}
|-
| shaw || shore || {{IPA|ˈʃɔː}}
|-
| [[Shawn (disambiguation)|Shawn]] || shorn || {{IPA|ˈʃɔːn}}
|-
| taw || tore || {{IPA|ˈtɔː}}
|-
| yaw || yore || {{IPA|ˈjɔː}}
|-
| yaw || your || {{IPA|ˈjɔː}}
|}
|}
==== Calve–carve merger ====
In Wells' terminology, this consists of the merger of the lexical sets
BATH and
START. It is found in some non-rhotic accents with [[Trap–bath split|broad A]] in words like "bath". It is general in southern England (excluding rhotic speakers), Trinidad, the Bahamas, and the Southern hemisphere. It is a possibility for Welsh, Eastern New England, Jamaican, and Guyanese speakers.
{| class="collapsible collapsed"
|-
! Homophonous pairs
|-
|
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! {{IPA|/aː/}}
! {{IPA|/ɑːr/}}
! IPA
! Notes
|-
| aunt || aren't || {{IPA|ˈɑːnt}}
|-
| calve || carve || {{IPA|ˈkɑːv}}
|-
| fast || farced || {{IPA|ˈfɑːst}}
|-
| pass || parse || {{IPA|ˈpɑːs}}
|-
| passed || parsed || {{IPA|ˈpɑːst}}
|-
| past || parsed || {{IPA|ˈpɑːst}}
|}
|}
==== Paw–poor merger ====
In Wells' terminology, this consists of the merger of the lexical sets
THOUGHT and
CURE. It is found in those non-rhotic accents containing the ''caught''–''court'' merger that have also undergone the [[English-language vowel changes before historic r#Pour–poor merger|pour–poor merger]]. Wells lists it unequivocally only for the accent of Trinidad, but it is an option for non-rhotic speakers in England, Australia and New Zealand. Such speakers have a potential four–way merger ''taw''-''tor''-''tore''-''tour''.
{| class="collapsible collapsed"
|-
! Homophonous pairs
|-
|
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! {{IPA|/ɔː/}}
! {{IPA|/ʊːr/}}
! IPA
! Notes
|-
| gaud || gourd || {{IPA|ˈɡɔːd}}
|-
| haw || whore || {{IPA|ˈhɔː}}
|-
| law || lure || {{IPA|ˈlɔː}} || With [[yod dropping]].
|-
| maw || moor || {{IPA|ˈmɔː}}
|-
| maw || [[Moore (disambiguation)|Moore]] || {{IPA|ˈmɔː}}
|-
| paw || poor || {{IPA|ˈpɔː}}
|-
| shaw || sure || {{IPA|ˈʃɔː}}
|-
| taw || tour || {{IPA|ˈtɔː}}
|-
| tawny || tourney || {{IPA|ˈtɔːni}}
|-
| yaw || your || {{IPA|ˈjɔː}}
|-
| yaw || you're || {{IPA|ˈjɔː}}
|}
|}
==== Batted–battered merger ====
This merger is present in non-rhotic accents which have undergone the [[Phonological history of the high front vowels#Weak vowel merger|weak vowel merger]]. Such accents include Australian, New Zealand, most South African speech, and some non-rhotic English speech.
{| class="collapsible collapsed"
|-
! Homophonous pairs
|-
|
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! {{IPA|/ɪ̈/}}
! {{IPA|/ər/}}
! IPA
! Notes
|-
| arches || archers || {{IPA|ˈɑːtʃəz}}
|-
| batted || battered || {{IPA|ˈbætəd}}
|-
| chatted || chattered || {{IPA|ˈtʃætəd}}
|-
| founded || foundered || {{IPA|ˈfaʊndəd}}
|-
| matted || mattered || {{IPA|ˈmætəd}}
|-
| offices || officers || {{IPA|ˈɒfəsəz}}
|-
| patted || pattered || {{IPA|ˈpætəd}}
|-
| sauces || saucers || {{IPA|ˈsɔːsəz}}
|-
| splendid || splendo(u)red || {{IPA|ˈsplɛndəd}}
|-
| tended || tendered || {{IPA|ˈtɛndəd}}
|-
| territory || terror tree || {{IPA|ˈtɛrətriː}} || With [[happy tensing]].
|}
|}
==== Dough–door merger ====
In Wells' terminology, this consists of the merger of the lexical sets
GOAT and
FORCE. It may be found in some southern U.S. non-rhotic speech, some speakers of [[African American Vernacular English]], some speakers in Guyana and some Welsh speech.
