Revolt of the Admirals
Encyclopedia
The Revolt of the Admirals is a name given to an episode that took place in the late 1940s in which several United States Navy
admirals and high-ranking civilian officials publicly disagreed with the President
and the Secretary of Defense's strategy and plans for the military forces
in the early Post-War period.
In November 1943, General of the Army
George C. Marshall called for post-World War II
unification of the Department of War
and the Department of the Navy
. His proposals also included the creation of a separate "Air Arm", the United States Air Force
. These proposals led to what became known as the "unification debates" and the eventual passage of the National Security Act of 1947
. That Act reorganized the military, creating a unified National Military Establishment (renamed the Department of Defense
shortly after), the National Security Council
(NSC), Central Intelligence Agency
(CIA), and an independent United States Air Force
(which became its own military branch after being part of the Army
).
The generals
of the newly formed Air Force propounded a new doctrine
: that strategic bombing
, particularly with nuclear weapon
s, was the sole decisive element necessary to win any future war; and was therefore the sole means necessary to deter an adversary from launching a Pearl Harbor
like surprise attack or war against the United States. To implement this doctrine, which the Air Force and its supporters regarded as the highest national priority, the Air Force proposed that it should be funded by the Congress to build a large fleet of U.S. based long-range strategic heavy bomber
s. The Air Force generals argued that this project should receive large amounts of funding, beginning with an upgraded B-36 Peacemaker
intercontinental bomber.
The admirals
of the Navy disagreed. Pointing to the overwhelming dominance of the aircraft carrier
in the Pacific Theater
, they asked the United States Congress
to fund a large fleet of "supercarrier
s" and their supporting battle groups
, beginning with USS United States
. The Navy leadership believed that wars could not be won by strategic bombing alone, with or without the use of nuclear weapons. The Navy also maintained that to decide, at the outset of any future conflict, to initiate the widespread use of nuclear weapons—attacking the major population centers of the enemy homeland—was immoral. United States was, however, designed to support 100,000-pound aircraft, which would be large enough to carry the multi-ton nuclear weapon
s of the day. The plans for the United States-class called for carrying fourteen heavy bombers each and enough aviation fuel for eight raids
per plane, allowing a USS United States
supercarrier class to drop 112 nuclear weapons before resupply became necessary. The Navy admirals argued that this project should receive large amounts of funding for eight of the supercarriers over a five year period.
The first Secretary of Defense
, former Secretary of the Navy James Forrestal
, supported the Navy position and authorized construction of United States with a production run of five ships. However, he was asked to resign by President Truman following a series of budgetary disagreements on March 28, 1949, and was replaced by Louis A. Johnson
, who supported Truman's budget limits and the Air Force's argument as superior.
On April 23—less than a month after taking office, and without consulting Congress—Johnson ordered cancellation of United States. Sullivan and a number of high-ranking admirals resigned in protest. A few days later, Johnson announced that the aviation assets
of the United States Marine Corps
would be transferred to the Air Force; this plan was quietly dropped in response to an uproar in Congress. The Navy's aircraft carriers were roundly disliked by the Air Force, as they were an aviation asset which the Air Force could not control and also considered obsolete in a nuclear world, and Johnson, who was a staunch proponent of the new nuclear Air Force, consequently sought to limit as much as possible the Navy's procurement of these ships as driven by a limited peacetime budget.
A research group, Op-23, headed by Captain
Arleigh A. Burke
, began to gather material critical of the B-36's performance and capabilities. An "anonymous document" soon appeared, claiming that the B-36 was a "billion-dollar blunder" and alleging fraud on the part of B-36 contractors. The document stated that Johnson, who had been on the board of directors
of Convair
, manufacturer of the bomber, had a personal interest
in its production.
The situation was further exacerbated by a series of articles for popular consumption written by Rear Admiral
Daniel V. Gallery
for The Saturday Evening Post
. The final article, "Don't Let Them Scuttle
the Navy!" was so inflammatory that Johnson wanted Gallery court-martial
ed for gross insubordination
. Gallery barely escaped court-martial. Although Gallery was not court-martialed, the articles cost him his promotion to vice admiral
and ultimately ended his career.