{| class="collapsible collapsed"
|-
! Homophonous pairs
|-
|
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! {{IPA|/oʊ/}}
! {{IPA|/oʊr/}}
! IPA
! Notes
|-
| beau || boar || {{IPA|ˈboʊ}}
|-
| beau || bore || {{IPA|ˈboʊ}}
|-
| bode || board || {{IPA|ˈboʊd}}
|-
| bode || bored || {{IPA|ˈboʊd}}
|-
| bone || borne || {{IPA|ˈboʊn}}
|-
| bone || [[Bourne (disambiguation)|Bourne]] || {{IPA|ˈboʊn}}
|-
| bow || boar || {{IPA|ˈboʊ}}
|-
| bow || bore || {{IPA|ˈboʊ}}
|-
| chose || chores || {{IPA|ˈtʃoʊz}}
|-
| coat || court || {{IPA|ˈkoʊt}}
|-
| code || cored || {{IPA|ˈkoʊd}}
|-
| doe || door || {{IPA|ˈdoʊ}}
|-
| does || doors || {{IPA|ˈdoʊz}}
|-
| dough || door || {{IPA|ˈdoʊ}}
|-
| doze || doors || {{IPA|ˈdoʊz}}
|-
| floe || floor || {{IPA|ˈfloʊ}}
|-
| flow || floor || {{IPA|ˈfloʊ}}
|-
| foe || fore || {{IPA|ˈfoʊ}}
|-
| foe || four || {{IPA|ˈfoʊ}}
|-
| go || gore || {{IPA|ˈɡoʊ}}
|-
| goad || gored || {{IPA|ˈɡoʊd}}
|-
| hoe || whore || {{IPA|ˈhoʊ}}
|-
| hoes || whores || {{IPA|ˈhoʊz}}
|-
| hose || whores || {{IPA|ˈhoʊz}}
|-
| lo || lore || {{IPA|ˈloʊ}}
|-
| low || lore || {{IPA|ˈloʊ}}
|-
| moan || mourn || {{IPA|ˈmoʊn}}
|-
| [[Moe (disambiguation)|Moe]] || [[Moore (disambiguation)|Moore]] || {{IPA|ˈmoʊ}}
|-
| [[Moe (disambiguation)|Moe]] || more || {{IPA|ˈmoʊ}}
|-
| mow || [[Moore (disambiguation)|Moore]] || {{IPA|ˈmoʊ}}
|-
| mow || more || {{IPA|ˈmoʊ}}
|-
| mown || mourn || {{IPA|ˈmoʊn}}
|-
| O || oar || {{IPA|ˈoʊ}}
|-
| O || ore || {{IPA|ˈoʊ}}
|-
| ode || oared || {{IPA|ˈoʊd}}
|-
| oh || oar || {{IPA|ˈoʊ}}
|-
| oh || ore || {{IPA|ˈoʊ}}
|-
| owe || oar || {{IPA|ˈoʊ}}
|-
| owe || ore || {{IPA|ˈoʊ}}
|-
| owed || oared || {{IPA|ˈoʊd}}
|-
| [[Po (disambiguation)|Po]] || pore || {{IPA|ˈpoʊ}}
|-
| [[Po (disambiguation)|Po]] || pour || {{IPA|ˈpoʊ}}
|-
| [[Poe]] || pore || {{IPA|ˈpoʊ}}
|-
| [[Poe]] || pour || {{IPA|ˈpoʊ}}
|-
| poach || porch || {{IPA|ˈpoʊtʃ}}
|-
| poke || pork || {{IPA|ˈpoʊk}}
|-
| pose || pores || {{IPA|ˈpoʊz}}
|-
| pose || pours || {{IPA|ˈpoʊz}}
|-
| road || roared || {{IPA|ˈroʊd}}
|-
| rode || roared || {{IPA|ˈroʊd}}
|-
| roe || roar || {{IPA|ˈroʊ}}
|-
| roes || roars || {{IPA|ˈroʊz}}
|-
| rose || roars || {{IPA|ˈroʊz}}
|-
| row || roar || {{IPA|ˈroʊ}}
|-
| rows || roars || {{IPA|ˈroʊz}}
|-
| sew || soar || {{IPA|ˈsoʊ}}
|-
| sew || sore || {{IPA|ˈsoʊ}}
|-
| shew || shore || {{IPA|ˈʃoʊ}}
|-
| shone || shorn || {{IPA|ˈʃoʊn}}
|-
| show || shore || {{IPA|ˈʃoʊ}}
|-
| shown || shorn || {{IPA|ˈʃoʊn}}
|-
| snow || snore || {{IPA|ˈsnoʊ}}
|-
| so || soar || {{IPA|ˈsoʊ}}
|-
| so || sore || {{IPA|ˈsoʊ}}
|-
| sow || soar || {{IPA|ˈsoʊ}}
|-
| sow || sore || {{IPA|ˈsoʊ}}
|-
| stow || store || {{IPA|ˈstoʊ}}
|-
| toe || tore || {{IPA|ˈtoʊ}}
|-
| tone || torn || {{IPA|ˈtoʊn}}
|-
| tow || tore || {{IPA|ˈtoʊ}}
|-
| woe || wore || {{IPA|ˈwoʊ}}
|-
| whoa || wore || {{IPA|ˈwoʊ}} || With [[wine–whine merger]].
|-
| yo || yore || {{IPA|ˈjoʊ}}
|-
| yo || your || {{IPA|ˈjoʊ}}
|}
|}
==== Show–sure merger ====
In Wells' terminology, this consists of the merger of the lexical sets
GOAT and
CURE. It may be present in those speakers who have both the ''dough–door'' merger described above, and also the [[English-language vowel changes before historic r#Pour–poor merger|pour–poor merger]]. These include some southern U.S. non-rhotic speakers, some speakers of [[African American Vernacular English]], and some speakers in Guyana.
{| class="collapsible collapsed"
|-
! Homophonous pairs
|-
|
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! {{IPA|/oʊ/}}
! {{IPA|/ʊːr/}}
! IPA
! Notes
|-
| beau || boor || {{IPA|ˈboʊ}}
|-
| bow || boor || {{IPA|ˈboʊ}}
|-
| goad || goured || {{IPA|ˈɡoʊd}}
|-
| hoe || whore || {{IPA|ˈhoʊ}}
|-
| lo || lure || {{IPA|ˈloʊ}} || With [[yod dropping]].
|-
| low || lure || {{IPA|ˈloʊ}} || With [[yod dropping]].
|-
| [[Moe (disambiguation)|Moe]] || moor || {{IPA|ˈmoʊ}}
|-
| [[Moe (disambiguation)|Moe]] || [[Moore (disambiguation)|Moore]] || {{IPA|ˈmoʊ}}
|-
| mow || moor || {{IPA|ˈmoʊ}}
|-
| mow || [[Moore (disambiguation)|Moore]] || {{IPA|ˈmoʊ}}
|-
| [[Po (disambiguation)|Po]] || poor || {{IPA|ˈpoʊ}}
|-
| [[Poe]] || poor || {{IPA|ˈpoʊ}}
|-
| shew || sure || {{IPA|ˈʃoʊ}}
|-
| show || sure || {{IPA|ˈʃoʊ}}
|-
| toe || tour || {{IPA|ˈtoʊ}}
|-
| tow || tour || {{IPA|ˈtoʊ}}
|-
| yo || your || {{IPA|ˈjoʊ}}
|-
| yo || you're || {{IPA|ˈjoʊ}}
|}
|}
==== Often–orphan merger ====
In Wells' terminology, this consists of the merger of the lexical sets
CLOTH and
NORTH. It may be present in old-fashioned Eastern New England accents, New York City speakers and also in some speakers in Jamaica and Guyana. The merger was also until recently present in the dialects of [[southern England]], including [[Received Pronunciation]] — specifically, the phonemic merger of the words ''often'' and ''orphan'' was a [[running gag]] in the [[Gilbert and Sullivan]] [[musical theatre|musical]], ''[[The Pirates of Penzance]]''.
{| class="collapsible collapsed"
|-
! Homophonous pairs
|-
|
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! {{IPA|/ɒː/}}
! {{IPA|/ɔːr/}}
! IPA
! Notes
|-
| hoss || horse || {{IPA|ˈhɔːs}} || The word ''hoss'' actually arose as a dialectal spelling of ''horse'' with this merger.
|-
| moss || [[Morse (disambiguation)|Morse]] || {{IPA|ˈmɔːs}}
|-
| off || [[Orff (disambiguation)|Orff]] || {{IPA|ˈɔːf}}
|-
| often || orphan || {{IPA|ˈɔːfən}}
|}
|}
==== God–guard merger ====
In Wells' terminology, this consists of the merger of the lexical sets
LOT and
START. It may be present in non-rhotic accents that have undergone the [[Phonological history of English low back vowels#Father–bother merger|father–bother merger]]. These may include some New York accents, some southern U.S. accents, and African American Vernacular English.
{| class="collapsible collapsed"
|-
! Homophonous pairs
|-
|
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! {{IPA|/ɑ/}}
! {{IPA|/ɑr/}}
! IPA
! Notes
|-
| bob || barb || {{IPA|ˈbɑb}}
|-
| bock || bark || {{IPA|ˈbɑk}}
|-
| bocks || barks || {{IPA|ˈbɑks}}
|-
| bod || bard || {{IPA|ˈbɑd}}
|-
| bod || barred || {{IPA|ˈbɑd}}
|-
| bot || [[Bart (disambiguation)|Bart]] || {{IPA|ˈbɑt}}
|-
| box || barks || {{IPA|ˈbɑks}}
|-
| clock || [[Clark]] || {{IPA|ˈklɑk}}
|-
| cob || carb || {{IPA|ˈkɑb}}
|-
| cod || card || {{IPA|ˈkɑd}}
|-
| cop || carp || {{IPA|ˈkɑp}}
|-
| cot || cart || {{IPA|ˈkɑt}}
|-
| dock || dark || {{IPA|ˈdɑk}}
|-
| dolling || darling || {{IPA|ˈdɑlɪŋ}}
|-
| don || darn || {{IPA|ˈdɑn}}
|-
| dot || dart || {{IPA|ˈdɑt}}
|-
| god || guard || {{IPA|ˈɡɑd}}
|-
| hock || hark || {{IPA|ˈhɑk}}
|-
| hop || harp || {{IPA|ˈhɑp}}
|-
| hot || hart || {{IPA|ˈhɑt}}
|-
| hot || heart || {{IPA|ˈhɑt}}
|-
| hottie || hardy || {{IPA|ˈhɑɾi}} || With [[intervocalic alveolar flapping]].