The debate that caused the "Revolt" had been building for several years, but climaxed in late 1949 when many of those officers, including Chief of Naval Operations
Louis E. Denfeld
as well as Secretary of the Navy
John L. Sullivan
, were either fired or forced to resign.
found no substance to the charges relating to the roles of Johnson and his aide Stuart Symington
in aircraft procurement. It held that evaluation of the B-36's worth was the responsibility of the Weapons Systems Evaluation Group, and that the services jointly should not pass judgment on weapons proposed by one service. On cancellation of the supercarrier, the committee questioned the qualifications of the Army
and Air Force chiefs of staff
, who had testified in support of Johnson's decision, to determine vessels appropriate for the Navy. The committee, disapproving of Johnson's "summary manner" of terminating the carrier and his failure to consult congressional committees before acting, stated that "national defense
is not strictly an executive department undertaking; it involves not only the Congress but the American people as a whole speaking through their Congress. The committee can in no way condone this manner of deciding public questions."
The author of the so-called "anonymous document" turned out to be Cedric R. Worth, civilian assistant to the Under Secretary of the Navy
. A House Investigating Committee recommended that Worth be fired. Following a naval court of inquiry, Worth was dismissed.
The committee expressed solid support for effective unification, but stated that "there is such a thing as seeking too much unification too fast" and observed that "there has been a Navy reluctance in the interservice marriage, an over-ardent Army, a somewhat exuberant Air Force... It may well be stated that the committee finds no unification Puritans in the Pentagon
."
Finally, the committee condemned the dismissal of Admiral Denfeld. Secretary of the Navy Francis P. Matthews fired Denfeld on October 27, 1949, explaining that he and Denfeld disagreed widely on strategic policy and unification. The House Armed Services Committee
concluded that Denfeld's removal was a reprisal because of his testimony, and a challenge to effective representative government.
Army General Omar Bradley
, Chairman
of the Joint Chiefs of Staff
, called the Navy admirals "'fancy dans' who won't hit the line with all they have on every play unless they can call the signals" who were in "open rebellion against the civilian control." This was as much for budgetary reasons as any other; the services were then in the middle of the post-World War II
drawdown (which would continue into and past the Korean War
era) and each military branch believed that their future depended on securing as many missions for themselves as possible.
The new supercarrier design bore only a cursory resemblance to United States as construction began. Then her design was immediately revised with a displacement reduction, along with the addition of an angled flight deck
she bore little resemblance to the original design. Eventually, some five years later the new design became USS Forrestal
.
The supercarrier design has since evolved through the Enterprise class, into the Nimitz class, and will continue in the upcoming Ford-class carriers, the first of which is presently being built (2011). Eleven supercarrier ships are in US Naval service (2011).
The first test of national doctrine came on 25 June 1950 when the Korean War broke out, and the national command authority decided that nuclear strategic bombing would not be used to defeat North Korea
—rather, the use of conventional ground forces, supported by naval assets along with amphibious assault, would be used to engage North Korea
—DPRK armed forces. The Korean War was then deemed to be a limited war and dismissed as an aberration by supporters of the Air Force doctrine in view of a greater threat from the (now former) Soviet Union. Recent history has demonstrated limited conflicts to be the norm, without the use of all out nuclear strategic bombing as envisaged in the Air Force scenario. The Korean War did reinforce the lessons of World War II, which held carriers to be a primary force asset to support American foreign policy
. After the North Korean attack began, Secretary Johnson promised the Navy that it would have its new aircraft "supercarrier". Air Force and Navy historians continue to advocate the positions held by their respective sides during the "Revolt of the Admirals".