|-
| hottie || hearty || {{IPA|ˈhɑti}}
|-
| hough || hark || {{IPA|ˈhɑk}}
|-
| hovered || [[Harvard]] || {{IPA|ˈhɑvəd}}
|-
| knock || narc || {{IPA|ˈnɑk}}
|-
| knocks || narcs || {{IPA|ˈnɑks}}
|-
| [[Knox (disambiguation)|Knox]] || narcs || {{IPA|ˈnɑk}}
|-
| lock || lark || {{IPA|ˈlɑk}}
|-
| lodge || large || {{IPA|ˈlɑdʒ}}
|-
| mock || mark || {{IPA|ˈmɑk}}
|-
| mocks || marks || {{IPA|ˈmɑks}}
|-
| mocks || [[Marx]] || {{IPA|ˈmɑks}}
|-
| mod || marred || {{IPA|ˈmɑd}}
|-
| mosh || marsh || {{IPA|ˈmɑʃ}}
|-
| ox || arks || {{IPA|ˈɑks}}
|-
| pock || park || {{IPA|ˈpɑk}}
|-
| pocks || parks || {{IPA|ˈpɑks}}
|-
| pot || part || {{IPA|ˈpɑt}}
|-
| potty || party || {{IPA|ˈpɑti}}
|-
| pox || parks || {{IPA|ˈpɑks}}
|-
| shod || shard || {{IPA|ˈʃɑd}}
|-
| shock || shark || {{IPA|ˈʃɑk}}
|-
| shop || sharp || {{IPA|ˈʃɑp}}
|-
| sock || [[Sark]] || {{IPA|ˈsɑk}}
|-
| sod || [[Sard]] || {{IPA|ˈsɑd}}
|-
| [[Spock]] || spark || {{IPA|ˈspɑk}}
|-
| spotter || [[Sparta]] || {{IPA|ˈspɑtə}}
|-
| stock || stark || {{IPA|ˈstɑk}}
|-
| [[Todd (disambiguation)|Todd]] || tarred || {{IPA|ˈtɑd}}
|-
| top || tarp || {{IPA|ˈtɑp}}
|-
| tot || tart || {{IPA|ˈtɑt}}
|-
| yon || yarn || {{IPA|ˈjɑn}}
|}
|}
==== Shot–short merger ====
In Wells' terminology, this consists of the merger of the lexical sets
LOT and
NORTH. It may be present in some Eastern New England accents.
{| class="collapsible collapsed"
|-
! Homophonous pairs
|-
|
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! {{IPA|/ɒ/}}
! {{IPA|/ɒr/}}
! IPA
! Notes
|-
| cock || cork || {{IPA|ˈkɒk}}
|-
| cod || chord || {{IPA|ˈkɒd}}
|-
| cod || cord || {{IPA|ˈkɒd}}
|-
| con || corn || {{IPA|ˈkɒn}}
|-
| odder || order || {{IPA|ˈɒdə}}
|-
| otter || order || {{IPA|ˈɒɾə}} || With [[intervocalic alveolar flapping]].
|-
| shoddy || shorty || {{IPA|ˈʃɒɾi}} || With [[intervocalic alveolar flapping]].
|-
| shot || short || {{IPA|ˈʃɒt}}
|-
| snot || snort || {{IPA|ˈsnɒt}}
|-
| solder || sorter || {{IPA|ˈsɒɾə}} || With [[intervocalic alveolar flapping]].
|-
| stock || stork || {{IPA|ˈstɒk}}
|-
| swat || swart || {{IPA|ˈswɒt}}
|-
| tock || torque || {{IPA|ˈtɒk}}
|-
| wabble || warble || {{IPA|ˈwɒbəl}}
|-
| wad || ward || {{IPA|ˈwɒd}}
|-
| wad || warred || {{IPA|ˈwɒd}}
|-
| wan || warn || {{IPA|ˈwɒn}}
|-
| watt || wart || {{IPA|ˈwɒt}}
|-
| what || wart || {{IPA|ˈwɒt}} || With [[wine–whine merger]].
|-
| whop || warp || {{IPA|ˈwɒp}} || With [[wine–whine merger]].
|-
| wobble || warble || {{IPA|ˈwɒbəl}}
|}
|}
==== Bud–bird merger ====
{{Citation needed|date=February 2010|reason=Source for this name? Wells describes in terms of his lexical sets STRUT and NURSE.}} A merger of {{IPA|/ɜː(r)/}} and {{IPA|/ʌ/}} occurring for some speakers of [[Jamaican English]] making ''bud'' and ''bird'' homophones as {{IPA|/bʌd/}}. The conversion of {{IPA|/ɜː/}} to {{IPA|[ʌ]}} or {{IPA|[ə]}} is also found in places scattered around [[England]] and [[Scotland]]. Some speakers, mostly rural, in the area from [[London]] to [[Norfolk]] exhibit this conversion, mainly before voiceless fricatives. This gives pronunciation like ''first'' {{IPA|[fʌst]}} and ''worse'' {{IPA|[wʌs]}}. The word ''cuss'' appears to derive from the application of this sound change to the word ''curse''. Similarly, ''lurve'' is coined from ''love''.
{| class="collapsible collapsed"
|-
! Homophonous pairs
|-
|
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! {{IPA|/ʌ/}}
! {{IPA|/ɜːr/}}
! IPA
! Notes
|-
| blood || blurred || {{IPA|ˈblʌd}}
|-
| buck || [[Burke (disambiguation)|Burke]] || {{IPA|ˈbʌk}}
|-
| bud || bird || {{IPA|ˈbʌd}}
|-
| bug || burg || {{IPA|ˈbʌɡ}}
|-
| bugger || burger || {{IPA|ˈbʌɡə}}
|-
| bummer || [[Burma]] || {{IPA|ˈbʌmə}}
|-
| bun || [[Bern]] || {{IPA|ˈbʌn}}
|-
| bun || burn || {{IPA|ˈbʌn}}
|-
| bunt || burnt || {{IPA|ˈbʌnt}}
|-
| bussed || burst || {{IPA|ˈbʌst}}
|-
| bust || burst || {{IPA|ˈbʌst}}
|-
| but || [[Bert (name)|Bert]] || {{IPA|ˈbʌt}}
|-
| but || [[Burt (disambiguation)|Burt]] || {{IPA|ˈbʌt}}
|-
| butt || [[Bert (name)|Bert]] || {{IPA|ˈbʌt}}
|-
| butt || [[Burt (disambiguation)|Burt]] || {{IPA|ˈbʌt}}
|-
| button || [[Burton (disambiguation)|Burton]] || {{IPA|ˈbʌtən}}
|-
| chuck || chirk || {{IPA|ˈtʃʌk}}
|-
| cluck || clerk || {{IPA|ˈklʌk}}
|-
| cub || curb || {{IPA|ˈkʌb}}
|-
| cub || kerb || {{IPA|ˈkʌb}}
|-
| cud || curd || {{IPA|ˈkʌd}}
|-
| cull || curl || {{IPA|ˈkʌl}}
|-
| cunning || kerning || {{IPA|ˈkʌnɪŋ}}
|-
| cuss || curse || {{IPA|ˈkʌs}}
|-
| cut || curt || {{IPA|ˈkʌt}}
|-
| doth || dearth || {{IPA|ˈdʌθ}}
|-
| duck || dirk || {{IPA|ˈdʌk}}
|-
| fun || fern || {{IPA|ˈfʌn}}
|-
| fussed || first || {{IPA|ˈfʌst}}
|-
| fuzz || furs || {{IPA|ˈfʌz}}
|-
| gull || girl || {{IPA|ˈɡʌl}}
|-
| gutter || girder || {{IPA|ˈɡʌɾə}} || With [[intervocalic alveolar flapping]].
|-
| hub || herb || {{IPA|ˈhʌb}}
|-
| huddle || hurdle || {{IPA|ˈhʌdəl}}
|-
| hull || hurl || {{IPA|ˈhʌl}}
|-
| hum || herm || {{IPA|ˈhʌm}}
|-
| hush || [[Hirsch]] || {{IPA|ˈhʌʃ}}
|-
| hut || hurt || {{IPA|ˈhʌt}}
|-
| love || lurve || {{IPA|ˈlʌv}}
|-
| luck || lurk || {{IPA|ˈlʌk}}
|-
| muck || mirk || {{IPA|ˈmʌk}}
|-
| muck || murk || {{IPA|ˈmʌk}}
|-
| mull || merl || {{IPA|ˈmʌl}}
|-
| mutter || murder || {{IPA|ˈmʌɾə}} || With [[intervocalic alveolar flapping]].
|-
| puck || perk || {{IPA|ˈpʌk}}
|-
| pup || perp || {{IPA|ˈpʌp}}
|-
| pus || purse || {{IPA|ˈpʌs}}
|-
| putt || pert || {{IPA|ˈpʌt}}
|-
| shuck || shirk || {{IPA|ˈʃʌk}}
|-
| spun || spurn || {{IPA|ˈspʌn}}
|-
| stud || stirred || {{IPA|ˈstʌd}}
|-
| such || search || {{IPA|ˈsʌtʃ}}
|-
| suck || cirque || {{IPA|ˈsʌk}}
|-
| suckle || circle || {{IPA|ˈsʌkəl}}
|-
| suffer || surfer || {{IPA|ˈsʌfə}}
|-
| sully || surly || {{IPA|ˈsʌli}}
|-
| [[Sutton (disambiguation)|Sutton]] || certain || {{IPA|ˈsʌtn̩}} || With n-syllabification.
|-
| thud || third || {{IPA|ˈθʌd}}
|-
| ton(ne) || tern || {{IPA|ˈtʌn}}
|-
| ton(ne) || turn || {{IPA|ˈtʌn}}
|-
| tough || turf || {{IPA|ˈtʌf}}
|-
| tuck || [[Turk (disambiguation)|Turk]] || {{IPA|ˈtʌk}}
|-
| us || [[Erse (disambiguation)|Erse]] || {{IPA|ˈʌs}}
|}
|}
==== Oil–earl merger ====
In Wells' terminology, this consists of the merger of the lexical sets
CHOICE and
NURSE preconsonantally. It was present in older New York accents, but became stigmatized and is sharply recessive in those born since the Second World War. This merger is known for the word ''soitanly'', used often by the [[Three Stooges]] comedian [[Curly Howard]] as a variant of ''certainly'', in comedy [[short subject|shorts]] of the 1930s and '40s.