United States Navy
The United States Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The U.S. Navy is the largest in the world; its battle fleet tonnage is greater than that of the next 13 largest navies combined. The U.S...
admirals and high-ranking civilian officials publicly disagreed with the President
President of the United States
The President of the United States of America is the head of state and head of government of the United States. The president leads the executive branch of the federal government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces....
and the Secretary of Defense's strategy and plans for the military forces
Military of the United States
The United States Armed Forces are the military forces of the United States. They consist of the Army, Navy, Marine Corps, Air Force, and Coast Guard.The United States has a strong tradition of civilian control of the military...
in the early Post-War period.
Background
There's no reason for having a Navy and Marine Corps. General Bradley tells me that amphibious operations are a thing of the past. We'll never have any more amphibious operations. That does away with the Marine Corps. And the Air Force can do anything the Navy can do nowadays, so that does away with the Navy.
—Secretary of Defense Louis A. Johnson
Louis A. JohnsonLouis Arthur Johnson was the second United States Secretary of Defense, serving in the cabinet of President Harry S. Truman from March 28, 1949 to September 19, 1950....
, December 1949
In November 1943, General of the Army
General of the Army (United States)
General of the Army is a five-star general officer and is the second highest possible rank in the United States Army. A special rank of General of the Armies, which ranks above General of the Army, does exist but has only been conferred twice in the history of the Army...
George C. Marshall called for post-World War II
Aftermath of World War II
After World War II a new era of tensions emerged based on opposing ideologies, mutual distrust between nations, and a nuclear arms race. This emerged into an environment dominated by a international balance of power that had changed significantly from the status quo before the war...
unification of the Department of War
United States Department of War
The United States Department of War, also called the War Department , was the United States Cabinet department originally responsible for the operation and maintenance of the United States Army...
and the Department of the Navy
United States Department of the Navy
The Department of the Navy of the United States of America was established by an Act of Congress on 30 April 1798, to provide a government organizational structure to the United States Navy and, from 1834 onwards, for the United States Marine Corps, and when directed by the President, of the...
. His proposals also included the creation of a separate "Air Arm", the United States Air Force
United States Air Force
The United States Air Force is the aerial warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the American uniformed services. Initially part of the United States Army, the USAF was formed as a separate branch of the military on September 18, 1947 under the National Security Act of...
. These proposals led to what became known as the "unification debates" and the eventual passage of the National Security Act of 1947
National Security Act of 1947
The National Security Act of 1947 was signed by United States President Harry S. Truman on July 26, 1947, and realigned and reorganized the U.S. Armed Forces, foreign policy, and Intelligence Community apparatus in the aftermath of World War II...
. That Act reorganized the military, creating a unified National Military Establishment (renamed the Department of Defense
United States Department of Defense
The United States Department of Defense is the U.S...
shortly after), the National Security Council
United States National Security Council
The White House National Security Council in the United States is the principal forum used by the President of the United States for considering national security and foreign policy matters with his senior national security advisors and Cabinet officials and is part of the Executive Office of the...
(NSC), Central Intelligence Agency
Central Intelligence Agency
The Central Intelligence Agency is a civilian intelligence agency of the United States government. It is an executive agency and reports directly to the Director of National Intelligence, responsible for providing national security intelligence assessment to senior United States policymakers...
(CIA), and an independent United States Air Force
United States Air Force
The United States Air Force is the aerial warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the American uniformed services. Initially part of the United States Army, the USAF was formed as a separate branch of the military on September 18, 1947 under the National Security Act of...
(which became its own military branch after being part of the Army
History of the United States Air Force
The United States Air Force became a separate military service on September 18, 1947, with the implementation of the National Security Act of 1947. The Act created the United States Department of Defense, which was composed of three branches, the Army, Navy and a newly created Air Force...
).
The generals
General (United States)
In the United States Army, United States Air Force, and United States Marine Corps, general is a four-star general officer rank, with the pay grade of O-10. General ranks above lieutenant general and below General of the Army or General of the Air Force; the Marine Corps does not have an...
of the newly formed Air Force propounded a new doctrine
Military doctrine
Military doctrine is the concise expression of how military forces contribute to campaigns, major operations, battles, and engagements.It is a guide to action, not hard and fast rules. Doctrine provides a common frame of reference across the military...