{| class="collapsible collapsed"
|-
! Homophonous pairs
|-
|
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! {{IPA|/ɔɪ/}}
! {{IPA|/ɜr/}}
! IPA
! Notes
|-
| adjoin || adjourn || {{IPA|əˈdʒɜɪn}}
|-
| boil || burl || {{IPA|ˈbɜɪl}}
|-
| [[Boyle (disambiguation)|Boyle]] || burl || {{IPA|ˈbɜɪl}}
|-
| [[Boyd (disambiguation)|Boyd]] || bird || {{IPA|ˈbɜɪd}}
|-
| coil || curl || {{IPA|ˈkɜɪl}}
|-
| coin || kern || {{IPA|ˈkɜɪn}}
|-
| coyed || curd || {{IPA|ˈkɜɪd}}
|-
| foil || furl || {{IPA|ˈfɜɪl}}
|-
| hoist || [[Hearst (disambiguation)|Hearst]] || {{IPA|ˈhɜɪst}}
|-
| [[Hoyle]] || hurl || {{IPA|ˈhɜɪl}}
|-
| loin || learn || {{IPA|ˈlɜɪn}}
|-
| oil || earl || {{IPA|ˈɜɪl}}
|-
| poil || pearl || {{IPA|ˈpɜɪl}}
|-
| poise || purrs || {{IPA|ˈpɜɪz}}
|-
| toyed || turd || {{IPA|ˈtɜɪd}}
|-
| voice || verse || {{IPA|ˈvɜɪs}}
|}
|}
==== Other mergers ====
In some accents, [[syllabification]] may interact with rhoticity, resulting in homophones where non-rhotic accents have centering diphthongs. Possibilities include ''Korea–career'', ''[[Shia Islam|Shi'a]]–sheer'', and ''[[Maia (disambiguation)|Maia]]–mire'', while ''[[skua]]'' may be identical with the second syllable of ''obscure''.
==Distribution==
[[File:Non rhotic-whites-usa.png|thumb|right|The red areas are those where Labov, Ash, and Boberg (2006:48) found some '''non'''-rhotic pronunciation among some whites in major cities in the [[United States]].
[[African American Vernacular English|AAVE]]-influenced non-rhotic pronunciations may be found among African-Americans throughout the country.]]
Examples of rhotic accents are: [[Scottish English]], [[Mid Ulster English]], [[Canadian English]] and most varieties of [[American English]].
Non-rhotic accents include most [[English language in England|accents of England]], [[New Zealand English|New Zealand]], [[Australian English|Australia]], [[South African English|South Africa]].
[[File:Final er in Farmer English dialects.PNG|thumb|left|
Final post-vocalic '''/r/''' in ''farmer'' in English rural dialects of the 1950s
'''GREEN''' - {{IPA|[ə]}} (non-rhotic)
'''YELLOW''' - {{IPA|[əʴ]}} ([[alveolar consonant|alveolar]])
'''ORANGE''' - {{IPA|[əʵ]}} ([[retroflex consonant|retroflex]])
'''PINK''' - {{IPA|[əʵː]}} ([[retroflex consonant|retroflex]] & [[length (phonetics)|long]])
'''BLUE''' - {{IPA|[əʶ]}} ([[guttural R|uvular]])
'''VIOLET''' - {{IPA|[ɔʶ]}} ([[back vowel|back]] & [[roundedness|rounded]])]]
Most speakers of most of [[North American English]] are rhotic, as are speakers from [[Barbados]], [[Scotland]] and most of [[Ireland]].
In [[England]], rhotic accents are found in the [[West Country dialects|West Country]] (south and west of a line from near [[Shrewsbury]] to around [[Portsmouth]]), the [[Corby]] area, most of [[Lancashire]] (north and west of the center of [[Manchester]]), some parts of [[Yorkshire]] and [[Lincolnshire]] and in the areas that border Scotland. The prestige form, however, exerts a steady pressure towards non-rhoticity. Thus the urban speech of Bristol or Southampton is more accurately described as variably rhotic, the degree of rhoticity being reduced as one moves up the class and formality scales.
Most speakers of [[Indian English]] have a rhotic accent., while [[Pakistani English]] can be either rhotic or non rhotic. Other areas with rhotic accents include [[Otago]] and [[Southland Region|Southland]] in the far south of New Zealand's [[South Island]], where a Scottish influence is apparent.
Areas with non-rhotic accents include [[Australia]], most of the [[Caribbean]], most of [[England]] (including [[Received Pronunciation]] speakers), most of [[New Zealand]], [[Wales]], [[Hong Kong]], and [[Singapore]].