: that strategic bombing
Strategic bombing
Strategic bombing is a military strategy used in a total war with the goal of defeating an enemy nation-state by destroying its economic ability and public will to wage war rather than destroying its land or naval forces...
, particularly with nuclear weapon
Nuclear weapon
A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from nuclear reactions, either fission or a combination of fission and fusion. Both reactions release vast quantities of energy from relatively small amounts of matter. The first fission bomb test released the same amount...
s, was the sole decisive element necessary to win any future war; and was therefore the sole means necessary to deter an adversary from launching a Pearl Harbor
Attack on Pearl Harbor
The attack on Pearl Harbor was a surprise military strike conducted by the Imperial Japanese Navy against the United States naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, on the morning of December 7, 1941...
like surprise attack or war against the United States. To implement this doctrine, which the Air Force and its supporters regarded as the highest national priority, the Air Force proposed that it should be funded by the Congress to build a large fleet of U.S. based long-range strategic heavy bomber
Heavy bomber
A heavy bomber is a bomber aircraft of the largest size and load carrying capacity, and usually the longest range.In New START, the term "heavy bomber" is used for two types of bombers:*one with a range greater than 8,000 kilometers...
s. The Air Force generals argued that this project should receive large amounts of funding, beginning with an upgraded B-36 Peacemaker
Convair B-36
The Convair B-36 "Peacemaker" was a strategic bomber built by Convair and operated solely by the United States Air Force from 1949 to 1959. The B-36 was the largest mass-produced piston engine aircraft ever made. It had the longest wingspan of any combat aircraft ever built , although there have...
intercontinental bomber.
The admirals
Admiral (United States)
In the United States Navy, the United States Coast Guard and the United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps, admiral is a four-star flag officer rank, with the pay grade of O-10. Admiral ranks above vice admiral and below Fleet Admiral in the Navy; the Coast Guard and the Public Health...
of the Navy disagreed. Pointing to the overwhelming dominance of the aircraft carrier
Aircraft carrier
An aircraft carrier is a warship designed with a primary mission of deploying and recovering aircraft, acting as a seagoing airbase. Aircraft carriers thus allow a naval force to project air power worldwide without having to depend on local bases for staging aircraft operations...
in the Pacific Theater
Pacific Theater of Operations
The Pacific Theater of Operations was the World War II area of military activity in the Pacific Ocean and the countries bordering it, a geographic scope that reflected the operational and administrative command structures of the American forces during that period...
, they asked the United States Congress
United States Congress
The United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States, consisting of the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Congress meets in the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C....
to fund a large fleet of "supercarrier
Supercarrier
Supercarrier is an unofficial descriptive term for the largest type of aircraft carrier, usually displacing over 70,000 long tons.Supercarrier is an unofficial descriptive term for the largest type of aircraft carrier, usually displacing over 70,000 long tons.Supercarrier is an unofficial...
s" and their supporting battle groups
Carrier battle group
A carrier battle group consists of an aircraft carrier and its escorts, together composing the group. The first naval task forces built around carriers appeared just prior to and during World War II. The Imperial Japanese Navy was the first to assemble a large number of carriers into a single...
, beginning with USS United States
USS United States (CVA-58)
USS United States , the third ship of the United States Navy named for the nation, but canceled during construction, was to be the lead ship of a new design of aircraft carrier. On 29 July 1948 President Harry Truman approved construction of five "supercarriers", for which funds had been provided...
. The Navy leadership believed that wars could not be won by strategic bombing alone, with or without the use of nuclear weapons. The Navy also maintained that to decide, at the outset of any future conflict, to initiate the widespread use of nuclear weapons—attacking the major population centers of the enemy homeland—was immoral. United States was, however, designed to support 100,000-pound aircraft, which would be large enough to carry the multi-ton nuclear weapon
Nuclear weapon
A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from nuclear reactions, either fission or a combination of fission and fusion. Both reactions release vast quantities of energy from relatively small amounts of matter. The first fission bomb test released the same amount...
s of the day. The plans for the United States-class called for carrying fourteen heavy bombers each and enough aviation fuel for eight raids
Strategic bombing
Strategic bombing is a military strategy used in a total war with the goal of defeating an enemy nation-state by destroying its economic ability and public will to wage war rather than destroying its land or naval forces...
per plane, allowing a USS United States
USS United States (CVA-58)
USS United States , the third ship of the United States Navy named for the nation, but canceled during construction, was to be the lead ship of a new design of aircraft carrier. On 29 July 1948 President Harry Truman approved construction of five "supercarriers", for which funds had been provided...
supercarrier class to drop 112 nuclear weapons before resupply became necessary. The Navy admirals argued that this project should receive large amounts of funding for eight of the supercarriers over a five year period.
Cancellation of USS United States
United States Secretary of Defense
The Secretary of Defense is the head and chief executive officer of the Department of Defense of the United States of America. This position corresponds to what is generally known as a Defense Minister in other countries...
, former Secretary of the Navy James Forrestal
James Forrestal
James Vincent Forrestal was the last Cabinet-level United States Secretary of the Navy and the first United States Secretary of Defense....
, supported the Navy position and authorized construction of United States with a production run of five ships. However, he was asked to resign by President Truman following a series of budgetary disagreements on March 28, 1949, and was replaced by Louis A. Johnson
Louis A. Johnson
Louis Arthur Johnson was the second United States Secretary of Defense, serving in the cabinet of President Harry S. Truman from March 28, 1949 to September 19, 1950....
, who supported Truman's budget limits and the Air Force's argument as superior.
On April 23—less than a month after taking office, and without consulting Congress—Johnson ordered cancellation of United States. Sullivan and a number of high-ranking admirals resigned in protest. A few days later, Johnson announced that the aviation assets
United States Marine Corps Aviation
United States Marine Corps Aviation is the air component of the United States Marine Corps. Marine aviation has a very different mission and operation than its ground counterpart, and thus, has many of its own histories, traditions, terms, and procedures....
of the United States Marine Corps
United States Marine Corps
The United States Marine Corps is a branch of the United States Armed Forces responsible for providing power projection from the sea, using the mobility of the United States Navy to deliver combined-arms task forces rapidly. It is one of seven uniformed services of the United States...
would be transferred to the Air Force; this plan was quietly dropped in response to an uproar in Congress. The Navy's aircraft carriers were roundly disliked by the Air Force, as they were an aviation asset which the Air Force could not control and also considered obsolete in a nuclear world, and Johnson, who was a staunch proponent of the new nuclear Air Force, consequently sought to limit as much as possible the Navy's procurement of these ships as driven by a limited peacetime budget.
A research group, Op-23, headed by Captain
Captain (nautical)
A sea captain is a licensed mariner in ultimate command of the vessel. The captain is responsible for its safe and efficient operation, including cargo operations, navigation, crew management and ensuring that the vessel complies with local and international laws, as well as company and flag...
Arleigh A. Burke
Arleigh Burke
Admiral Arleigh Albert '31-knot' Burke was an admiral of the United States Navy who distinguished himself during World War II and the Korean War, and who served as Chief of Naval Operations during the Eisenhower and Kennedy administrations.-Early life and naval career:Burke was born in Boulder,...
, began to gather material critical of the B-36's performance and capabilities. An "anonymous document" soon appeared, claiming that the B-36 was a "billion-dollar blunder" and alleging fraud on the part of B-36 contractors. The document stated that Johnson, who had been on the board of directors
Board of directors
A board of directors is a body of elected or appointed members who jointly oversee the activities of a company or organization. Other names include board of governors, board of managers, board of regents, board of trustees, and board of visitors...
of Convair
Convair
Convair was an American aircraft manufacturing company which later expanded into rockets and spacecraft. The company was formed in 1943 by the merger of Vultee Aircraft and Consolidated Aircraft, and went on to produce a number of pioneering aircraft, such as the Convair B-36 bomber, and the F-102...