Canada is entirely rhotic except for small isolated areas in southwestern [[New Brunswick]], parts of [[Newfoundland and Labrador|Newfoundland]], and [[Lunenburg County, Nova Scotia|Lunenburg]] and [[Shelburne County, Nova Scotia|Shelburne Counties, Nova Scotia]].
In the United States, much of the [[Southern United States|South]] was once non-rhotic, but in recent decades non-rhotic speech has declined. Today, non-rhoticity in [[Southern American English]] is found primarily among older speakers, and only in some areas such as central and southern [[Alabama]], [[Savannah, Georgia]], and [[Norfolk, Virginia]]. Parts of [[New England]], especially [[Boston accent|Boston]], are non-rhotic as well as [[New York City]] and surrounding areas. [[African American Vernacular English]] (AAVE) is largely non-rhotic.
In some non-rhotic Southern American and AAVE accents, there is no linking r, that is, {{IPA|/r/}} at the end of a word is deleted even when the following word starts with a vowel, so that "Mister Adams" is pronounced {{IPA|[mɪstə(ʔ)ˈædəmz]}}. In a few such accents, intervocalic {{IPA|/r/}} is deleted before an [[Stress (linguistics)|unstressed]] [[syllable]] even within a word when the following syllable begins with a vowel. In such accents, pronunciations like {{IPA|[kæəˈlaːnə]}} for ''[[wikt:Carolina|Carolina]]'' {{IPA|[bɛːˈʌp]}} for "bear up" are heard. This pronunciation also occurs in AAVE.
The English spoken in [[Asia]], [[Indian English|India]], and the [[Philippine English|Philippines]] is predominantly rhotic. In the case of the Philippines, this may be explained because the English that is spoken there is heavily influenced by the American dialect. In addition, many East Asians (in China, Japan, Korea, and Taiwan) who have a good command of English generally have rhotic accents because of the influence of [[American English]]. This excludes [[Hong Kong]], whose RP English dialect is a result of its almost 150-year-history as a British Crown colony (later British dependent territory).
Other Asian regions with non-rhotic English are [[Malaysia]], [[Singapore]], and [[Brunei]]. Spoken English in [[Myanmar]] is non-rhotic, but there are a number of English speakers with a rhotic or partially rhotic pronunciation.
===Other Germanic languages===
The rhotic consonant is dropped or vocalized under similar conditions in other Germanic languages, notably [[German language|German]], [[Danish language|Danish]] and some dialects of southern [[Sweden]] (possibly because of its Danish history). In most varieties of German, /r/ in the [[syllable coda]] is frequently realized as a vowel or a [[semivowel]], {{IPA|[ɐ]}} or {{IPA|[ɐ̯]}}, especially in the unstressed ending ''-er'' and after long vowels: for example ''sehr'' {{IPA|[zeːɐ̯]}}, ''besser'' {{IPA|[ˈbɛsɐ]}}. Similarly, Danish /r/ after a vowel is, unless followed by a stressed vowel, either pronounced {{IPA|[ɐ̯]}} (''mor'' "mother" {{IPA|[moɐ̯]}}, ''næring'' "nourishment" {{IPA|[ˈnɛɐ̯eŋ]}}) or merged with the preceding vowel while usually influencing its [[vowel quality]] ({{IPA|/a(ː)r/}} and {{IPA|/ɔːr/}} or {{IPA|/ɔr/}} are realised as long vowels {{IPA|[aː]}} and {{IPA|[ɒː]}}, and {{IPA|/ər/}}, {{IPA|/rə/}} and {{IPA|/rər/}} are all pronounced {{IPA|[ɐ]}}) (''løber'' "runner" {{IPA|[ˈløːb̥ɐ]}}, ''[[Søren Kierkegaard]]'' (personal name) {{IPA|[ˌsœːɐn ˈkʰiɐ̯ɡ̊əˌɡ̊ɒːˀ]}}).
===Catalan===
In [[Catalan language|Catalan]], word final {{IPA|/r/}} is lost in coda position not only in suffixes on nouns and adjectives denoting the masculine singular (written as ''-r'') but also in the "-''ar'', -''er'', -''ir''" suffixes of infinitives; e.g. ''forner'' {{IPA|[furˈne]}} "(male) baker", ''fer'' {{IPA|[ˈfe]}} "to do", ''lluir'' {{IPA|[ʎuˈi]}} "to shine, to look good". However, rhotics are "recovered" when followed by the feminine suffix ''-a'' {{IPA|[ə]}}, and when infinitives have single or multiple [[Clitic|enclitic]] pronouns (notice the two rhotics are neutralized in the coda, with a [[tap consonant|tap]] {{IPA|[ɾ]}} occurring between vowels, and a [[trill consonant|trill]] {{IPA|[r]}} elsewhere); e.g. ''fornera'' {{IPA|[furˈneɾə]}} "(female) baker", ''fer-lo'' {{IPA|[ˈferɫu]}} "to do it (masc.)", ''fer-ho'' {{IPA|[ˈfeɾu]}} "to do it/that/so", ''lluir-se'' {{IPA|[ʎuˈir.sə]}} "to excel, to show off".