, manufacturer of the bomber, had a personal interest
Conflict of interest
A conflict of interest occurs when an individual or organization is involved in multiple interests, one of which could possibly corrupt the motivation for an act in the other....
in its production.
The situation was further exacerbated by a series of articles for popular consumption written by Rear Admiral
Rear admiral (United States)
Rear admiral is a naval commissioned officer rank above that of a commodore and captain, and below that of a vice admiral. The uniformed services of the United States are unique in having two grades of rear admirals.- Rear admiral :...
Daniel V. Gallery
Daniel V. Gallery
Rear Admiral Daniel Vincent Gallery was an officer in the United States Navy who saw extensive action during World War II. He fought in the Second Battle of the Atlantic, his most notable achievement was the capture of the German submarine U-505, on June 4, 1944...
for The Saturday Evening Post
The Saturday Evening Post
The Saturday Evening Post is a bimonthly American magazine. It was published weekly under this title from 1897 until 1969, and quarterly and then bimonthly from 1971.-History:...
. The final article, "Don't Let Them Scuttle
Scuttling
Scuttling is the act of deliberately sinking a ship by allowing water to flow into the hull.This can be achieved in several ways—valves or hatches can be opened to the sea, or holes may be ripped into the hull with brute force or with explosives...
the Navy!" was so inflammatory that Johnson wanted Gallery court-martial
Court-martial
A court-martial is a military court. A court-martial is empowered to determine the guilt of members of the armed forces subject to military law, and, if the defendant is found guilty, to decide upon punishment.Most militaries maintain a court-martial system to try cases in which a breach of...
ed for gross insubordination
Insubordination
Insubordination is the act of willfully disobeying an authority. Refusing to perform an action that is unethical or illegal is not insubordination; neither is refusing to perform an action that is not within the scope of authority of the person issuing the order.Insubordination is typically a...
. Gallery barely escaped court-martial. Although Gallery was not court-martialed, the articles cost him his promotion to vice admiral
Vice admiral (United States)
In the United States Navy, the United States Coast Guard, the United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Commissioned Corps, and the United States Maritime Service, vice admiral is a three-star flag officer, with the pay grade of...
and ultimately ended his career.
The debate that caused the "Revolt" had been building for several years, but climaxed in late 1949 when many of those officers, including Chief of Naval Operations
Chief of Naval Operations
The Chief of Naval Operations is a statutory office held by a four-star admiral in the United States Navy, and is the most senior uniformed officer assigned to serve in the Department of the Navy. The office is a military adviser and deputy to the Secretary of the Navy...
Louis E. Denfeld
Louis E. Denfeld
Louis Emil Denfeld , was Chief of Naval Operations of the United States Navy from 15 December 1947 to 1 November 1949. He also held several significant surface commands during World War II, and after the war commanded the U.S...
as well as Secretary of the Navy
United States Secretary of the Navy
The Secretary of the Navy of the United States of America is the head of the Department of the Navy, a component organization of the Department of Defense...
John L. Sullivan
John L. Sullivan (Navy)
John Lawrence Sullivan was Assistant Secretary of the Navy 1946-47 and the first Department of Defense Secretary of the Navy in the Truman Administration 1947-49. He was appointed to that position upon Secretary Forrestal's installation as the first Secretary of Defense. He resigned in protest...
, were either fired or forced to resign.
Result of Congressional hearings
In its final report, the House Armed Services CommitteeUnited States House Committee on Armed Services
thumb|United States House Committee on Armed Services emblemThe U.S. House Committee on Armed Services, commonly known as the House Armed Services Committee, is a standing committee of the United States House of Representatives...
found no substance to the charges relating to the roles of Johnson and his aide Stuart Symington
Stuart Symington
William Stuart Symington was a businessman and political figure from Missouri. He served as the first Secretary of the Air Force from 1947 to 1950 and was a Democratic United States Senator from Missouri from 1953 to 1976.-Education and business career:...
in aircraft procurement. It held that evaluation of the B-36's worth was the responsibility of the Weapons Systems Evaluation Group, and that the services jointly should not pass judgment on weapons proposed by one service. On cancellation of the supercarrier, the committee questioned the qualifications of the Army
Chief of Staff of the United States Army
The Chief of Staff of the Army is a statutory office held by a four-star general in the United States Army, and is the most senior uniformed officer assigned to serve in the Department of the Army, and as such is the principal military advisor and a deputy to the Secretary of the Army; and is in...
and Air Force chiefs of staff
Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force
The Chief of Staff of the Air Force is a statutory office held by a four-star general in the United States Air Force, and is the most senior uniformed officer assigned to serve in the Department of the Air Force, and as such is the principal military advisor and a deputy to the Secretary of the...
, who had testified in support of Johnson's decision, to determine vessels appropriate for the Navy. The committee, disapproving of Johnson's "summary manner" of terminating the carrier and his failure to consult congressional committees before acting, stated that "national defense
National security
National security is the requirement to maintain the survival of the state through the use of economic, diplomacy, power projection and political power. The concept developed mostly in the United States of America after World War II...
is not strictly an executive department undertaking; it involves not only the Congress but the American people as a whole speaking through their Congress. The committee can in no way condone this manner of deciding public questions."
The author of the so-called "anonymous document" turned out to be Cedric R. Worth, civilian assistant to the Under Secretary of the Navy
Under Secretary of the Navy
The Under Secretary of the Navy is the second-highest ranking civilian official in the United States Department of the Navy. The Under Secretary, called the "Under" in Pentagon slang, reports to the Secretary of the Navy ....
. A House Investigating Committee recommended that Worth be fired. Following a naval court of inquiry, Worth was dismissed.
The committee expressed solid support for effective unification, but stated that "there is such a thing as seeking too much unification too fast" and observed that "there has been a Navy reluctance in the interservice marriage, an over-ardent Army, a somewhat exuberant Air Force... It may well be stated that the committee finds no unification Puritans in the Pentagon
The Pentagon
The Pentagon is the headquarters of the United States Department of Defense, located in Arlington County, Virginia. As a symbol of the U.S. military, "the Pentagon" is often used metonymically to refer to the Department of Defense rather than the building itself.Designed by the American architect...
."
Finally, the committee condemned the dismissal of Admiral Denfeld. Secretary of the Navy Francis P. Matthews fired Denfeld on October 27, 1949, explaining that he and Denfeld disagreed widely on strategic policy and unification. The House Armed Services Committee
United States House Committee on Armed Services
thumb|United States House Committee on Armed Services emblemThe U.S. House Committee on Armed Services, commonly known as the House Armed Services Committee, is a standing committee of the United States House of Representatives...
concluded that Denfeld's removal was a reprisal because of his testimony, and a challenge to effective representative government.
Army General Omar Bradley
Omar Bradley
Omar Nelson Bradley was a senior U.S. Army field commander in North Africa and Europe during World War II, and a General of the Army in the United States Army...
, Chairman
Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff
The Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff is by law the highest ranking military officer in the United States Armed Forces, and is the principal military adviser to the President of the United States, the National Security Council, the Homeland Security Council and the Secretary of Defense...
of the Joint Chiefs of Staff
Joint Chiefs of Staff
The Joint Chiefs of Staff is a body of senior uniformed leaders in the United States Department of Defense who advise the Secretary of Defense, the Homeland Security Council, the National Security Council and the President on military matters...
, called the Navy admirals "'fancy dans' who won't hit the line with all they have on every play unless they can call the signals" who were in "open rebellion against the civilian control." This was as much for budgetary reasons as any other; the services were then in the middle of the post-World War II
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
drawdown (which would continue into and past the Korean War
Korean War
The Korean War was a conventional war between South Korea, supported by the United Nations, and North Korea, supported by the People's Republic of China , with military material aid from the Soviet Union...
era) and each military branch believed that their future depended on securing as many missions for themselves as possible.