===Chinese===
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In [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]], many words are pronounced with the coda {{IPA|[ɻ]}}, originally a [[diminutive]] ending. But this happens only in some areas, mainly in the Northern region, notably including [[Beijing]]; in other areas it tends to be omitted. But in words with an inherent coda, such as {{IPA|[ɑ̂ɻ]}} 二 "two", the {{IPA|[ɻ]}} is pronounced.
===Khmer===
In standard [[Khmer language|Khmer]] the final /r/ is unpronounced. If an /r/ occurs as the second consonant of a cluster in a minor syllable, it is also unpronounced. The informal speech of Phnom Penh has gone a step further, dropping the /r/ when it occurs as the second consonant of a cluster in a major syllable while leaving behind a dipping tone. When an /r/ occurs as the initial of a syllable, it becomes uvular in contrasts to the trilled /r/ in standard speech.
===Portuguese===
In some dialects of [[Brazilian Portuguese]], /r/ is unpronounced or aspirated. This occurs most frequently with verbs in the [[infinitive]], which is always indicated by a word-final /r/. In some states, however, it happens mostly with any /r/ when preceding a consonant.
===Spanish===
Among the [[Spanish language|Spanish]] dialects, [[Andalusian Spanish]], [[Caribbean Spanish]] (descended from and still closely related to Andalusian and [[Canary Island]] Spanish), and the Argentinian dialect spoken in the Tucumán province have an unpronounced word-final /r/, especially in infinitives which mirrors the situation in some dialects of Brazilian Portuguese. However, in the Caribbean forms, word-final /r/ in infinitives and non-infinitives is often in free variation with word-final /l/ and may relax to the point of being articulated as /i/.
===Uyghur===
Among the [[Turkic languages]], [[Uyghur language|Uyghur]] displays more or less the same feature, as syllable-final /r/ is dropped, while the preceding vowel is lengthened: for example ''Uyghurlar'' {{IPA|[ʔʊɪˈʁʊːlaː]}} ‘[[Uyghur people|Uyghur]]s’. The /r/ may, however, sometimes be pronounced in unusually "careful" or "pedantic" speech; in such cases, it is often [[Linking and intrusive R|mistakenly inserted]] after long vowels even when there is no phonemic /r/ there.
===Yaqui===
Similarly in [[Yaqui language|Yaqui]], an indigenous language of northern [[Mexico]], intervocalic or syllable-final /r/ is often dropped with lengthening of the previous vowel: ''pariseo'' becomes {{IPA|[paːˈseo]}}, ''sewaro'' becomes {{IPA|[sewajo]}}.
==Effect on spelling==
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Spellings based on non-rhotic pronunciation of dialectal or foreign words can result in mispronunciations if read by rhotic speakers. In addition to ''juggernaut'' mentioned above, the following are found:
*"Er", to indicate a [[filled pause]], as a British spelling of what Americans would render "uh".
*The Korean family name Bak/Pak usually written "[[Park (Korean name)|Park]]" in English.
*The game [[Parcheesi]].
*British English slang words:
**"char" for "cha" from the [[Mandarin Chinese]] pronunciation of 茶 (= "[[tea]]" (the drink))
**"nark" (= "informer") from [[Romani language|Romany]] "nāk" (= "nose").
*In [[Rudyard Kipling]]'s books:
**"dorg" instead of "dawg" for a [[drawl]]ed pronunciation of "dog".
**Hindu god name [[Kamadeva|Kama]] misspelled as "[[Karma]]" (which refers to a concept in several Asian religions, not a god).
**[[Hindustani language|Hindustani]] कागज़ "kāgaz" (= "paper") spelled as "kargaz".
*"Burma" and "Myanmar" for [[Burmese language|Burmese]] {{IPA|[bəmà]}} and {{IPA|[mjàmmà]}}.
*Transliteration of Cantonese words and names, such as ''[[char siu]]'' (叉燒, [[Jyutping]]: caa1 siu1) and [[Wong Kar-wai]] (王家衛, [[Jyutping]]: Wong4 Gaa1wai6)
*The spelling of "schoolmarm" for "school ma'am".
==External links==
* [http://www.ling.upenn.edu/phono_atlas/Atlas_chapters/Ch07_2nd.rev.pdf Chapter 7] of the ''Atlas of North American English'' by [[William Labov]] et al., dealing with rhotic and non-rhotic accents in the U.S. (PDF file)
* [http://www.alt-usage-english.org/excerpts/fxrhotic.html Rhotic vs non-rhotic, intrusive "r"] from the alt.usage.english [[newsgroup]]'s [[FAQ]]
* [http://www3.hi.is/~peturk/KENNSLA/02/TOP/rhoticism.html Rhotic or non-rhotic English?], Pétur Knútsson, University of Iceland
* [http://www.soundcomparisons.com 'Hover & Hear' accents of English from around the world], both rhotic and non-rhotic.
{{LetterR}}