Aftermath of the cancellation of USS United States
After the cancellation of USS United States, Congress and the Navy began to contemplate the design of the next aircraft supercarrier, a process which sped up with the Korean War. The following five years of military budgets, did prioritize the development and deployment of multiple Air Force heavy bomber designs. Accumulating a combat ready force of over one thousand Air Force long range strategic bombers capable of supporting nuclear mission scenarios. The Air Force portion of the total defense budget grew, while the Navy's portion shrunk.The new supercarrier design bore only a cursory resemblance to United States as construction began. Then her design was immediately revised with a displacement reduction, along with the addition of an angled flight deck
Flight deck
The flight deck of an aircraft carrier is the surface from which its aircraft take off and land, essentially a miniature airfield at sea. On smaller naval ships which do not have aviation as a primary mission, the landing area for helicopters and other VTOL aircraft is also referred to as the...
she bore little resemblance to the original design. Eventually, some five years later the new design became USS Forrestal
USS Forrestal (CVA-59)
The USS Forrestal , formerly AVT-59 and CVA-59, is a supercarrier that was named after former Secretary of the Navy James Forrestal and was the lead ship of her class of aircraft carriers. The other carriers of her class were the , and...
.
The supercarrier design has since evolved through the Enterprise class, into the Nimitz class, and will continue in the upcoming Ford-class carriers, the first of which is presently being built (2011). Eleven supercarrier ships are in US Naval service (2011).
Continuing effects
The "Revolt of the Admirals" opened the discussion, still ongoing, in the American military establishment about the role of: nuclear weapons, strategic bombing, and the need for unification of military command. While questioning the team roles of each service as a separate entity.The first test of national doctrine came on 25 June 1950 when the Korean War broke out, and the national command authority decided that nuclear strategic bombing would not be used to defeat North Korea
North Korea
The Democratic People’s Republic of Korea , , is a country in East Asia, occupying the northern half of the Korean Peninsula. Its capital and largest city is Pyongyang. The Korean Demilitarized Zone serves as the buffer zone between North Korea and South Korea...
—rather, the use of conventional ground forces, supported by naval assets along with amphibious assault, would be used to engage North Korea
North Korea
The Democratic People’s Republic of Korea , , is a country in East Asia, occupying the northern half of the Korean Peninsula. Its capital and largest city is Pyongyang. The Korean Demilitarized Zone serves as the buffer zone between North Korea and South Korea...
—DPRK armed forces. The Korean War was then deemed to be a limited war and dismissed as an aberration by supporters of the Air Force doctrine in view of a greater threat from the (now former) Soviet Union. Recent history has demonstrated limited conflicts to be the norm, without the use of all out nuclear strategic bombing as envisaged in the Air Force scenario. The Korean War did reinforce the lessons of World War II, which held carriers to be a primary force asset to support American foreign policy
Foreign relations of the United States
The United States has formal diplomatic relations with most nations. The United States federal statutes relating to foreign relations can be found in Title 22 of the United States Code.-Pacific:-Americas:-Caribbean:...
. After the North Korean attack began, Secretary Johnson promised the Navy that it would have its new aircraft "supercarrier". Air Force and Navy historians continue to advocate the positions held by their respective sides during the "Revolt of the Admirals".
External links
- Hermann Wolk article in Air Force Magazine, from 1988
- Death and Rebirth of the Supercarrier — Andrew Toppan, 1996
- Paper for the USAF Air Command and Staff College — Andrew L. Lewis, LCDR, USN
- Revolt of the Admirals TIME. Monday, October 17, 1949, about VADM Gerald F. BoganGerald F. BoganGerald Francis Bogan was a United States Navy Admiral.Bogan authored a confidential memorandum that was leaked by Captain John G. Crommelin during the Revolt of the Admirals in September 1949. His memo described the situation in the Navy as follows, "The morale of the Navy is lower today than at...
's memorandum which was leaked. Bogan retired in Feb 1950 rather than take a lesser command. - http://www.usni.org/sites/default/files/magazine_uploads/uploads/Mathews%201950.pdf Notes on Meeting with Representatives of Navy League of the United States in SECNAV's Office, 11 January 1950 (Re: Admiral Denfeld's reassignment).